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英文护理文献30篇

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英文护理文献30篇

浅析权益的形成及其分类。 试论降低产品成本的意义与途径 谨慎性原则在企业中的合理应用。 论会计科目设置的必要性、严肃性 浅析权益的形成及其分类。 会计基础工作规范化的思考。( ) 实质重于形式原则在我国会计管理中的运用。 实质重于形式原则在我国会计管理中的运用。 会计基础工作规范化的思考。数字是我的q,我来帮你

上汉下英  头脑风暴法在急诊死亡病例护理讨论中的应用  【摘要】 目的 提高护理人员的急救技能和护理质量。方法 将头脑风暴法应用于死亡病例的护理讨论中,充分发挥各护理人员的智慧,提出问题,解决问题。结果 头脑风暴法充分调动了护理人员的积极性,有效地提升了护理质量。结论 将头脑风暴法引入死亡病例的护理讨论中,有利于规范护理行为,保障护理安全,提高急救、护理质量。  【关键词】 头脑风暴法;死亡病例;护理讨论  Brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases in emergency section  ZHOU J  Nursing Section,Songjiang District Central Hospital of Shanghai,Shanghai 201600,China  【Abstract】 Objective to improve the first�aid skills of nurses and enhance nursing Methods We apply brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases,all the nurses do their best to put forward the problems and find the way to solve Results Brain storming can effectively improve the nurses� positivity,as a result,nursing quality is effectively Conclusion The application of brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases is beneficial for standardizing nursing activity,ensuring nursing safety,enhancing first�aid skills and nursing   【Key words】 brain storming;dead cases;nursing discussion  随着医疗法规的不断完善,在“以病人为中心”的呼声不断增高的今天,人们对护理质量的要求亦日益增高,在对抢救过程中规范护理行为、完善抢救技术、提高抢救质量显得尤为重要。我院按照医疗质量管理要求,结合王小花等〔1〕报道的做法,组织全体护士,用头脑风暴法对急诊死亡病例进行护理讨论,充分发挥每位护士的智慧与才能,从中寻找差距与不足,从而提高急救技能与护理质量,取得良好效果。现将体会报告如下。  1 头脑风暴法的含义  头脑风暴法(brain storming)〔2〕又称智力激励法,是由现代创造学的奠基人美国学者阿历克斯·奥斯本于1939年首次提出、1953年正式发表的激发创造性思维的方法。种方法采取会议的形式,让所有参加者在自由愉快、畅所欲言的气氛中,毫无顾忌地发表自己的观点,创造性地解决问题。头脑风暴的特点是让与会者敞开思想,激发他们的创意与灵感,使各种设想在相互碰撞中激起脑海的创造性风暴,以产生多的创意。  1 头脑风暴法的原则  1 拒绝批判 认真对待每一与会者的观点,不管其意见、观点、设想、方案是否可行,会议中决不加以评论、批判。对各种观点的评判必须放到最后阶段。  2 欢迎各抒己见,畅所欲言 创造一种自由愉快、毫无拘束的气氛,激发与会者提出各种新奇的想法。  3 追求数量而不是质量 观点越多越好,每一个观点都有潜力成为好的观点。  4 取长补短和改进观念 除提出自己的意见外,鼓励与会者激发自己的灵感,对他人已经提出的设想进行补充、改进和综合。  2 头脑风暴法的基本程序〔3〕  1 确定议题 会前明确目标,阐明议题,使与会者明确该会议要解决的问题。  2 会前准备 准备会场、组织者、记录人及必要的工具。会前可收集一些资料发放给与会者,使其了解议题的相关背景,以便有充裕的时间来思考。  3 确定人选 一般以8~12人为宜,也可略有增减(5~15人)。  4 明确分工 确定1名主持人,1~2名记录员(秘书)。  5 规定纪律 根据头脑风暴法的原则,规定几条纪律,要求与会者遵守。  6 掌握时间 会议时间由主持人掌握,以几十分钟为宜。  2 头脑风暴法在病例讨论中的应用  1 病例资料 选取2005年8月~2006年4月急诊的25例死亡病例,采用头脑风暴法进行护理讨论,男17例,女8例;年龄2~88岁。其中15例车祸死亡,3例脑出血死亡,3例心肌梗死死亡,2例失血性休克死亡,1例糖尿病酮症酸中毒死亡,1例误服药物死亡。  2 方法  1 讨论制度 建立死亡病例讨论制度,每月1次,并做好死亡病例讨论记录。  2 讨论前准备 讨论前布置好会场及相关用物,并将该患者的姓名、性别、诊断、病情、抢救过程做成资料,提前发送给每位与会人员。  3 参加人员 由护士长主持,教学干事记录,科内全体护士参与。可邀请科主任、护理部领导参加。  4 讨论形式 护士长宣布会议须遵守的纪律,创造自由愉快的会议氛围,鼓励每位与会护士就议题积极发表自己的观点,放飞思维,畅所欲言,做到知无不言、言无不尽,尽可能多地提出观点。由当班护士汇报病情、诊断、抢救过程,与会者展开自由不羁的讨论,教学干事负责记录讨论要点。会中不对任何一个人的观点提出评论性批判。  5 讨论内容 各与会护士从不同角度、不同层次、不同方面去分析抢救过程中遇到的问题。如:护士自身的急救技能,护患配合,医护协作,与其他科室的协作,家属配合情况,患者的心理反应,护士的心理素质,抢救仪器的备用状态,抢救药物和物品的备用情况,抢救记录的书写,尸体料理等。  3 效果及体会  1 激励了护士的工作热情,提高了护士学习业务知识的进取心 头脑风暴法这种自由畅谈的会议方式为每位与会护士提供了一个展现自我的平台,让其在自由愉快、毫无拘束的氛围中大胆表达自己独创性的观点与看法,提高了每位护士的主人翁意识,大大地激励了其工作热情。而这种自由不羁的讨论方式更能让护士发现自身素质的有限,从而激发其不断的充电学习以提高自身的业务水平。  2 提高了护士观察病情的能力及急救技能 灵活的讨论方式产生了大量的来自不同角度和层面的观点,这些观点是每位护士在抢救工作中的心得与经验,促使每位护士在以后的工作中更密切地观察患者病情,加强各项急救技能的训练,促使以后的抢救工作忙而不乱、有条不紊,从根本上提高抢救及护理质量。  3 提高了年轻护士的心理素质和心理护理水平 年轻护士由于资历较浅,缺乏抢救经验,在抢救重危患者时难免紧张。活跃的讨论是年轻护士学习的平台,她们参考了资深护士的工作经验,更好地将理论联系实际,加强自身修养,急救技能与心理素质并重训练,不断完善自身的心理素质,在抢救过程中注意患者的心理护理,保证抢救工作有条不紊。  4 培养了护士的创造性散发性思维 用头脑风暴法进行病例的护理讨论,每位与会护士不受条条框框的限制,让思维自由驰骋,活跃的讨论方式激发了护士的灵感,勇于发表自己的观点与见解,培养了护士灵活的思考能力,并将这种灵活的思维方式运用于护理工作中,规范护理行为,有效提高护理质量。  5 提高了护士的自我保护意识,避免护理纠纷 抢救过程紧张急迫,护理人员往往注重急救,而对抢救记录不够重视,为护理纠纷埋下了隐患。护理记录是具有法律效应的医疗文件,在实行举证倒置的今天,完善抢救记录,对护理人员有保护作用,避免护理纠纷或在护理纠纷时不处于被动地位,而客观的抢救记录也是保护患者合法权益的依据〔4〕。通过护理讨论,护理人员能从法律的高度认识到护理职责,提高自我保护的意识,完善抢救记录书写。  6 提高了管理者对下属护士业务水平的了解程度 护士畅所欲言的讨论中透示了其护理工作中的实际问题及其自身的综合素质和解决实际问题的能力,护士长可更确切地了解护理工作中的缺陷和薄弱环节,了解下属的不足与长处,有针对性的让其进行培训或进修,打造TOP团队,有利于流畅管理工作。  3 讨论  日本石川馨教授指出:在质量管理活动中调动人的积极性,充分发挥人的无限能力,创造尊重、充满生气和活力的工作环境,有助于提高企业素质〔5〕。运用头脑风暴法,能充分发挥人的聪明才智和发掘人的潜能,考虑问题更详细,解决问题更具体、明确、有效〔6〕。自由的讨论方式引导护理人员毫不拘束地发表自己独到的见解,调动了每个人的积极性,培养护理人员的创新性散发性思维,让其自我价值得到充分实现,提高了自身的素质。集体的智慧能从各层面发现问题所在,并确定整改措施,从而提高护理人员的急救技能,规范抢救过程中的护理行为,最终有效提升护理质量。  【参考文献】  1 王小花,丁小容,王英蓉28例死亡病例护理讨论分析护理学报,2006,13(2):32-  2 薛亮妙用头脑风暴法企业研究,2005,5:61-  3 柯浚哲头脑风暴法中国研究生,2003,4:50-  4 胡敏,王敏,李玉梅通过病例讨论有效规范临床护理行为的探讨上海护理,2005,5(4):61-  5 蒲伦昌全面质量管理基础教程北京:中国经济出版社,1999,  6 黄漫容,文向东,郭少云头脑风暴法在护理质量改善中的作用现代护理,2002,8(9):  Brainstorming in the deaths of emergency care to discuss the application  Abstract The purpose of the emergency nursing staff to improve skills and quality of Brainstorming ways to apply the death care discussion, and give full play to the wisdom of the nursing staff, ask questions, solve the The results of brainstorming to fully mobilize the enthusiasm of the nursing staff, to enhance the quality of Conclusions will be brainstorming the introduction of the death care discussion will help standardize care, care and protection of safety, first aid to improve, the quality of   Key words brainstorming; deaths; care discussion  Brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases in emergency section Brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases in emergency section  ZHOU J ZHOU J  Nursing Section,Songjiang District Central Hospital of Shanghai,Shanghai 201600,China Nursing Section, Songjiang District Central Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai 201600, China  【Abstract】 Objective to improve the first�aid skills of nurses and enhance nursing Methods We apply brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases,all the nurses do their best to put forward the problems and find the way to solve Results Brain storming can effectively improve the nurses� positivity,as a result,nursing quality is effectively Conclusion The application of brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases is beneficial for standardizing nursing activity,ensuring nursing safety,enhancing first�aid skills and nursing Abstract】 【Objective to improve the first � aid skills of nurses and enhance nursing Methods We apply brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases, all the nurses do their best to put forward the problems and find the way to solve Results Brain storming can effectively improve the nurses � positivity, as a result, nursing quality is effectively Conclusion The application of brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases is beneficial for standardizing nursing activity, ensuring nursing safety, enhancing first � aid skills and nursing   【Key words】 brain storming;dead cases;nursing discussion Key words】 【brain storming; dead cases; nursing discussion  With the constant improvement of medical laws and regulations, the "patient-centered," the voice rising today, about the quality of care requirements are also increasing in the rescue of the process of standardizing care, improve the technical Rescue and improve the quality of rescue is particularly I Hospital medical quality management in accordance with the requirements of the combination of flowers such as Wang 〔〕 1 report, the organization of all nurses, with brainstorming on emergency care for cases of death, nursing each give full play to the wisdom and ability, to look for gaps and shortcomings So as to enhance the quality of care and first aid skills, good The experience of the report are as   1 brainstorming meaning  (brain storming)Brainstorming (brain storming) 〔〕 2, also known as the Law on intellectual stimulation, by the founder of modern science to create an American scholar Alex Osborne in 1939 for the first time, officially released in 1953 to stimulate creative thinking M 种Ways to take the form of the meeting, all participants in the free happy and free atmosphere, with impunity to express their views in a creative way to solve the Brainstorming is characterized by open so that the participants thought, a creative mind and inspiration, so that the ideas in a collision with each other in the storm stirred up the creative minds to produce more   1 brainstorming principles  1 refused to take seriously the criticism of each participant's point of view, regardless of their opinions, views, the idea of the feasibility of the program, the meeting will not comment, Various points of view must be judged on the final   2 welcome to express their opinions and speak their minds free to create a happy atmosphere, there is no binding, was put forward to