论文的文献综述怎么写
在平平淡淡的日常中，大家都有写论文的经历，对论文很是熟悉吧，借助论文可以达到探讨问题进行学术研究的目的。相信许多人会觉得论文很难写吧，以下是我为大家整理的论文的文献综述怎么写，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。
文献综述是在确定了选题后，在对选题所涉及的研究领域的文献进行广泛阅读和理解的基础上，对该研究领域的研究现状(包括主要学术观点、前人研究成果和研究水平、争论焦点、存在的问题及可能的原因等)、新水平、新动态、新技术和新发现、发展前景等内容进行综合分析、归纳整理和评论，并提出自己的见解和研究思路而写成的一种不同于毕业论文的文体。它要求作者既要对所查阅资料的主要观点进行综合整理、陈述，还要根据自己的理解和认识，对综合整理后的文献进行比较专门的、全面的、深入的、系统的论述和相应的评价，而不仅仅是相关领域学术研究的“堆砌”。
文献综述是研究者在其提前阅读过某一主题的文献后，经过理解、整理、融会贯通，综合分析和评价而组成的一种不同于研究论文的文体。
检索和阅读文献是撰写综述的重要前提工作。一篇综述的质量如何，很大程度上取决于作者对本题相关的最新文献的掌握程度。如果没有做好文献检索和阅读工作，就去撰写综述，是决不会写出高水平的综述的。
好的文献综述，不但可以为下一步的学位论文写作奠定一个坚实的理论基础和提供某种延伸的契机，而且能表明写本综述的作者对既有研究文献的归纳分析和梳理整合的综合能力，从而有助于提高对学位论文水平的总体评价。
在《怎样做文献综述——六步走向成功》中，劳伦斯·马奇和布伦达·麦克伊沃提出了文献综述的六步模型，将文献综述的过程分为六步：选择主题、文献搜索、展开论证、文献研究、文献批评和综述撰写。
文献综述根据研究的目的不同，可分为基本文献综述和高级文献综述两种。基本文献综述是对有关研究课题的现有知识进行总结和评价，以陈述现有知识的状况;高级文献综述则是在选择研究兴趣和主题之后，对相关文献进行回顾，确立研究论题，再提出进一步的研究，从而建立一个研究项目。
相关格式
总的来说，一般都包含以下四部分：即摘要、引言、主体和参考文献。
这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法、结果、动态和进展。
摘要和关键词
摘要限200字以内。摘要要具有独立性和自含性，不应出现图表、冗长的公式和非公知的符号、缩略语。摘要后须给出3-5个关键词，中间应用分号“;”分隔。
引言部分
引言部分，主要是说明写作的目的，介绍有关的概念、定义以及综述的范围，扼要说明有关主题的研究现状或争论焦点，使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。前言，要用简明扼要的文字说明写作的目的、必要性、有关概念的定义，综述的范围，阐述有关问题的现状和动态，以及对主要问题争论的焦点等。前言一般200-300字为宜，不宜超过500字。
在综述的引言(或者导言、介绍)部分要写清以下内容：
(1)首先要说明写作的目的，定义综述主题、问题和研究领域。
(2)指出有关综述主题已发表文献的总体趋势，阐述有关概念的定义。
(3)规定综述的范围、包括专题涉及的学科范围和时间范围，必须声明引用文献起止的年份，解释、分析和比较文献以及组织综述次序的准则。
(4)扼要说明有关问题的.现况或争论焦点，引出所写综述的核心主题，这是广大读者最关心而又感兴趣的，也是写作综述的主线。
主题部分
主题部分是综述的主体。其写法多样，没有固定的格式。可按文献发表的年代顺序综述，也可按不同的问题进行综述，还可按不同的观点进行比较综述，不管用哪一种格式综述，都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较，阐明引言部分所确立综述主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向，以及对这些问题的评述，主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。主题内容根据综述的类型可以灵活选择结构安排。
主题的层次标题应简短明了，以15字为限，不用标点符号，其层次的划分及编号一律使用阿拉伯数字分级编号法(不含引言部分)，一般用两级，第三级上用圆括号()中间加数字的形式标识。
插图应精选，具有自明性，勿与文中的文字和表格重复。插图下方应注明图序和图名。
表格应精心设计，结构简洁，便于操作，并具有自明性，内容勿与正文、插图重复。表格应采用三线表，可适当加注辅助线，但不能用斜线和竖线。表格上方应注明表序和表名。
正文，是综述的重点，写法上没有固定的格式，只要能较好地表达综合的内容，作者可创造性采用诸多形式。正文主要包括论据和论证两个部分，通过提出问题、分析问题和解决问题，比较不同学者对同一问题的看法及其理论依据，进一步阐明问题的来龙去脉和作者自己的见解。当然，作者也可从问题发生的历史背景、目前现状、发展方向等提出文献的不同观点。正文部分可根据内容的多少可分为若干个小标题分别论述。小结，是对综述正文部分作扼要的总结，作者应对各种观点进行综合评价，提出自己的看法，指出存在的问题及今后发展的方向和展望。内容单纯的综述也可不写小结。
参考文献
参考文献是综述的重要组成部分。一般参考文献的多少可体现作者阅读文献的广度和深度。对综述类论文参考文献的数量不同杂志有不同的要求，一般以30条以内为宜，以3-5年内的最新文献为主。
学术论文参考文献的著录格式
1.专著：[序号]作者.书名[M].版本(第1版不著录).出版地:出版者,出版年.起止页码.
2.期刊:[序号]作者.题名[J].刊名,年,卷(期):起止页码.
3.会议论文集(或汇编):[序号]作者.题名[A].编者.论文集名[C].出版地:出版者,出版年.起止页码.
4.学位论文:[序号]作者.题名[D].学位授予地址：学位授予单位，年份.
5.专利:[序号]专利申请者.专利题名[P].专利国别(或地区):专利号,出版日期.
6.科技报告:[序号]著者.报告题名[R].编号，出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码.
7.标准:[序号]标准编号，标准名称[S].颁布日期.
8.报纸文章:[序号]作者.题名[N].报纸名，年-月-日(版次).
9.电子文献:[序号]主要责任者.电子文献题名[电子文献及载体类型标识].电子文献的出处或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期(任选).
10.各种未定义类型的文献:[序号]主要责任者.文献题名[Z].出版地：出版者，出版年.
注意事项
1、搜集文献应尽量全。掌握全面、大量的文献资料是写好综述的前提，否则，随便搜集一点资料就动手撰写是不可能写出好的综述。
2、注意引用文献的代表性、可靠性和科学性。在搜集到的文献中可能出现观点雷同，有的文献在可靠性及科学性方面存在着差异，因此在引用文献时应注意选用代表性、可靠性和科学性较好的文献。
3、引用文献要忠实文献内容。由于文献综述有作者自己的评论分析，因此在撰写时应分清作者的观点和文献的内容，不能篡改文献的内容。引用文献不过多。文献综述的作者引用间接文献的现象时有所见。如果综述作者从他人引用的参考文献转引过来，这些文献在他人引用时是否恰当，有无谬误，综述作者是不知道的，所以最好不要间接转引文献。
4、参考文献不能省略。有的科研论文可以将参考文献省略，但文献综述绝对不能省略，而且应是文中引用过的，能反映主题全貌的并且是作者直接阅读过的文献资料。
5、综述篇幅不可太长。杂志编辑部对综述的字数一般都有一定数量的约定。作者在初写综述时，往往不注意这点，造成虚话、空话较多，重点不突出。综述一般不宜超过4000字。综述并不是简单的文献罗列，综述一定有作者自己的综合和归纳。有的综述只是将文献罗列，看上去像流水账，没有作者自己的综合与分析，使人看后感到重复、费解，材料与评述不协调。
6、一些作者似乎把论文的引言看成是一种形式，是可有可无的部分，将引言的写作和正文的写作相分离，只是为了给论文加一顶帽子。常见的现象是，一般化地论述研究的重要性，甚至从技术所涉及的行业在国民经济中的地位开始谈起，就像一篇领导的讲话稿。就是落脚于研究的主题，也是从宏观谈起到微观结束，停留在一般性的论述较多。显然，这样做的结果是使读者无法准确地判断“论文命题”的具体价值，缺少对当前研究状况的概括和介绍，不知道作者的研究与以往的研究工作有什么不同?因此，科技论文的引言必须交代研究工作的背景，概括性地论述所研究问题的现状。对研究现状的论述，不仅是考查作者对资料的占有程度和熟悉程度，更重要的是从资料的全面程度和新旧程度可以判断研究工作的意义和价值，以及研究结果的可信度。
7、引文罗列，缺少分析和概括。引言不仅要反映背景的广度，更重要的是要考查作者对研究背景了解的深度。一般作者对研究的问题了解不深，在介绍研究现状时往往是列出一大堆参考文献，罗列出不同研究者的不同作法和结论，缺乏作者的分析和归纳，没有概括出研究的成果和存在的问题，有的甚至将一些与本文研究没有直接关系的文献也列在其中，片面地强调资料占有的丰富性。尽管有人认为，对研究现状的介绍不同的杂志有不同的要求，但从论文写作的角度出发，引言的目的是阐述论文命题的意义，而并非是研究资料的综述，尽管综述对读者查找资料提供了方便。因此，应当用作者自己的语言概括出研究的现状，特别是存在的难点和不足，从而引出论文研究的主题。
文献综述是文献综合评述的简称，指在全面搜集、阅读大量的有关研究文献的基础上，经过归纳整理、分析鉴别，对所研究的问题(学科、专题)在一定时期内已经取得的研究成果、存在问题以及新的发展趋势等进行系统、全面的叙述和评论。“综”即收集“百家”之言，综合分析整理;“述”即结合作者的观点和实践经验对文献的观点、结论进行叙述和评论。其目的并不是将可能找到的文章列出，而是要在辨别相关资料的基础上，根据自己的论文来综合与评估这些资料。一个成功的文献综述，能够以其系统的分析评价和有根据的趋势预测，为新课题的确立提供强有力的支持和论证。
一、文献综述的作用与目的
文献综述要针对某个研究主题，就目前学术界的成果加以探究。文献综述旨在整合此研究主题的特定领域中已经被思考过与研究过的信息，并将此议题上的权威学者所作的努力进行系统地展现、归纳和评述。在决定论文研究题目之前，通常必须关注的几个问题是：研究所属的领域或者其他领域，对这个间题已经知道多少;已完成的研究有哪些;以往的建议与对策是否成功;有没有建议新的研究方向和议题。简而言之，文献综述是一切合理研究的基础。
大多数研究生并不考虑这些问题，就直接进行文献探讨，将在短时间内找到的现有文献做简略引述或归类，也不作批判。甚至与论文研究的可行性、必要性也无关。
其实回顾的目的就是想看看什么是探索性研究，所以必须主动积极地扩大研究文献的来源。也只有这样，才可能增加研究的假设与变量，以改进研究的设计。
文献综述至少可达到的基本目的有：让读者熟悉现有研究主题领域中有关研究的进展与困境;提供后续研究者的思考：未来研究是否可以找出更有意义与更显著的结果;对各种理论的立场说明，可以提出不同的概念架构;作为新假设提出与研究理念的基础，对某现象和行为进行可能的解释;识别概念间的前提假设，理解并学习他人如何界定与衡量关键概念;改进与批判现有研究的不足，推出另类研究，发掘新的研究方法与途径，验证其他相关研究。
总之，研究文献不仅可帮助确认研究主题，也可找出对研究的问题的不同见解。发表过的研究报告和学术论文就是重要的问题来源，对论文的回顾会提供宝贵的资料以及研究可行性的范例。
二、文献综述中常见的问题
文献综述可以帮助新研究者在现有知识的基础上不断创新，所以撰写此章节时，要向读者交代论文不同于先前研究之所在。它是一个新的有关此类研究主题方面的重要的学术研究。但是研究生在撰写文献综述过程中易犯以下四种错误：
1.大量罗列堆砌文章
误认为文献综述的目的是显示对其他相关研究的了解程度，结果导致很多文献综述不是以所研究的问题为中心来展开，而变成了读书心得清单。
2.轻易放弃研究批判的权利
我国高等院校多以本校学生考本校研究生者居多，因而往往出现大量引用自己导师的研究成果而不注意其他同行的研究成果的现象，学生担心学位论文答辩通不过，所以难得见到学生批判导师已有研究的不足;遇到名校名师，学生更易放弃自己批判的权利。由于大量引用他人的著作，每段话均以谁说为起始，结果使自己的论文成为他人研究有效与否的验证报告，无法说服读者相信自己的论文有重要贡献。
3.回避和放弃研究冲突另辟蹊径
对有较多学术争议的研究主题，或发现现有的研究结论互相矛盾时，有些研究生的论文就回避矛盾，进行一个自认为是创新的研究。其实将这些冲突全部放弃，就意味着放弃一大堆有价值的资料，并且这个所谓的创新，因为不跟任何现有的研究相关与比较，没有引用价值，会被后人所放弃。遇到不协调或者互相矛盾的研究发现，尽管要花费更多的时间来处理，但是不要避重就轻，甚至主动放弃。其实这些不协调或者冲突是很有价值的，应多加利用。将现有文献的冲突与矛盾加以整合是必要的，新研究比旧研究具有更好、更强的解释力，原因之一是新的研究会将过去的所得做一番整合与改善。