stimulate a variety of novel   3 pursuit of quantity rather than quality, the better the view, every point of view has the potential to become a good point of   4 In addition to each other and improve the concept put forward their views, was encouraged to stimulate their own inspiration to others that have already been made for the idea to add, improve and   2 brainstorming basic procedures 〔〕 3  1 will determine the issues before the clear objective of clarifying issues, so that the meeting was a clear problem to be   2 will be pre-prepared meeting, the organizers, and record the necessary Can be pre-paid to collect information on some of the participants to understand the issues related to the background in order to have sufficient time to   3 General to determine the candidates for 8 to 12 is appropriate, but also a slight increase or decrease (5 to 15)  4 to determine a clear division of presenters, from 1 to 2 recorder (Secretary)  5 According to the disciplinary provisions of the principle of brainstorming, several provisions of discipline and compliance with the requirements of the   6 make good use of time from host Conference have to dozens of minutes is   2 brainstorming in the case on the application  1 cases selected information in August 2005 to April 2006 deaths of 25 emergency cases, the use of brainstorming for care, male 17 cases, 8 females; age 2 to 88 years 15 cases in which a car accident deaths and 3 cases of cerebral hemorrhage died and 3 cases of heart attack deaths, 2 cases of hemorrhagic shock death, 1 case of death of diabetic ketoacidosis, 1 case of drug wrongly   2 Methods  1 discuss the establishment of deaths on the system monthly, and do a good job deaths on   2 discuss the pre-pre-arranged to discuss the venue and well-used and the patient's name, sex, diagnosis, the patient's condition made the rescue process information sent in advance to the participants   3 participants chaired by the head nurse, teaching record of the Director-General, Division of the nurses involved in Director of the Division may be invited, to participate in the leadership of the Department of N  4 The meeting was to discuss the form of a head nurse subject to discipline, the freedom to create a pleasant atmosphere of the meeting, the participants encourage each nurse on the positive issues to express their point of view, flying ideas, speak out, so that made all know, reserve, to make More likely to put forward the By the nurses on duty to report the disease, diagnosis, emergency treatment process was carried out free of uninhibited discussion, Director-General in charge of teaching record the main points of Will not in any one's point of view of critical   5 discuss the contents of the nurses attending the meeting from different angles and at different levels, different aspects of the rescue process to analyze the problems Such as: nurse's own first-aid skills, with nurses and patients, health care, in collaboration with other sections of cooperation, their families cope with the situation and the psychological reaction of patients, nurses and mental quality of the standby rescue equipment, medicine and rescue back-up materials, rescue Written records, body care and so   3 and the effect of experience  1 inspire the enthusiasm of nurses, nurses study to improve the knowledge of the entrepreneurial spirit of the brainstorming meeting about this freedom for every Nurses attending the meeting provided a platform for self-display, so happy in a free, no Bound in an atmosphere of daring to express their unique perspectives and viewpoints, and increased the sense of ownership for each nurse, greatly inspired the enthusiasm of their And uninhibited discussion of this freedom can be more nurses found that the quality of their own limited, so as to stimulate the constant charge of their own learning in order to enhance the level of   2 improves the ability of patients to observe nurses and first-aid skills in a flexible way to discuss a number of different angles and dimensions from the point of view, the view is that every nurse in the rescue work experience and experience to every nurse in the After work more closely observed in patients with the disease and strengthen the first-aid skills training to help the rescue work after the chaos without, in an orderly and fundamentally improve the quality of care and emergency   3 improved the quality of the young nurses in mental and psychological level of care young junior nurses due to lack of experience of rescue, emergency treatment in critically ill patients when the tension is Active discussion is a platform for young nurses to learn, they refer to the senior nurses working experience, will be to better integrate theory with practice and strengthen their own training, first aid skills with equal emphasis on psychological training, and constantly improve the psychological quality of their own, in the course of rescue Attention to the patient's psychological care to ensure the orderly rescue   4 trained nurses in the distribution of creative thinking by brainstorming for care cases, each participating nurses from outside the box, allowing freedom of thinking, he said, to stimulate active discussion of the nurse's inspiration, the courage to express their With the view point of view, the training of nurses and flexible thinking and flexible way of thinking applied to nursing work, standardize care, improve the quality of   5 increased self-protection awareness of nurses, nursing dispute to avoid tension in the process of urgent rescue, first aid care workers often pay attention to, and the records do not pay enough attention to the rescue, care for the dispute potential 〔4〕。 Nursing is a record of the medical effects of legal documents, as a result of today, the Juzhengdaozhi, improve emergency treatment records, a protective effect on the nursing staff so as to avoid disputes or nursing care in the dispute are not in a passive position and objective record of the rescue is to protect legitimate patients 4 based on the rights and interests of Through care, nursing staff from a high degree of awareness of the legal duties of care to enhance self-protection awareness and improve the written record of the   6 improved the nurse manager of the subsidiary business of the level of understanding of the extent of nurses speak out on the show through in the care of their practical problems in its own comprehensive quality and the ability to solve practical problems, the head nurse can be a more precise understanding of Deficiencies in the care of the weak links and, under the understanding of the strengths and shortcomings, targeted to education or training, to build TOP team is conducive to smooth   3 discussion  Professor Shi Chuanxin Japan: in quality management activities to mobilize the enthusiasm of the people and give full play to people's unlimited ability to create respect, full of life and vitality of the working environment and help enterprises to improve the quality of 〔6〕。 The use of brainstorming, to give full play to human ingenuity and explore human potential, to consider the issue in more detail, to solve the problem more specific, clear and effective The free discussion guide nurses not to be bound to express their original insights, the mobilization of everyone's enthusiasm and training of nursing staff to disseminate innovative thinking, self-worth to be fully realized, to improve the quality of their The collective wisdom of all levels can find the problem and to identify reform measures to improve nursing skills in first aid, rescue norms in the process of care, effectively enhance the quality of   References 【】  1 Wang Xiao-Hua, Ding Xiao-rong, Wang Rong 28 cases of deaths in nursing analysis of the Journal of Nursing, 2006,13 (2) :32-  2, Xue L Magical ,2005,5:61-62 research   3, Ke Jun- B ,2003,4:50-51 Chinese graduate   4, Hu, Wang, Li Y Discuss the case through the effective norms of conduct of clinical Shanghai care, 2005,5 (4) :61-   The basis of total quality management Beijing: China Economic Publishing House, 1999,  6 Huang Yong Man, the east, Shao-Yun G Brainstorming to improve the quality of care in the Modern care, 2002,8 (9):