4.选择性地探讨文献
有些研究生不是系统化地回顾现有的研究文献，找出适合研究的问题或可预测的假设，却宣称某种研究缺乏文献，从而自认他们的研究是探索性研究。如果有选择性地探讨现有文献，则文献综述就变成了研究生主观愿望的反映，成了一种机会性的回顾。
因此一定要进行系统的、全面的文献综述，以严谨的科学设计来寻找、评估以及整合科学研究的证据，确保文献综述完整不偏。要端正学风，勇于探索和不回避冲突。分析冲突的原因、方法与结论，可以为未来的研究及论文奠定成功的。
文献综述是对论文选题研究现状的梳理，但并不仅仅是把文献进行简单的堆砌与罗列，而是需要在总结梳理别人研究的同时，对已有的研究做出评价，也就是说有述有评，这也是为什么文献综述也叫做文献述评的原因。
论文综述范文写法如下：1、标题的标题一般多是在设计（论文）选题的标题后加“文献综述”字样。
2、提要或前言此部分一般不用专设标题，而是直接作为整个文献综述的开篇部分。内容是简要介绍本课题研究的意义；将要解决的主要问题；如果本课题涉及到较前沿的理论，还应对该理论进行简要介绍；最后要介绍研究者搜集的资料范围及资料来源。3、正文这是论文文献综述的核心部分。应在归类整理的基础上，对自己搜集到的有用资料进行系统介绍。撰写此部分时还应注意以下两点：其一、对已有成果要分类介绍，各类之间用小标题区分。其二、既要有概括的介绍，又要有重点介绍。根据自己的分类，对各类研究先做概括介绍，然后对此类研究中具有代表性的成果进行重点介绍。4、总结
对上述研究成果的主要特点、研究趋势及价值进行概括与评价。此部分应着重点明本课题已有的研究基础（已有成果为自己的研究奠定了怎样的基础或从中受到怎样的启发）与尚存的研究空间（本课题已有研究中存在的空白或薄弱环节）。5、参考文献要求列出的参考文献不少于15篇，且外文文献不少于3篇，并按论文中的参考文献的格式将作者名、文献名、文献出处、时间等信息全面标示出来。
我们知道，一篇过万字的论文，在第一章绪论部分，都会涉及到文献综述，又可叫做国内外研究现状。先说国内外研究现状的写法， 这种写法顾名思义就是把文献综述分为国外研究现状、国内研究现状去写，这里需要注意的一点就是，如果国内研究早于国外，则应该先写国内研究现状，在写国外研究现状，反之亦然。还有一种写法， 标题就为文献综述，在内容的安排上，写先大的方面的研究综述，在进一步缩小到本文的研究方向上。
例如论文题目是《高校固定资产管理研究》，那么在文献综述的安排上，可以这样写：有关于固定资产管理的研究、有关于固定资产管理的意义研究、有关于高校固定资产管理的研究。当然，以上两种文献综述的写法，也并不是简单的对前人的研究成果进行简单的堆砌，而是要加入自己的话去进行归纳整理，最后提出现有研究成果的不足，引出你的研究思路与方法，来弥补这一方面的研究不足。也就是说，在写完文献综述之后，还要增加一段内容，即文献述评。
比较一下中外古今对于找个问题的研究现状，然后阐明你选择找个选题的目的何在，创新何在，比起别人有什么突破和创新。
就是讲你做这个东西有什么用,主要就是胡吹一番。不知道你是本科毕业论文还是研究生毕业论文
看看这个文章也许有点用处？
朝廷可还有希望啊。
一般现在时就好了，想一些带有议论性的文字，都可以用一般现在时来表示
1200字，需要的话可以。
用一般现在时，因为你陈述的观点是客观事实，要用一般现在时
茶文化是中华民族传统文化的一个重要组成部分，不仅包含了物质文化层面，而且还蕴藏着深厚的精神文化。下面是我精心为你整理的论茶文化的论文摘要，一起来看看。
茶文化构建休闲旅游的实证研究
摘要：
中国自古以来就是产茶圣地，其历史悠久、风景独特。以地方茶为中心进行深度休闲旅游项目开发，不仅是地方地区旅游经济发展的重要内容，同时也为中国茶文化旅游的开发增添异彩。本文通过介绍地方茶文化资源的特色与优势，分析地方茶文化休闲旅游建设中存在的问题，探索茶文化旅游项目开发过程中的有效管理路径。
茶文化在体育教学中的应用
摘要：
体育精神是体育运动的核心和精粹，是体育运动最高级的产物。同样体育精神也是人类智慧的结晶，是人类在体育运动中产生的最宝贵的精神财富。它不仅指导着体育运动爱好者如何更好的从事体育运动，更是给每个有思想的人以人生观、价值观和世界观的启迪。中国在漫长的体育运动发展过程中形成了具有中华民族特色的体育精神，这与长期在中国传统文化熏陶下形成的茶文化有一些相通之处。本文主要探讨茶文化与中国体育精神的互通融合。
茶文化中企业制度建设研究
摘要：
中国是全世界公认的茶的发源地，有着悠久的历史和丰富的精神财富。从中国茶文化中提取出来的茶道精神，是中华五千年文化的瑰宝，其基本精神更是富含儒家、道教、佛教三教的哲理，运用这些理论研究现代企业制度的建设，能更清晰的发现现代企业制度建设中存在的问题，并对症下药，解决问题。
高职教学过程中茶文化分析
摘要：
我国高职教学事业自建国以来处于不断发展变化的趋势，特别是改革开放以来，我国高职教学走过了辉煌的历程，是国家改革开放伟大事业的一部分。文章从茶文化视角阐述了高职教学的内涵、主要内容及实践形式等方面，对开放式高职教学进行评析，探索高职教学过程中教育的内容与不足，最后得出相关结论与启示。
茶文化与音乐共通性研究
摘要：
茶文化是中国传统文化的典型代表，在我国文化中拥有重要的地位，是我国传统文化的瑰宝。其所代表的茶文化凝结了中国文化的精髓，是我国优秀文化的代表和千年来我国历史文化的结晶。品茶日益成为现代社会人缓解工作生活压力，寻找知己思考人生陶冶情操甚至是提升人生境界的一种有效方式。传统音乐作为我国文化中又一大瑰宝，集合了中国劳动人民的智慧，是我国音乐的重要组成部分。本文首先介绍了茶文化和传统音乐的各自特点，再以两者的共通性作为重点研究对象，最后以茶文化中传统音乐的应用为切入点进一步阐述了两者的美妙结合。
西方茶 文化 有着几百年的历史，也涌现很多的关于西方茶文化的论文。下面是我精心为你整理的西方茶文化论文参考文献，一起来看看。
参考文献
[1]朱亚夫.意义的七种类型和英语词汇教学[J].外语与外语教学，005(9):28-30,35
[2]马晓俐.茶的多维魅力———英国茶文化研究[D].浙江大学博士论文，2008.
[3]王霓.跨文化视野下的中英茶文化比较[J].人民论坛，2011(A12):142-143.
[4]柳菁.目的论指导下的茶名外宣翻译问题与对策研究[J].语文学刊，2014(4):51-54.
参考文献
[1] 徐先玲，李相状.中国茶饮文化[M].北京：中国戏剧出版社，2005.
[2] 关剑平.茶与中国文化[M].北京：人民出版社，2001.
[3] 徐永成.英伦的茶文化[M].上海：文化 教育 出版社，1990 (4).
参考文献
[1]白靖宇.文化与翻译.中国社会科学出版社.2000.
[2]葛传.陆谷孙等.新英汉词典(增补本).上海译文出版.
一、两种不同的饮食观念餐饮产品由于地域特征、气侯环境、风俗习惯等因素的影响，会出现在原料、口味、烹调方法、饮食习惯上的不同程度的差异。正是因为这些差异，餐饮产品具有了强烈的地域性。中西文化之间的差异造就了中西饮食文化的差异，而这种差异来自中西方不同的思维方式和处世哲学。中国人注重“天人合一”，西方人注重“以人为本”。对比注重“味”的中国饮食，西方是一种理性饮食观念。不论食物的色、香、味、形如何，而营养一定要得到保证，讲究一天要摄取多少热量、维生素、蛋白质等等。即便口味千篇一律，也一定要吃下去--因为有营养。这一饮食观念同西方整个哲学体系是相适应的。形而上学是西方哲学的主要特点。西方哲学所研究的对象为事物之理，事物之理常为形上学理，形上学理互相连贯，便结成形上哲学。这一哲学给西方文化带来生机，使之在自然科学上、心理学上、方法论上实现了突飞猛进的发展。但在另一些方面，这种哲学主张大大地起了阻碍作用，如饮食文化。在宴席上，可以讲究餐具，讲究用料，讲究服务，讲究菜之原料的形、色方面的搭配；但不管怎么豪华高档，从洛杉矶到纽约，牛排都只有一种味道，无艺术可言。作为菜肴，鸡就是鸡，牛排就是牛排，纵然有搭配，那也是在盘中进行的，一盘“法式羊排”，一边放土豆泥，旁倚羊排，另一边配煮青豆，加几片番茄便成。色彩上对比鲜明，但在滋味上各种原料互不相干、调和，各是各的味，简单明了。中国人是很重视“吃”的，“民以食为天”这句谚语就说明我们把吃看得与天一样重要。由于我们这个民族几千年来都处于低下的生产力水平，人们总是吃不饱，所以才会有一种独特的把吃看得重于一切的饮食文化，我想，这大概是出于一种生存需要吧。如果一种文化把吃看成首要的事，那么就会出现两种现象：一方面会把这种吃的功能发挥到极致，不仅维持生存，也利用它维持健康，这也就是”药补不如食补”的文化基础；另一方面，对吃的过份重视，会使人推崇对美味的追求。二、饮食方式的不同中西方的饮食方式有很大不同，这种差异对民族性格也有影响。在中国，任何一个宴席，不管是什么目的，都只会有一种形式，就是大家团团围坐，共享一席。筵席要用圆桌，这就从形式上造成了一种团结、礼貌、共趣的气氛。美味佳肴放在一桌人的中心，它既是一桌人欣赏、品尝的对象，又是一桌人感情交流的媒介物。人们相互敬酒、相互让菜、劝菜，在美好的事物面前，体现了人们之间相互尊重、礼让的美德。虽然从卫生的角度看，这种饮食方式有明显的不足之处，但它符合我们民族“大团圆”的普遍心态，反映了中国古典哲学中“和”这个范畴对后代思想的影响，便于集体的情感交流，因而至今难以改革。西式饮宴上，食品和酒尽管非常重要，但实际上那是作为陪衬。宴会的核心在于交谊，通过与邻座客人之间的交谈，达到交谊的目的。如果将宴会的交谊性与舞蹈相类比，那么可以说，中式宴席好比是集体舞，而西式宴会好比是男女的交谊舞。由此可见，中式宴会和西式宴会交谊的目的都很明显，只不过中式宴会更多地体现在全席的交谊，而西式宴会多体现于相邻宾客之间的交谊。与中国饮食方式的差异更为明显的是西方流行的自助餐。此法是：将所有食物一一陈列出来，大家各取所需，不必固定在位子上吃，走动自由，这种方式便于个人之间的情感交流，不必将所有的话摆在桌面上，也表现了西方人对个性、对自我的尊重。但各吃各的，互不相扰，缺少了一些中国人聊欢共乐的情调。
你可以从以下几点着手： 一．餐桌礼仪概述 1. 餐桌礼仪在中西方文化发展中的地位与作用. 二. 各国间不同的饮食文化 1. 我国饮食文化的发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 2. 英、法、美、意等国家的饮食文化发展及餐桌礼仪的形成. 3. 用我国的典型食品北京烤鸭与西方国家的火鸡进行对比从而进一步比较两者差异. 4. 从差异中寻求中西文化间的共同点. 5. 形成中西方文化差异的根源. Table Manners The main difference between Chinese and W estern eating habits is that unlike the West, where everyone has their own plate of food, in China the dishes are placed on the table and everybody shares. If you are being treated by a Chinese host, be prepared for a ton of food. Chinese are very proud of their culture of food and will do their best to give you a taste of many different types of cuisine. Among friends, they will just order enough for the people there. If they are taking somebody out for dinner and the relationship is polite to semi-polite, then they will usually order one more dish than the number of guests ( people, five dishes). If it is a business dinner or a very formal occasion, there is likely to be a huge amount of food that will be impopssible to finish. A typical meal starts with garlic. These are followed by the main courses, hot meat and vegetable dishes. Finally a soup is brought out, which is followed by the starchy "staple"food, which is usually rice or noodles or sometimes dumplings. Many Chinese eat rice (or noodles or whatever) last, but if you like to have your rice together with other dishes, you should say so early on. One thing to be aware of is that when eating with a Chinese host, you may find that the person is using their chopsticks to put food in your bowl or plate. This is a sign of politeness. The appropriate thing to do would be to eat the whatever-it-is and say how yummy it is. If you feel uncomfortable with this, you can just