10篇护理英文文献翻译

写作思路:可以写护士的责任是繁重与劳累,护士的责任是笑容与倦容,中心要突出,语言套通顺等等。正文:The responsibility of a nurse is heavy and tired: the work of a nurse seems to be relatively easy, and every day is just a trivial matter of However, in the infusion of fluids to patients, in the ringing of bedside devices, and in the communication and explanation with patients, the nurse consumes a huge amount of 护士的责任是繁重与劳累:护士的工作看似比较轻松,每天不过是护理的琐碎事,但在给一个个病人的输液中、在一阵阵床头器的铃声中,在一声声与病人的交流、解释中,护士消耗着巨大的能量。The responsibility of nurses is smile and tiredness: in the implementation of "patient-centered" and humanistic service today, as the nurse who has been in contact with patients for the longest time, the smile on her face not only represents the image of the hospital, but also gives some comfort to the sick 护士的责任是笑容与倦容:在推行“以病人为中心”,开展人性化服务的今天,作为与病人接触时间最长的护士,其脸上的笑容不仅代表着医院的形象,也给病魔缠身的患者一些安慰。When the moon is full, it loses, when the water is full, it Nurses can not lock themselves in a state of tension for a long Only when they are relaxed and relaxed can they continue to work We should give full understanding, help and support to the contrast of nurses, so that angels can be more 月圆则亏、水满则盈。护士们不能长期把自己锁定在紧张的状态,有张有弛才能持续正常的工作,对护士们表现出的反差应该给予充分的理解、帮助和支持,天使才能更加美丽。

1mydreamihaveadream,我有一个梦想,我想成为一个护士在我毕业的时候。现在我在2年级的医学院的学生。我学习很努力为了实现我的梦想。我很乐意帮助别人。我想帮助需要帮助的人是具有极大的价值。我想照顾病人和受伤。我希望我的梦想会成真。2aseveryoneknows,asforme,it'sanimportantjobbacausepatientscan'peopeusuallycallthem'angelsinwhite'ihopethatiwillbeanursewhenigrowupandhelpmoreandmorepeople!众所周知,不同的人有不同的梦想。至于我,我想成为一名护士。我有这个梦想当我还是一个小孩子。这是一个重要的工作因为病人不能生活没有他们。护士可以帮助医生照顾病人。人们通常称之为“白色天使”。我希望长大后我将成为一名护士,帮助越来越多的人!希望能帮到你,祝更上一层楼o(∩_∩)o有不明白的请继续追问(*^__^*)

30篇文献综述

文献综述是对论文选题研究现状的梳理,但并不仅仅是把文献进行简单的堆砌与罗列,而是需要在总结梳理别人研究的同时,对已有的研究做出评价,也就是说有述有评,这也是为什么文献综述也叫做文献述评的原因。

文献综述是在确定选题后,在对选题所涉及的研究领域的文献进行广泛阅读和理解的基础上,对该领域的研究现状进行的综合分析、归纳整理和评论,通过了解选题的研究现状,发现前人研究中存在的问题,从而为自己的研究找到突破口和创新点。

1、文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文, 它是科学文献的一种。 2、文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果,特别是阳性结果,而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样,但总的来说,一般都包含以下四部分:即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲,在根据提纲进行撰写工。

文献综述是对论文选题研究现状的梳理,但并不仅仅是把文献进行简单的堆砌与罗列,而是需要在总结梳理别人研究的同时,对已有的研究做出评价,也就是说有述有评,这也是为什么文献综述也叫做文献述评的原因。