say a polite thank you and leave the food there, and maybe cover it up with a little rice when they are not looking. There is a certain amount of leniency involved when dealing with Westerners. So you won't be chastised. Eating No-no's Traditionally speaking, there are many taboos at Chinese tables, but these days not many people pay attention to them. However, there are a few things to keep in mind, especially if you are a guest at a private home. 1) Don't stick your chopsticks upright in the rice bowl. Instead,lay them on your dish. The reason for this is that when somebody dies, the shrine to them contains a bowl of sand or rice with two sticks of incense stuck upright in it. So if you stick your chopsticks in the rice bowl, it looks like this shrine and is equivalent to wishing death upon a person at the table! 2) Make sure the spout of the teapot is not facing anyone. It is impolite to set the teapot down where the spout is facing towards somebody. The spout should always be directed to where nobody is sitting,usually just outward from the table. 3) Don't tap on your bowl with your chopsticks. Beggars tap on their bowls, so this is not polite. Also, in a restaurant, if the food is coming too slow people will tap their bowls. If you are in someone's home, it is like insulting the cook. Eat Local You can get expensive, delicious meals in any of the large hotels, but if you are looking for atmosphere, you have to go to a local joint. Not only is it cheaper, but you can get a good look at the locals and what normal people are like. And what the food lacks in presentation is made up for in the taste. Some restaurants have English menus, but don't count on it. A good way to choose dishes is to look at what othes are eating and point at it for the waitress. The other option is to play "Myatery Dinner," where players randomly point at items in the menu and wait for the surprise dishes to come. Whoever orders the braised dog heart with scallions in shark vomit sauce wins! If you bring your Guide with you, however, you can use the food guide in the back of the book to choose some safe and delicious fare. Also, be sure to sample the local brew, Yanjing Beer. Drining Gan Bei!(cheers!) Alcohol is a big part of eating in Beijing. Especially when dining with Chinese hosts, you can expect the beer to flow freely and many beis to be gan-ed.(Gan Bei literally means "dry the glass")Besides beer, the official Chinese alcoholic beverage is bai jiu, high-proof Chinese liquor made from assorted grains. There are varying degrees of bai jiu, and some are quite good. The Beijing favorite is called Er Guo Tou, which is a whopping 56% alcohol. More expensive and less formidable are Maotai and Wuliangye, which go for about 300-400 yuan per bottle. In comparison, Er Guo Tou costs a modest 4or 5 yuan per ping(bottle). If you are not a drinker, or don't feel up to the challenge, just say "wo bu hui he jiu"(I don't drink). It is generally acceptable to use Coke or tea as an alcohol substitute.
Diet idea the Europeans said that in the world has three big good food, in each edition has China and France, only then actually had different explanations about third, has said that was Italy, also had said that was countries' and so on Turkey, Tunisia or Morocco. Although reaches a stalemate, but everybody has a mutual recognition, the diet often can reflect the different nationality aspect and so on habits and customs and cultural thought differences. one time hosts the banquet in the Chinese restaurant, on the hotel vegetable very slowly, unconscious has passed for nearly two hours, but the vegetable has as if only then gotten up half. Is first time attends the Chinese meal banquet near a place woman, cannot bear asks me, your Chinese treats on these many vegetables? I said that must be many in China, usually is above 10. She is very surprised, including said that China's banquet too has been really rich, China's good food is very no wonder famous. But after a while, she also asks me, has a phenomenon to be very strange: The Chinese eats meal each time on that many vegetables, can be why long so thinly. But France enters the vegetable to be very each time few, but is why fatter than the Chinese? I am at a loss for words for a while, but thought that she asks how many truth a little, because that day shares a table several Chinese appear quite emaciated, but several French are all tall and sturdy. Thinks that spoke an own idea with her: China is a hospitable nationality, only then on a table vegetable had only then thought that has not neglected the visitor. Sometimes moreover the Chinese pays great attention the form, therefore in China's cooking, the vegetable style is ever changing, makes concrete is fastidious about the color fragrance to each vegetable matching. But European as if some, are inferior to China obviously actually in the vegetable variety change high and low free time, what but is fastidious is its nutrition matching and the protection. This is, the French diet idea important difference, how many also reflected the French chemical property standard difference. each people have the color which to color understanding oneself like, a country and the nationality are also same, likes to the different color being possible to reflect a national or the national esthetic appeal and the likes and dislikes tendency overall. has one time bumps into an EU commission's pair of professor husbands and wives, mentions China national dress which in the Shanghai APEC conference various countries' leader puts on, they said are attractive, but has a point to be not too clear, why do the Asian leaders mostly put on red, but the Western leader has chosen the blue color. I said that the color is leader designates. The Asian country has the same cultural context probably, red in the Chinese culture, is also possibly representing lucky, the wealth in the entire Asian culture and propitious pleasant, therefore the Asian leaders as if by prior agreement have chosen red. I ask in reply them, what does the blue color represent in the Western culture? They said the westerner to believe that the blue color represents is calm and is calm. thinks that I also said the East and West cultural difference was really too big, for example the dragon in China was nationality's symbol, but had one in Belgium's Mongolian Si Shize to hit the dragon festival, the dragon is regarded as the devil, has been massacred by fable in protection sacred · Michelle, therefore did specially hits the dragon festival to congratulate that eliminated the disaster shortcoming to thank Michelle. Professor husbands and wives also approves the East and West cultural difference hugeness, and approves the culture to need to exchange. in thinking mode West's cultural difference also displays in many aspects, but simple summarizes is not actually complex: Reflected that to the thinking mode in is abstract and the embodiment difference, reflected that to the life manner in as if may understand is more practical for the westerner, but Chinese how many stresses some mental feeling. For instance compares French word and Chinese writing, this point is very obvious. The Chinese writing makes the word to pay great attention the image much, what but in the French more pays great attention to consider is the use value. Looks like in Chinese the name card, in the French translates literally is the card which the visit uses, but the aircraft carrier calls in the French to carry airplane's warship and so on, is embarks from the actual uses makes the word. But presses the glass plate which likely the picture uses, we are also the words which makes from its use value angle, but the French has been more direct-viewing, the literal translation is “places above the picture”. reflects to the drawing in is so. Everybody knew that the traditional Chinese painting greatly opens big he, splashes ink enjoyably the human body proportion which and optics principle is fastidious with the European oil painting and so on completely belongs to the technical category which two have nothing to do with one another, is as if very difficult to have the common language. Sometimes the European not too can understand that sometimes we too abstract art expression means that we also will think European's artistic skill too practical duty, deficient divine and wonderful spirit. Looked that sometimes in many European drawing history has been presented for the classics religious theme painting, the Chinese while sighs its technique practical exquisite, also will sigh with emotion European master the imagination the deficiency: In order to explain that the angel is flying, must give these lovable young and clevers to add on a pair of wing. But our ancestor has not also drawn several thousand years, how many white clouds adds on nearby these beautiful female celestial, they have not flown? Has the ideal condition, has the imagination space. this is the cultural difference. But, the difference brings not always the difference, it gave culture masters of art to leave behind the broad creation space exactly, if could find an accurate combining site, not only that will give two nationalities, will also give the entire world to bring one kind to have forgives the significance the harmony and beautiful, for instance Zhao Wuji's painting manifested the inexhaustible charm which the culture blended 饮食观念 欧洲人都说世界上有三大美食，每一个版本里都有中国和法国的，只有关于第三家却说法不一，有说是意大利的，也有说是土耳其、突尼斯或摩洛哥等国的。