护理综述20篇文献

您现在还需要吗?我这里很多写文章的作者。百分百原创,重复率百分之20以下

一、护理估计  (一)定义  从各方面有步骤、有计划地收集资料以评估病人健康状态的过程谓之估计。  估计是护理程序的开始,估计阶段是提供高质量的个体化护理的基础,为确定每个病人的护理诊断、制定目标、实施护理计划和评价护理效果提供了依据。因此收集资料十分重要,除了入院第一次的总体估计外,在护理程序实施的过程中,还应对病人进行随进估计,将有助于及时确定病人进展情况,发现病人住院期间出现的新问题,并根据这些资料决定是否需要修改、中断或继续护理措施。  (二)收集资料的内容与范畴  收集资料应从以人的基本需要为基础,以病人为中心来考虑,即病人的健康情况与他对目前疾病的反应是护士最应关心和解决的问题。所以护士应着重了解病人的健康状况、生长发育状况、生活方式、环境及对疾病的生理心理反应等。以利于为如何帮助病人恢复最佳功能状况而作出决策。在收集资料时可以从下列14个方面进行:  社会心理状况  (1)社会状况 包括病人的职业、单位、职务、经济、教育、宗教信仰及对病人生活有影响的人。  (2)家庭状况 家庭成员 ,病人在家庭中的作用,居住条件等。  精神情感状况  (1)感知能力,让病人说出自己在什么地方,今天是几月几日,辨认人,并检查其写和说的能力及词汇水平。  (2)病人对压力的反应。  (3)对其周围人和事、物的反应,以前是否住过院,对这次住院是否惧怕等。  (4)病人目前考虑的问题,对护理有何要求。  (5)病人对自己目前状况的看法及自我形象概念和希望得到的健康状态。  生殖系统  无性功能改变。对女性应了解月经史、分娩情况、计划生育情况等。  环境状况  (1)安全感。  (2)从病人的年龄或精神状况分析,是否需要安全保护措施,如床栏等。  (3)是否有引起交叉感染的环境因素。  感觉状况  (1)视觉 视力,对光反射,有无幻视、幻觉等。  (2)听力 是否能清楚地听到一般说话声音,是否单耳或双耳听力有问题,有无耳鸣。  (3)嗅觉 检查病人嗅觉是否与众不同。  (4)味觉 是否存在最简单、最基本的味觉,有无与众不同。  (5)触觉 包括对各种疼痛、冷热,以及触摸的感觉等。  活动神经状况  (1)活动状况 行动是否受限和对日常活动及剧烈活动的承受性。  (2)肌肉骨骼状况 关节活动,握力大小,走路方式 ,是否要借助拐杖等工具,四肢肌肉有无萎缩、软瘫等情况。  营养状况  (1)饮食习惯 一天吃多少及喜欢吃什么,是否经常有饱胀感或饥饿感,有无挑食习惯等。  (2)身高、体重及活动能力 是否过于消瘦或肥胖,量近有无体重减轻及其程度,以及通过观察皮肤,指甲等方面了解营养状况。  (3)食欲情况 最近有无变化,有哪些影响食欲的因素。  (4)消化系统 有无义齿、缺牙、吞咽困难、恶心呕吐,胃肠道有无手术史,有无因特殊检查、治疗或服药影响消化及食欲。  排泄状况  (1)平时病人排泄习惯,目前有无改变。  (2)哪些方法 有助于病人正常排泄。  (3)引起排泄状况改变的原因。  (4)排泄方法是否改变,是否需要辅助设施。  (5)最近有无其它特殊问题,如大小便失禁、便秘、腹泻、尿潴留、尿失禁、尿频、夜尿多等。  水、电解质平衡状况  (1)正常摄入及排泄情况,如每日饭量,摄入液体量,以及尿量等。  (2)有无特殊健康方面的问题影响正常摄入,有无多饮或不饮,其原因何在,有无水肿、脱水征象。  (3)检查血液酸碱值了解电解质情况,测量血压了解循环血容量。  循环状况  (1)脉搏速率、强弱、节律、脉型。  (2)心音是否正常,心率与脉率是否一致。  (3)血压是否正常,应分别检测直立血压,卧位血压及两上肢血压。  (4)观察皮肤、口唇、指甲,了解末梢循环情况。  (5)心脏监护的数据报告和图象。  (6)有关实验室检查情况及临床意义。  呼吸状况  (1)直接观察 呼吸道是否通畅,呼吸频率,呼吸音,体位对呼吸的影响。  (2)间接观察 有无吸烟史,每日吸烟量,烟的种类;周围有无吸烟者;有无服用影响呼吸系统功能的药物;是否有焦虑、恐惧影响呼吸的情况;是否使用呼吸机、氧气辅助呼吸;皮肤、口唇、指甲颜色及类型;实验室检查结果及其临床意义。  体温状况  (1)病人对自我体温感觉的主诉。  (2)病人(家属)是否了解发烧时降温及发冷时保暖的一般措施。  (3)测量体温,了解基础体温。  (4)出汗时间、方式,有无盗汗。  皮肤情况  (1)皮肤的颜色、弹性、干湿度、完整性,有无皮下出血、褥疮及其它损伤。  (2)卫生习惯及皮肤排泄情况。  舒适和休息状况  (1)不舒适的原因,哪些措施可使病人感到不舒适。  (2)睡眠是否足够,借用何种方法帮助睡眠,疾病是否影响睡眠或还有其他原因,白天是否感到嗜睡、疲乏。  护士从上述14个方面了解病人的资料,看病人是否能达到满足,如发现某一项基本需要不能满足,再从中寻找原因。  (三)资料的类别  资料的类型包括主观与客观的资料,过去和现在的资料,固定和可变的资料。  主观与客观资料 主观资料即病人的主诉,包括对疾病的感觉、态度、愿望以及需要等。如恶心、眩晕、疼痛等为主观资料。客观资料即医护人员的观察。通过观察、测量、体格检查或实验室检查来确定,如病人的身高、体重、血压等都是客观资料。主客资料为病人健康情况提供信息,并可帮助鉴别问题。  过去与现在资料 过去资料即发生于以往的事件。包括既往史、住院史、家庭史、以及影响健康的习惯史等。现在资料即目前存在的。如血压、呕吐、术后疼痛等。现在与过去资料在估计时可获得时间的概念或可与平时行为习惯等相比较,二者结合起来证实问题或鉴别矛盾。  固定与可变资料 有些资料是固定不变的,如病人的出生日期、地点、 性别是固定的。有些资料则是可变的,如病人的体重、体温、血压进食量、排出量等则可能改变。对可变资料应注意动态的观察,及进或定期收集、记录,以便分析、判断。  (四)收集资料的方法  方法 收集资料的方法主要有4种,即阅读、交谈、观察、测量。  (1)阅读 包括查阅病历及有关记录、文献资料,了解病人的姓名、职业、主诉、检查结果、初诊、医疗措施等,使交谈有的放矢处于主动地位。  (2)交谈 包括询问及倾听病人谈话。在护理估计中与病人进行交谈的目的主要是收集有关病人以往健康状况、现在对疾病的反应及家庭社会有关情况的信息,取得了确立护理诊断所需的各种资料,同时也建立良好的护患关系。在护理估计交谈的同时,也可以给病人以获得有关自身疾病、治疗和护理有关信息,给以咨询意见,提供精神上和心理上的支持。  护理估计交谈不仅要在病人刚入院时进行也应在以后的护理过程中持续不断地进行,以评估病情的进展情况,或给以教育、指导和帮助。因此,护士应掌握交流的基本知识、方法和技巧,方能更容易接触病人,了解真实和及时的信息,然后将它输入程序中并用于护理工作。  (2)观察 观察是进行科学工作的基本方法 是护士进行任何护理活动中应掌握的技巧。系统的观察包括使用视、触、听、嗅等知觉全面了解病人的身体和心理状态。通过有关的观察对交谈中所收集的资料进行验证和补充,有利于对护理问题作出科学的判断(表23-1)  表23-1 护理观察的主要内容  病人外观和功能特点 病人与他人相互作用与交谈的内容和过程 环境  视觉 眼神 姿势 步态 平衡状况 衣着 修饰 面色 肤色口唇颜色,舌苔 粘膜 毛发指甲 体型 义肢 分泌物 排泄物性状 身体动作,手势 眼光接触,表情 病人对家属的反应,家属亲友对病人态度 病室和病床单元清洁度,衣物用具清洁整齐情况 光线对病人的影响起居是否方便 舒适有无导致意外 感染和疾病的因素  触觉 皮肤温度、湿度 弹性 张力 肌力 脉搏变化 肿块大小有无压痛 空气湿度,物品清洁度和质量  听觉 语言能力 心肺 肠鸣音听诊 叩诊 咳嗽声 血压变化 与他人交谈的量声音的强度,讲述的特殊内容 病室噪音是否有刺激听觉的因素存在  味觉嗅觉 痰液、尿液 粪便及呕吐物的特殊气味 特殊气味  护理观察要按一定的顺序进行,一般常用的观察方法有两种;一是从头到足式,即按头、颈、胸、腹、脊柱、四肢、生殖器、肛门、神经反射、交流、环境的顺序进行,这样可以避免不必要的重复和遗漏。二是按几大系统式,即从身体的几大系统着手,而不是从局部着手。通常医院多按系统将重点检查项目印在体检表格上,可按项检查不致遗漏或重复。在观察时应综合运用视、触、听、嗅`等知觉。  (4)测量 测量是通过运用一些仪器来测定事物的高低、大小、频率、节律、量等,以补充和证实感官观察所得的资料。测量的资料包括实验室结果、生命体征、身高、体重、尿量等。有些量化的一般性观察资料也可以作为测量资料,如交谈期间吸烟支数、一日三餐量,心电图监测观察数据等。  在进行护理估计时应注意以下一些问题  (1)建立良好的护患关系,护士与病人的良好关系有利于收集资料,特别是与病人的情感、认识有关的资料,并有助于对相互语言的理解。  (2)收集资料时分清主次顺序 一般应首先估计病人的主要健康问题以及与这些问题有关的多方面 情况,然后再收集病人的一般健康状况。  (3)资料的来源可以是多方面 病人常常是主要的资料来源,但是也不要忽视其它资料来源,如病人家庭成员、工作单位有关人员、医生、医疗病历等。  (4)在收集资料时应选择合适的方法 要根据病人的年龄、健康状况和所运用的资料来源而决定选择何种方法最为适宜。对某一项有用的资料至少要有两种收集资料的方法共同证实。  (5)资料必须客观 无论是通过交谈、观察,还是通过测量所收集的资料都必须是客观的,护士对这些资料的解释可以是进一步收集资料的依据,但决不可成为资料本身。  (6)收集资料的工作是持续不间断的,在第一次的护理估计后,必将对所收集的资料进行综合、分析,此时常常会发现一些空白,即未收集到的遗漏之处,为使护理诊断正确,须再回到病人身边补充收集资料。在此后的护理过程中,也不断会有新的信息资料表现出来,应及时进行估计。  二、护理诊断  (一)定义  护理诊断是对病人现有的或潜在的身心健康问题的描述,这些问题是在护理工作范围内,护士有责任、有能力进行处理的。具体地说,护理诊断就是指护士询问、察看,检诊病人后,通过对病人的病情、心理、家庭和社会状况的了解,判断出需要采用护理手段解决的核心问题,据此做出的结论。  (二)护士诊断的组成及公式  组成 确立一个护理诊断,应有4个方面的基本内涵。  (1)诊断名称 对护理对象健康状况的概述性描述,即诊断名称,亦称健康总题。  (2)定义 定义是对诊断名称的一种明确的表达以此与其它诊断作鉴别。如口腔粘膜改变的定义是口腔粘膜组织的破坏状态。  (3)该诊断的有关因素 即各种可引起问题或影响问题发展的直接、主要的促成因素和危险因素。  (4)诊断的依据 包括生理、心理、社会精神各方面的表现。  公式 护理诊断包括三个部分,称为PES公式。  (1)健康问题(Problem),是护理诊断的名称,是对个体健康现有的或潜在状况的描述。这些问题均反映了健康状况的变化,但并不说明变化的程度。  (2)原因或有关因素 (Etiology) ,即相关健康问题或与此相关的因素,或危险因素。原因常指引起该问题的直接因素。有关因素常指引起该问题的相关因素。  (3)症和体症 (Signs and Symptoms) ,在病人身上观察到的一组症状和体征,往往是健康问题的重要特征。  例如,营养失调P,肥胖S与饮食摄入过多有关E临床上护理诊断经常是问题(或症状和体征)+原因(在明确的情况下,或有关因素,即PE或SE公式,例如:“疼痛,由于手术后伤口引起”,“焦虑,与担心手术效果不理想有关”。  (三)护理诊断的类型  护理诊断分成两种类型,确定护理诊断的类型主要看症状的体征。  现有症状的诊断 是指那些此时此刻病人正经历着的问题,即病人已表现出来的症状如“原有的舒适状况改变与股骨牵引的强迫卧位有关”,病人伴有疼痛、全身不适、睡眠不好、活动受限等一系列症状或体征。  潜在症状的诊断 是指病人目前尚无某些特定的症状体征,但具有一些先兆或有某些危险因素存在,如果在护理中未考虑到其危险因素,未采取预防措施,病人就会发生问题。如“潜在跌伤、与肌无力有关”,对这些影响健康的潜在问题做出诊断称为潜在症状的诊断。还有一种“可能的护理诊断”类型,指当缺乏足够的资料来支持一个已存在的或潜在的护理诊断时,可写一个“可能的护理诊断”,此时,护士应继续针对该问题收集资料,根据补充的资料排除此诊断或进一步确定诊断。  (四)护理诊断与医疗诊断的区别与联系  疗诊断是对一个疾病、一组症状体征的叙述,是用一个名称来说明疾病的原因、病理生理改变,以便指导治疗措施;护理诊断是叙述病人由于病理、心理状态改变所引起的现存的或潜在的影响健康的护理问题,是制订护理措施的依据。护理诊断由护士作出,护理诊断既要参照医疗诊断,认识病人的疾苦和生理需要,采取配合医疗的措施或与医生合作,治疗疾病,促进、恢复病人的健康;又要按照病人的个体差异,心理、社会因素的不同,对疾病的反应和需求各有不同的特点,确立不同的护理诊断。同一种疾病可有不同的护理诊断,不同的疾病也可以有相似的护理诊断。一般认为护理诊断涉及三方面。  配合性护理诊断 如执行医嘱,在这一范畴中,护士的职责在于使医嘱中的治疗方案得到准确无误地执行,对医嘱范畴内的问题一般不需要护士作诊断,而执行医嘱过程中监测病情变化及治疗反应、预防并发症,则需要护士对之作出护理诊断。例如当发现某一糖尿病病人有低血糖先兆症状,护士应诊断“有低血糖可能,与使用胰岛素有关”,须准确测试尿糖,按标准调配饮食,严格记录进食量,观察临床症状,为医生提供调整胰岛素用量的依据。  合作性护理诊断 对病人的治疗目标往往由护士与医生共同合作完成。如脑脊液漏的病人“有颅内感染的可能”,医疗范畴是选用抗生素,护理工作是切断感染源。如将病人安置在清洁的病房,保持适当卧位,头部垫无菌治疗巾,定时清洁鼻腔、外耳道、防止逆行感染或结痂。预防感冒,避免因咳嗽影响裂缝愈合。这是医护合作为一个共同目标―――预防颅内感染的过程。  独立性护理诊断 根据病人现有的或潜在的身心疾苦或不良反应,在护理职能范围内,护士有责任对病人的健康问题作出诊断,并自行选择护理措施以促进健康或缓解病情。限制和预防各种不利于健康的消极因素,包括生活护理方面、功能锻炼方面、营养代谢方面、排泄功能方面、休息睡眠方面、认识感知方面,情感行为方面以及家庭、社会支持方向等。如当病人因疼痛害怕咳嗽或无力咳出分泌物时,护理诊断为“不能有效清除呼吸道分泌物,与痰液粘稠、无力咳出有关”,护理措施为定时给病人翻身、叩背、雾化吸入、吹水泡锻炼,帮助保持正确体位,指导腹式呼吸、有效咳嗽等促使痰液排出,以预防肺部并发症。  独立性护理诊断是由护士独立完成的工作,它与医疗诊断有根本区别;而配合性与合作性护理诊断,与医疗诊断有一定联系。一个病人的医疗诊断确立后,常用相应的配合性与合作性的护理诊断,但这一点不是绝对的,相同医疗诊断的病人由于生理、心理、家庭、社会因素不同,其护理诊断也可有不同之外。  建立护理诊断是护士独立性职责的体现,它帮助护士决定对病人的护理目标和护理措施,护理诊断的功能在于护士可根据它提出预防性措施,如健康教育、功能、褥疮防治、预防并发症等。也可根据它提出纠正性措施,如定时挤压胸管,帮助病人咳嗽,以解决胸腔闭式引流管有效能降低的可能。  