尽管相持不下，但大家都有个共识，饮食常能反映出不同民族的生活习惯和文化思维等方面的差异。 一次在中餐馆举行宴会，饭店菜上得很慢，不知不觉中过去了近两个小时，但菜似乎才上了一半。临座的一位女士是第一次参加中餐宴会，忍不住问我，你们中国人请客都上这么多菜吗？我说，在中国还要多，通常是10道以上。她很惊讶，连说中国的宴会实在太丰富了，难怪中国的美食很有名。但过了一会儿，她又问我，有个现象很奇怪：中国人吃饭每次都上那么多菜，可为什么都长得那么瘦。而法国入每次菜很少，但为什么都比中国人胖呢？ 我一时语塞，但又觉得她问得多少有点道理，因为那天同桌的几个中国人都显得比较瘦弱，而几个法国人个个人高马大。想了想，和她讲了自己的一点想法：中国是个好客的民族，只有上了一桌子菜才觉得没怠慢客人。另外中国人有时候更注重形式，所以在中国的烹调里，菜的样式千变万化，具体到每一道菜又非常讲究色香味的搭配。而欧洲人似乎更实际一些，在菜的花色变化上下的工夫显然不如中国，但讲究的是其营养的搭配和保护。这是中、法饮食观念的重要差异，多少也反映出了中法文化性格的不同。 对色彩的认识 每个人都有自己喜欢的颜色，一个国家和民族也一样，对不同颜色的喜好从整体上可以反映出一个民族或者国家的审美情趣与好恶倾向。 有一次碰到欧盟委员会的一对教授夫妇，谈起上海APEC会议上各国领导人穿的中国民族服装，他们都说非常好看，但有一点不太明白，为什么亚洲领导人大多穿红色，而西方领导人则多选择了蓝色。我说颜色都是领导人自己选定的。大概亚洲国家有着相同的文化背景，红色在中国文化里，也可能在整个亚洲文化中都代表着幸运、财富和吉祥如意，所以亚洲领导人都不约而同地选择了红色。我反问他们，蓝色在西方文化里代表什么?他们说西方人认为，蓝色代表冷静和沉着。 想了想，我又补充说东西方文化差异实在是太大了，比如说龙在中国是民族的象征，而在比利时的蒙斯市则有一个打龙节，龙被视作恶魔，被传说中的保护神圣·米歇尔杀掉了，因此特意搞打龙节来庆贺除灾弊感谢米歇尔。教授夫妇也非常认同东西方文化差异的巨大，并认可文化需要交流。 思维方式 中西方的文化差异还表现在诸多方面，但简单加以概括其实并不复杂：反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别，反映到生活态度上则似乎可以理解为西方人更加实用，而中国人则多少更偏重一些精神感受。比如把法语单词和中文文字加以比较，这一点就很明显。中国文字造词多注重形象，而法文里更多地注重考虑的是实用价值。像中文里的名片，法文里直译就是访问用的卡片，而航空母舰在法文里叫载飞机的军舰等等，都是从实际用途出发来造词的。而像压照片用的玻璃板，我们也是从其使用价值角度来造的词，但法国人就更加直观了，直译就是“放在照片上面的”。 反映到绘画上更是如此。大家都知道中国画的大开大阖、泼墨写意和欧洲油画讲究的人体比例和光学原理等完全是属于两个风马牛不相及的技术范畴，似乎很难有共同语言。欧洲人有时不太能够理解我们过于抽象的艺术表现手法，我们有时也会认为欧洲人的艺术技巧过于写实本分，缺乏灵气。看多了欧洲绘画史上被奉为经典的宗教题材画作，中国人有时在感叹其技法写实细腻的同时，也会感慨欧洲大师们想象力的贫乏：为了说明天使在飞，就非得给那些可爱的小精灵们加上一双翅膀。而我们的祖先不也画了几千年了吗，在那些美丽的仙女旁边加上几朵白云，她们不就飞起来了吗?多有意境，多有想象空间啊。 这就是文化的差异。但是，差异带来的并不总是分歧，它恰恰给文化艺术大师们留下了广阔的创作空间，如能从中找到一个准确的结合点，那不仅会给两个民族，而且也会给整个世界带来一种更具包涵意义的和谐与美丽，比如赵无极的画作就体现出了文化交融的无尽魅力。
only found one. hope that works~American table manners[edit] Table Layout * Bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right. * Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.[edit] General Behavior * Chew with your mouth closed. * Do not talk at an excessively loud volume. * Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table. * Never tilt back your chair while at the table, or at any other time. * Do not make unbecoming noises while eating. * Do not play with food or table utensils. * Do not single out or chastise someone who has shown poor table manners. * Do not put your elbows on the table or slouch. * Always ask the host or hostess to be excused before leaving the table. * Do not stare at anyone while he or she is eating. * Never talk on your phone at the table. If urgent, ask host or hostess to be excused, and go outside. Apologize when returned.[edit] Utensils * Do not eat food with your fingers unless you are eating foods customarily eaten with fingers, such as bread, french fries, chicken wings, pizza, etc. * The fork may be used either in the American (use the fork in your left hand while cutting; switch to right hand to pick up and eat a piece) or the Continental (fork remains in the left hand) fashion -- either is now acceptable. (See Fork etiquette) * The fork is used to convey any solid food to the mouth. * The knife blade should be placed on the edge of your plate when not in use. The blade should always face inward. * When you have finished eating soup, the spoon should be placed to the side of the saucer, not left in the bowl. * Keep your napkin on your lap. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to place their napkins on their laps until the host or hostess places his or her napkin on his or her lap * When eating barbecue or some other messy foods such as cracked crab, a 'bib' napkin may be provided for and used by adults. Usually these foods are also eaten by hand, and wet wipes or paper napkins should be used to clean the hands. * When using paper napkins, never ball them up or allow stains to show. * Use your silverware from the outside moving inward toward the main plate. (Salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon. Dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.)[edit] Dining * A prayer or 'blessing' may be customary in some families, and the guests should join in even if they are not religious or do not follow the same religion. Most prayers are made by the host before the meal is eaten. Instead or in addition, a 'toast' may be offered [1]. * Do not start eating until (a) every person is served or (b) those who have not been served request that you begin without waiting. At more formal occasions all diners will wait to begin until the hostess or host lifts a fork or spoon. * When a dish is presented 'family style', the food is served to one's plate and then passed on to the next person. put the food on your left, take some and pass to the person next to you. * When serving, serve from the left and pick up the dish from the right. Beverages are both served and removed from the right. * Eat soup noiselessly and with the side of the spoon. * Tea or coffee should never be poured into the saucer to cool but should be sipped from the cup. Alternatively, ice may be used to cool either. * Seasoning ones meal prior to tasting can be considered rude and may insult the chef.[edit] At the end of the meal * It is acceptable in most places to not finish all of the food on your plate. * When finished with your meal, place your knife and fork with handles at the 4 o'clock position and the tines of the fork down to signal to the server you are done. * Except in a public restaurant, do not ask to take some of your uneaten food away from the meal after it ends, especially when having a formal dinner.[edit] British table manners * The fork is held in your left hand and the knife is held in your right. * You should hold your knife with the handle in your palm and your fork in the other hand with the prongs pointing downwards. * If you’re eating a dessert, your fork (if you have one) should be held in the left hand and the spoon in the right. * When eating soup, you should hold your spoon in your right hand and tip the bowl away from you, scooping the soup in movements away from yourself. * It is not acceptable to use your fingers at the table to eat or push food onto your fork. You may, however, eat some foods such as fruit, sandwiches, hamburgers, crisps, chips or pizza with your fingers. * If there are a number of knives or forks, then you should start from the outside set working your way in as each course is served. * Drinks should always be to the right of your plate with the bread roll to the left. * When eating bread rolls, break off a piece before buttering. Use your knife only to butter the