总之,护理诊断反映了病人在生理、心理、社会因素各方面的状况,提示了病人应得到的护理,这与医疗诊断既有根本性区别又有密切的联系。  (五)书写护理诊断时应注意的问题  问题明确,简单易懂。  一个诊断针对一组具体问题。  护理诊断必须是根据所收集到的资料经过整理后得出的,不同的病人患有同样的病,不一定具有相同的护理诊断,要看病人的资料情况,要有足够的证据做出诊断。  确定的问题是需要用护理措施来解决、缓解或进行监测的,而不能是与医疗范畴有关的问题。  护理诊断应该为护理措施提供方向,所以对原因或有关因素的陈述必须详细、具体、容易理解。如“睡眠状态紊乱,与住院有关”,此诊断没有为护理措施提供方向,若按如下陈述就比较好,“睡眠状态紊乱,与住院破坏家庭起居习惯有关”,它为护理提供了一定的信息。  三、护理计划  (一)定义 针对护理诊断,制定具体护理措施 计划是对病人进行护理活动的指南,是针对护理诊断找出一些措施来预防、减轻或解决有关问题。制定计划的目的是为了使病人得到适合于他个人的护理,保持护理工作的连续性,促进医护人员的交流和利于评价。  (二)内容 在计划过程 ,须建立目标、制定措施。  建立目标 目标是理想的护理结果。其目的是指导护理措施的制定,衡量措施的有效性和实用性,为此,目标应具备下述特点;必须以病人为中心,反映病人的行为;必须现实,能够达到;可观察和测量,有具体的检测标准;有时间限度;由护患双方共同制定。  目标有远期与近期之分,远期目标是需要较长时间才能实现的,范围广泛;近期目标则是具体达到远期目标的台阶或需要解决的主要矛盾。如下肢骨折病人,其远期目标是“三个月内恢复行走功能”,近期目标分别为:“第一个月借助双拐行走”、“第二个月借助手杖行走”、“第三个月逐渐独立行走”。近期目标与远期目标互相配合、呼应。  制定护理措施 护理措施是解释帮助病人达到期待目标的行为,是护士为病人提出的特定护理工作项目;是确立护理诊断与目标后的具体实施方案。重点放在捉进健康;维持功能正常;预防功能偿失;满足人的基本需要;预防、减低或限制不良反应。  护理措施可分为依赖性的、相互依赖的和独立的三类:  (1)依赖性的护理措施 即护士执行医嘱的具体方法,它描述了贯彻医疗措施的行为。如医嘱“每周测体重3次”。护士执行如下:每周一、三、五早餐前测体重。  (2)相互依赖性护理措施 这类护理措施包括了医、护、技营养师、理疗师之间的合作。由护士联系医嘱,共同执行。如肾功能衰竭病人, 医嘱“每24小时口服液体50ml”,静脉补液5%葡萄糖在执行上述医嘱时,护士要与营养师一起计算该病人在每班须摄入的液体量,护士制定的措施为:  ①静脉补液30ml/小时,由输液泵控制输入。  ②口服液体:  7:30am—3:30pm总量 315ml,240ml由食物摄入,75ml由服药时摄入。  3:30pm—11:30pm 总量195ml,120ml由食物摄入 75ml服药时摄入。  11:30pm—7:30am 总量100ml服药时摄入  ③独立性护理措施 这类护理措施完全由护士设计并实施,不需要医嘱。护士凭借自己的知识、经验、能力,根据护理诊断制定;是在职责范围内,独立思考,判断决定的措施。  例:患者女,52岁,十二指肠溃疡,主诉失眠。经收集资料分析后认为失眠与日间睡眠有关。护士根据病人情况,自己的经验制定以下措施:①7:00am至9:00pm病人不入睡;②每天在想睡时行走锻炼;③睡前帮助病人进行促进睡眠的活动,用温水洗脚、阅读报纸、听轻音乐、松弛疗法。  护理措施应具备下述特点和组成:充分利用各种合适的资源,包括设备、经济实力和人力资源;符合实际,体现了个体化的护理;内容具体明确、清晰简洁;有病人参与;有科学理论依据。为保证能正确执行,护士措施应包括;日期、动词、谁去执行?什么时间?应作什么?怎样作?在何处?对一些常规操作步骤不必在措施中写出,如因病人情况特殊,不能按常规步骤执行的,就应在护理措施中列出。护理措施的最后内容是签名。  护嘱是护理计划的一组成部分。护嘱的内容有:护理等级、饮食护理、病情观察、基础护理、检查前后护理、心理护理、管理效能的维持、功能锻炼、健康教育、对症护理、医嘱执行等。护嘱应当清楚、明确,专为适合某个病人的护理需要而提出,不应千篇一律如同常规。  四、实施计划  (一)定义 实施是为达到护理目标而将计划中各项措施付诸行动的过程。包括各种护理活动,以解决护理问题,记录护理活动的结果及病人反应。  实施由计划者执行或指定他人执行,患者积极参与。实施过程的要点是使护理行为个体化、安全化。实施的质量如何与护士的知识、人际关系技巧和操作技术三方面的水平有关。实施过程中的情况应随时用文字记录下来。  (二)实施前的准备  进一步熟悉和理解计划 执行者对计划中每 一项措施的目的、要求、方法和时间安排应了如指掌,以确保措施的落实,并使护理行为与计划一致。此外,护士还应理解各项措施的理论基础,保证科学施护。熟悉计划的方法是在阅读计划的基础上,参阅有关书籍,或是在病区内、责任小组内组织讨论,分析重点病人的计划。  分析所需要的护理知识和技术 护士必须分析实施这些措施所需要的护理知识和技术,若有不足,则应复习有关书籍或资料,或向其他有关人员求教。  明确可能会发生的并发症及期预防 某些护理措施的实施有可能对病人产生一定程度的损伤。护士必须充分预想可能发生的并发症,避免或减少对病人的损伤,保证病人的安全。  合理安排、科学运用时间、人力物力 实施护理措施的时间选择和安排要恰当,并估计自己的时间以保证有足够的时间来完成该项措施的实施,防止因忙乱而导致实施不当。在人力的安排上,责任护士组长或护士长也应确保有足够的、合适的人员支完成相应的工作。另外还要考虑将所需的设备准备完善,创造一个使病人感到舒适、安全、并有利于护士工作的环境。  (三)实施过程 在实施阶段,护理的重点是着手落实已制定的措施,执行医嘱、护嘱,以达到目标,解决问题。在实施中必须注意既要按护理操作常规规范化地实施每一项措施,又要注意根据每个病人的生理、心理特征个性化地实施护理。  在实施中需进行健康教育,以满足病人的学习需要。内容包括获取知识、学习操作技术、改变个人心理和情感状态。  实施是估计、诊断、和计划阶段的延续,须随时注意估计病人的生理、心理状态,了解病人 对措施承受能力,反应及效果,努力使护理措施满足病人的生理、心理需要、促进疾病的康复。  责任护士是实施计划的主要人员,还必须依靠各班辅助护士,并要取得病人及家属的合作与支持,护理活动与医疗工作关系密切,虽然各有其内容,但总目标是一致的,因而在实施中医护人员应互通信息,密切配合。  在实施中,责任护士要把各种护理活动的结果及病人的反应进行完整、准确的文字记录,即护理病历中的护理病程记录。以反映护理效果,为评价做好准备。  五、评价阶段  (一)定义 评价是将病人的健康状况与原先确定的护理目标进行有计划的、系统的比较过程。评价是贯穿在护理全过程的活动,对病人最初估计阶段的资料,是评价中与之进行比较的基础资料;护理诊断是评价的依据;护理目标是评价的标准。  (二)目的 进行评价的目的最主要是确定病人健康状况向目标进步的程度。同时也是判断护理措施的制定和实施效果的过程。在测定病人的健康状况好转的同时,也是评价护理质量和促进护理工作改进的过程。  (三)内容 评价系统包括组织评价、护理程序评价和护理效果三个方面。这三方面的评价均很重要,但最重要的是护理效果评价,它可提供护理状况的护理实效的有力证明;护理程序评价是评价护士在实施护理程序每一步骤中行为的正确性,有利于护理取得最好的效果;组织管理评价又使护理程序的运用及护理实效得到组织的保证。因此,它们三者之间是相互关系,相互影响、相互制约的。

护理学英文文献

上汉下英  头脑风暴法在急诊死亡病例护理讨论中的应用  【摘要】 目的 提高护理人员的急救技能和护理质量。方法 将头脑风暴法应用于死亡病例的护理讨论中,充分发挥各护理人员的智慧,提出问题,解决问题。结果 头脑风暴法充分调动了护理人员的积极性,有效地提升了护理质量。结论 将头脑风暴法引入死亡病例的护理讨论中,有利于规范护理行为,保障护理安全,提高急救、护理质量。  【关键词】 头脑风暴法;死亡病例;护理讨论  Brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases in emergency section  ZHOU J  Nursing Section,Songjiang District Central Hospital of Shanghai,Shanghai 201600,China  【Abstract】 Objective to improve the first�aid skills of nurses and enhance nursing Methods We apply brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases,all the nurses do their best to put forward the problems and find the way to solve Results Brain storming can effectively improve the nurses� positivity,as a result,nursing quality is effectively Conclusion The application of brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases is beneficial for standardizing nursing activity,ensuring nursing safety,enhancing first�aid skills and nursing   【Key words】 brain storming;dead cases;nursing discussion  随着医疗法规的不断完善,在“以病人为中心”的呼声不断增高的今天,人们对护理质量的要求亦日益增高,在对抢救过程中规范护理行为、完善抢救技术、提高抢救质量显得尤为重要。我院按照医疗质量管理要求,结合王小花等〔1〕报道的做法,组织全体护士,用头脑风暴法对急诊死亡病例进行护理讨论,充分发挥每位护士的智慧与才能,从中寻找差距与不足,从而提高急救技能与护理质量,取得良好效果。现将体会报告如下。  1 头脑风暴法的含义  头脑风暴法(brain storming)〔2〕又称智力激励法,是由现代创造学的奠基人美国学者阿历克斯·奥斯本于1939年首次提出、1953年正式发表的激发创造性思维的方法。种方法采取会议的形式,让所有参加者在自由愉快、畅所欲言的气氛中,毫无顾忌地发表自己的观点,创造性地解决问题。头脑风暴的特点是让与会者敞开思想,激发他们的创意与灵感,使各种设想在相互碰撞中激起脑海的创造性风暴,以产生多的创意。  1 头脑风暴法的原则  1 拒绝批判 认真对待每一与会者的观点,不管其意见、观点、设想、方案是否可行,会议中决不加以评论、批判。对各种观点的评判必须放到最后阶段。  2 欢迎各抒己见,畅所欲言 创造一种自由愉快、毫无拘束的气氛,激发与会者提出各种新奇的想法。  3 追求数量而不是质量 观点越多越好,每一个观点都有潜力成为好的观点。  4 取长补短和改进观念 除提出自己的意见外,鼓励与会者激发自己的灵感,对他人已经提出的设想进行补充、改进和综合。  2 头脑风暴法的基本程序〔3〕  1 确定议题 会前明确目标,阐明议题,使与会者明确该会议要解决的问题。  2 会前准备 准备会场、组织者、记录人及必要的工具。会前可收集一些资料发放给与会者,使其了解议题的相关背景,以便有充裕的时间来思考。  3 确定人选 一般以8~12人为宜,也可略有增减(5~15人)。  4 明确分工 确定1名主持人,1~2名记录员(秘书)。  5 规定纪律 根据头脑风暴法的原则,规定几条纪律,要求与会者遵守。  6 掌握时间 会议时间由主持人掌握,以几十分钟为宜。  2 头脑风暴法在病例讨论中的应用  1 病例资料 选取2005年8月~2006年4月急诊的25例死亡病例,采用头脑风暴法进行护理讨论,男17例,女8例;年龄2~88岁。其中15例车祸死亡,3例脑出血死亡,3例心肌梗死死亡,2例失血性休克死亡,1例糖尿病酮症酸中毒死亡,1例误服药物死亡。  2 方法  1 讨论制度 建立死亡病例讨论制度,每月1次,并做好死亡病例讨论记录。  2 讨论前准备 讨论前布置好会场及相关用物,并将该患者的姓名、性别、诊断、病情、抢救过程做成资料,提前发送给每位与会人员。  3 参加人员 由护士长主持,教学干事记录,科内全体护士参与。可邀请科主任、护理部领导参加。  4 讨论形式 护士长宣布会议须遵守的纪律,创造自由愉快的会议氛围,鼓励每位与会护士就议题积极发表自己的观点,放飞思维,畅所欲言,做到知无不言、言无不尽,尽可能多地提出观点。由当班护士汇报病情、诊断、抢救过程,与会者展开自由不羁的讨论,教学干事负责记录讨论要点。会中不对任何一个人的观点提出评论性批判。  5 讨论内容 各与会护士从不同角度、不同层次、不同方面去分析抢救过程中遇到的问题。如:护士自身的急救技能,护患配合,医护协作,与其他科室的协作,家属配合情况,患者的心理反应,护士的心理素质,抢救仪器的备用状态,抢救药物和物品的备用情况,抢救记录的书写,尸体料理等。  3 效果及体会  1 激励了护士的工作热情,提高了护士学习业务知识的进取心 头脑风暴法这种自由畅谈的会议方式为每位与会护士提供了一个展现自我的平台,让其在自由愉快、毫无拘束的氛围中大胆表达自己独创性的观点与看法,提高了每位护士的主人翁意识,大大地激励了其工作热情。而这种自由不羁的讨论方式更能让护士发现自身素质的有限,从而激发其不断的充电学习以提高自身的业务水平。  2 提高了护士观察病情的能力及急救技能 灵活的讨论方式产生了大量的来自不同角度和层面的观点,这些观点是每位护士在抢救工作中的心得与经验,促使每位护士在以后的工作中更密切地观察患者病情,加强各项急救技能的训练,促使以后的抢救工作忙而不乱、有条不紊,从根本上提高抢救及护理质量。  3 提高了年轻护士的心理素质和心理护理水平 年轻护士由于资历较浅,缺乏抢救经验,在抢救重危患者时难免紧张。活跃的讨论是年轻护士学习的平台,她们参考了资深护士的工作经验,更好地将理论联系实际,加强自身修养,急救技能与心理素质并重训练,不断完善自身的心理素质,在抢救过程中注意患者的心理护理,保证抢救工作有条不紊。  4 培养了护士的创造性散发性思维 用头脑风暴法进行病例的护理讨论,每位与会护士不受条条框框的限制,让思维自由驰骋,活跃的讨论方式激发了护士的灵感,勇于发表自己的观点与见解,培养了护士灵活的思考能力,并将这种灵活的思维方式运用于护理工作中,规范护理行为,有效提高护理质量。  5 提高了护士的自我保护意识,避免护理纠纷 抢救过程紧张急迫,护理人员往往注重急救,而对抢救记录不够重视,为护理纠纷埋下了隐患。护理记录是具有法律效应的医疗文件,在实行举证倒置的今天,完善抢救记录,对护理人员有保护作用,避免护理纠纷或在护理纠纷时不处于被动地位,而客观的抢救记录也是保护患者合法权益的依据〔4〕。通过护理讨论,护理人员能从法律的高度认识到护理职责,提高自我保护的意识,完善抢救记录书写。  6 提高了管理者对下属护士业务水平的了解程度 护士畅所欲言的讨论中透示了其护理工作中的实际问题及其自身的综合素质和解决实际问题的能力,护士长可更确切地了解护理工作中的缺陷和薄弱环节,了解下属的不足与长处,有针对性的让其进行培训或进修,打造TOP团队,有利于流畅管理工作。  3 讨论  日本石川馨教授指出:在质量管理活动中调动人的积极性,充分发挥人的无限能力,创造尊重、充满生气和活力的工作环境,有助于提高企业素质〔5〕。运用头脑风暴法,能充分发挥人的聪明才智和发掘人的潜能,考虑问题更详细,解决问题更具体、明确、有效〔6〕。自由的讨论方式引导护理人员毫不拘束地发表自己独到的见解,调动了每个人的积极性,培养护理人员的创新性散发性思维,让其自我价值得到充分实现,提高了自身的素质。集体的智慧能从各层面发现问题所在,并确定整改措施,从而提高护理人员的急救技能,规范抢救过程中的护理行为,最终有效提升护理质量。  【参考文献】  1 王小花,丁小容,王英蓉28例死亡病例护理讨论分析护理学报,2006,13(2):32-  2 薛亮妙用头脑风暴法企业研究,2005,5:61-  3 柯浚哲头脑风暴法中国研究生,2003,4:50-  4 胡敏,王敏,李玉梅通过病例讨论有效规范临床护理行为的探讨上海护理,2005,5(4):61-  5 蒲伦昌全面质量管理基础教程北京:中国经济出版社,1999,  6 黄漫容,文向东,郭少云头脑风暴法在护理质量改善中的作用现代护理,2002,8(9):  Brainstorming in the deaths of emergency care to discuss the application  Abstract The purpose of the emergency nursing staff to improve skills and quality of Brainstorming ways to apply the death care discussion, and give full play to the wisdom of the nursing staff, ask questions, solve the The results of brainstorming to fully mobilize the enthusiasm of the nursing staff, to enhance the quality of Conclusions will be brainstorming the introduction of the death care discussion will help standardize care, care and protection of safety, first aid to improve, the quality of   Key words brainstorming; deaths; care discussion  Brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases in emergency section Brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases in emergency section  ZHOU J ZHOU J  Nursing Section,Songjiang District Central Hospital of Shanghai,Shanghai 201600,China Nursing Section, Songjiang District Central Hospital of Shanghai, Shanghai 201600, China  【Abstract】 Objective to improve the first�aid skills of nurses and enhance nursing Methods We apply brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases,all the nurses do their best to put forward the problems and find the way to solve Results Brain storming can effectively improve the nurses� positivity,as a result,nursing quality is effectively Conclusion The application of brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases is beneficial for standardizing nursing activity,ensuring nursing safety,enhancing first�aid skills and nursing Abstract】 【Objective to improve the first � aid skills of nurses and enhance nursing Methods We apply brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases, all the nurses do their best to put forward the problems and find the way to solve Results Brain storming can effectively improve the nurses � positivity, as a result, nursing quality is effectively Conclusion The application of brain storming in nursing discussion of dead cases is beneficial for standardizing nursing activity, ensuring nursing safety, enhancing first � aid skills and nursing   【Key words】 brain storming;dead cases;nursing discussion Key words】 【brain storming; dead cases; nursing discussion  With the constant improvement of medical laws and regulations, the "patient-centered," the voice rising today, about the quality of care requirements are also increasing in the rescue of the process of standardizing care, improve the technical Rescue and improve the quality of rescue is particularly I Hospital medical quality management in accordance with the requirements of the combination of flowers such as Wang 〔〕 1 report, the organization of all nurses, with brainstorming on emergency care for cases of death, nursing each give full play to the wisdom and ability, to look for gaps and shortcomings So as to enhance the quality of care and first aid skills, good The experience of the report are as   1 brainstorming meaning  (brain storming)Brainstorming (brain storming) 〔〕 2, also known as the Law on intellectual stimulation, by the founder of modern science to create an American scholar Alex Osborne in 1939 for the first time, officially released in 1953 to stimulate creative thinking M 种Ways to take the form of the meeting, all participants in the free happy and free atmosphere, with impunity to express their views in a creative way to solve the Brainstorming is characterized by open so that the participants thought, a creative mind and inspiration, so that the ideas in a collision with each other in the storm stirred up the creative minds to produce more   1 brainstorming principles  1 refused to take seriously the criticism of each participant's point of view, regardless of their opinions, views, the idea of the feasibility of the program, the meeting will not comment, Various points of view must be judged on the final   2 welcome to express their opinions and speak their minds free to create a happy atmosphere, there is no binding, was put forward to stimulate a variety of novel   3 pursuit of quantity rather than quality, the better the view, every point of view has the potential to become a good point of   4 In addition to