bread, not to cut it. * You should not start eating before your host does or instructs you to do so. At larger meals, it is considered okay to start eating once others have been served. * When you’re finished, place your knife and fork together at five o’clock with your fork on the left (tines facing up) and knife on the right, with the knife blade facing in. This signals that you are finished. * Your napkin should never be screwed up. Nor should it be folded neatly as that would suggest that your host might plan to use it again without washing it - just leave is neatly but loosely. * Never blow your nose on your napkin. Place it on your lap and use it to dab your mouth if you make a mess. * It is considered rude to answer the telephone at the table. If you need to take an urgent call, excuse yourself and go outside. * Always ask for permission from the host and excuse yourself if you need to leave the table. You should place your napkin on your seat until you return. * If you must leave the table or are resting, your fork should be at eight o’clock and your knife at four o’clock (with the blade inwards). Once an item of cutlery has been used, it should not touch the table again. * The food should be brought to your mouth on the fork; you should sit straight and not lean towards your plate. * Dishes should be served from the right, and taken away from the right. Unless the food is placed on your plate at the table, then it should arrive from the left. * Drinks should be served from the right. * Never lean across somebody else’s plate. If you need something to be passed, ask the person closest to it. If you have to pass something, only pass it if you are closest to it and pass it directly to them if you can. * Salt & pepper should be passed together. * Do not take food from a neighbour’s plate and don’t ask to do so. * You must not put your elbows on the table. * If pouring a drink for yourself, offer to pour a drink for your neighbours before serving yourself. * If extra food is on the table, ask others first if they would like it before taking it yourself. * When chewing food, close your mouth and only talk when you have swallowed it. * Swallow all food before eating more or having a drink. * Do not slurp your food or eat loudly. Burping or sneezing at the table should be avoided, too. * Never pick food out of your teeth with your fingernails. * Try to eat all the food you are served. * Glasses served in a wine glass or other stemmed-glass should be held at the stem. * Always remember “regular” manners. Remember to say "please" and "thank you".[edit] Chinese table mannersThese are mostly concerned with the use of chopsticks. Otherwise generally Chinese table manners are rather more informal, what would be considered rude in other cultures such as talking with the mouth full may be acceptable but better not to do so. * Chopsticks must always be held in the correct manner. It should be held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, * Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Although chopsticks may now be found in either hand, a few still consider left-handed chopstick use improper etiquette. One explanation for the treatment of such usage as improper is that this can symbolise argument, as the chopsticks may collide between the left-handed and right-handed user. * When communal chopsticks are supplied with shared plates of food, it is considered impolite to use your own chopsticks to pick up the food from the shared plate or eat using the communal chopsticks. An exception to this rule is made in intimate family dinners where family members may not mind the use of one's own chopsticks to transfer food. * It is considered impolite to use the blunt end of the chopsticks to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl. Use the communal chopsticks instead. * Never wave your chopsticks around as if they were an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like drumsticks, or use them to move bowls or plates. * Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks. Do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients. After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish. * When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. Exceptions include tearing larger items apart such as vegetables. In informal use, small, difficult to pick-up items such as cherry tomatoes or fishballs may be stabbed but this use is frowned upon by traditionalists. * Chopsticks can be rested horizontally on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely. A chopstick rest can also be used to keep the points off the table. * Never stab chopsticks into a bowl of rice, leaving them standing upwards. Any stick-like object facing upward resembles the incense sticks that some Asians use as offerings to deceased family members. This is considered the ultimate faux pas on the dining table. * Chinese traditionally eat rice from a small bowl held in the left hand. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. Some Chinese find it offensive to scoop rice from the bowl using a spoon. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a fork or spoon. The thumb must always be above the edge of the bowl. * It is acceptable to transfer food to people who have a close relation with you (. parents, grandparents, children or significant others) if you notice they are having difficulty picking up the food. Also it is a sign of respect to pass food to the elderly first before the dinner starts (part of the Confucian tradition of respecting seniors). * Traditionally, it is polite for the youngest members of the table to address each and everyone of the elderly members of the table before a meal starts and literally tell them to "eat rice", which means "go ahead and start the meal", to show respect. * The host should always make sure the guests drinks are sufficiently full. One should not pour for ones self, but should (if thirsty) offer to pour for a neighbor. When your drink is being poured, you should say "thank you" and/or tap your fingers on the table to show appreciation. * When people wish to clink drinks together in the form of a cheer, it is important to observe that younger members should clink the edge of their drink below the edge of an elder to show respect. * When eating food that contains bones, it is customary that the bones be spit out onto the table to the right of the dining plate in a neat pile.