each other and improve the concept put forward their views, was encouraged to stimulate their own inspiration to others that have already been made for the idea to add, improve and   2 brainstorming basic procedures 〔〕 3  1 will determine the issues before the clear objective of clarifying issues, so that the meeting was a clear problem to be   2 will be pre-prepared meeting, the organizers, and record the necessary Can be pre-paid to collect information on some of the participants to understand the issues related to the background in order to have sufficient time to   3 General to determine the candidates for 8 to 12 is appropriate, but also a slight increase or decrease (5 to 15)  4 to determine a clear division of presenters, from 1 to 2 recorder (Secretary)  5 According to the disciplinary provisions of the principle of brainstorming, several provisions of discipline and compliance with the requirements of the   6 make good use of time from host Conference have to dozens of minutes is   2 brainstorming in the case on the application  1 cases selected information in August 2005 to April 2006 deaths of 25 emergency cases, the use of brainstorming for care, male 17 cases, 8 females; age 2 to 88 years 15 cases in which a car accident deaths and 3 cases of cerebral hemorrhage died and 3 cases of heart attack deaths, 2 cases of hemorrhagic shock death, 1 case of death of diabetic ketoacidosis, 1 case of drug wrongly   2 Methods  1 discuss the establishment of deaths on the system monthly, and do a good job deaths on   2 discuss the pre-pre-arranged to discuss the venue and well-used and the patient's name, sex, diagnosis, the patient's condition made the rescue process information sent in advance to the participants   3 participants chaired by the head nurse, teaching record of the Director-General, Division of the nurses involved in Director of the Division may be invited, to participate in the leadership of the Department of N  4 The meeting was to discuss the form of a head nurse subject to discipline, the freedom to create a pleasant atmosphere of the meeting, the participants encourage each nurse on the positive issues to express their point of view, flying ideas, speak out, so that made all know, reserve, to make More likely to put forward the By the nurses on duty to report the disease, diagnosis, emergency treatment process was carried out free of uninhibited discussion, Director-General in charge of teaching record the main points of Will not in any one's point of view of critical   5 discuss the contents of the nurses attending the meeting from different angles and at different levels, different aspects of the rescue process to analyze the problems Such as: nurse's own first-aid skills, with nurses and patients, health care, in collaboration with other sections of cooperation, their families cope with the situation and the psychological reaction of patients, nurses and mental quality of the standby rescue equipment, medicine and rescue back-up materials, rescue Written records, body care and so   3 and the effect of experience  1 inspire the enthusiasm of nurses, nurses study to improve the knowledge of the entrepreneurial spirit of the brainstorming meeting about this freedom for every Nurses attending the meeting provided a platform for self-display, so happy in a free, no Bound in an atmosphere of daring to express their unique perspectives and viewpoints, and increased the sense of ownership for each nurse, greatly inspired the enthusiasm of their And uninhibited discussion of this freedom can be more nurses found that the quality of their own limited, so as to stimulate the constant charge of their own learning in order to enhance the level of   2 improves the ability of patients to observe nurses and first-aid skills in a flexible way to discuss a number of different angles and dimensions from the point of view, the view is that every nurse in the rescue work experience and experience to every nurse in the After work more closely observed in patients with the disease and strengthen the first-aid skills training to help the rescue work after the chaos without, in an orderly and fundamentally improve the quality of care and emergency   3 improved the quality of the young nurses in mental and psychological level of care young junior nurses due to lack of experience of rescue, emergency treatment in critically ill patients when the tension is Active discussion is a platform for young nurses to learn, they refer to the senior nurses working experience, will be to better integrate theory with practice and strengthen their own training, first aid skills with equal emphasis on psychological training, and constantly improve the psychological quality of their own, in the course of rescue Attention to the patient's psychological care to ensure the orderly rescue   4 trained nurses in the distribution of creative thinking by brainstorming for care cases, each participating nurses from outside the box, allowing freedom of thinking, he said, to stimulate active discussion of the nurse's inspiration, the courage to express their With the view point of view, the training of nurses and flexible thinking and flexible way of thinking applied to nursing work, standardize care, improve the quality of   5 increased self-protection awareness of nurses, nursing dispute to avoid tension in the process of urgent rescue, first aid care workers often pay attention to, and the records do not pay enough attention to the rescue, care for the dispute potential 〔4〕。 Nursing is a record of the medical effects of legal documents, as a result of today, the Juzhengdaozhi, improve emergency treatment records, a protective effect on the nursing staff so as to avoid disputes or nursing care in the dispute are not in a passive position and objective record of the rescue is to protect legitimate patients 4 based on the rights and interests of Through care, nursing staff from a high degree of awareness of the legal duties of care to enhance self-protection awareness and improve the written record of the   6 improved the nurse manager of the subsidiary business of the level of understanding of the extent of nurses speak out on the show through in the care of their practical problems in its own comprehensive quality and the ability to solve practical problems, the head nurse can be a more precise understanding of Deficiencies in the care of the weak links and, under the understanding of the strengths and shortcomings, targeted to education or training, to build TOP team is conducive to smooth   3 discussion  Professor Shi Chuanxin Japan: in quality management activities to mobilize the enthusiasm of the people and give full play to people's unlimited ability to create respect, full of life and vitality of the working environment and help enterprises to improve the quality of 〔6〕。 The use of brainstorming, to give full play to human ingenuity and explore human potential, to consider the issue in more detail, to solve the problem more specific, clear and effective The free discussion guide nurses not to be bound to express their original insights, the mobilization of everyone's enthusiasm and training of nursing staff to disseminate innovative thinking, self-worth to be fully realized, to improve the quality of their The collective wisdom of all levels can find the problem and to identify reform measures to improve nursing skills in first aid, rescue norms in the process of care, effectively enhance the quality of   References 【】  1 Wang Xiao-Hua, Ding Xiao-rong, Wang Rong 28 cases of deaths in nursing analysis of the Journal of Nursing, 2006,13 (2) :32-  2, Xue L Magical ,2005,5:61-62 research   3, Ke Jun- B ,2003,4:50-51 Chinese graduate   4, Hu, Wang, Li Y Discuss the case through the effective norms of conduct of clinical Shanghai care, 2005,5 (4) :61-   The basis of total quality management Beijing: China Economic Publishing House, 1999,  6 Huang Yong Man, the east, Shao-Yun G Brainstorming to improve the quality of care in the Modern care, 2002,8 (9):

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