工业设计论文外文参考文献

工业设计论文外文参考文献

　　设计源于生活，工业设计也是源于生活的需求，那么你对工业设计的起源由来和发展轨迹感兴趣吗？以下是我为你整理推荐工业设计的起源及发展历史，希望你喜欢。

　　工业设计的起源
　　设计源于生活需要，人类在解决生活需要的那刻起，设计就随之产生了。当人类祖先开始利用最原始的自然材料来制作简单的工具时，设计的思想在他们的大脑中已萌发。虽然开始是无意识的制造必需的工具，如用石头、树杆、骨头、动物皮革、茎蔓等，这些工具的制造和使用，提高了他们的生存能力，获得更多的食物，搭建了自已的住所，以及用这些最原始的工具跟凶猛的野兽进行对抗，使人类得以很好的生存。随着人类智慧不断的提高，技术的进步，冶炼技术的发明，从最早的石器时代，进入了青铜时代和铁器时代，每进入一个阶段都标志着人类进入了一个新的发明设计时代，设计的思想也逐步融入到各个生产使用中，设计并非是凭空想象的。

　　现代意义上的工业设计伴随着18世纪晚期英国工业革命的出现而兴起，蒸汽机的发明，标志着工业革命的到来，带来了生产方式的巨大变革，提高了生产效率和速度。机械化生产逐步代替了手工劳动，改变了人们过去的生活方式和工作方式，社会开始进入工业时代。设计与制造开始分离，随着社会工业化的发展，工业设计随之诞生。现在工业设计起源于欧洲，发展于美国。

　　1919年，德国著名建筑家，设计理论家沃尔特-格罗佩斯在德国魏玛创建世界上第一所完全为发展设计教育而建立的学院--包豪斯(Bauhuas)学院.于1933年4月被德国纳粹政府强行封闭。包豪斯的存在时间虽然短，但对现代设计产生的影响相当深远。从具体 的影响来说，它奠定了现代设计教育的结构基础，目前世界上的设计教育机构，乃至艺术教育院校通行的基础课，就是包豪斯首创的。这个基础课结构，把对平面和立体结构的研究，材料的研究，色彩的研究三方面独立起来，使视觉教育第一次比较牢固地奠立在科学的基础上。包豪斯同时还开始了采用现代材料的、以批量生产为目的的、具有现代主义物征的工业产品设计教育，奠定了现代主义的工业产品设计的基本面貌，对工业产品设计有深刻的影响。
　　工业设计的发展历史介绍
　　工业设计起源于包豪斯(Bauhaus,1919/4/1—1933/7)，德国魏玛市 “公立包豪斯学校”(Staatliches Bauhaus)的简称，后改称“设计学院”(Hochschule für Gestaltung)，习惯上仍沿称“包豪斯”。在两德统一后位于魏玛的设计学院更名为魏玛包豪斯大学

　　(Bauhaus-Universität Weimar)。她的成立标志着现代设计的诞生，对世界现代设计的发展产生了深远的影响，包豪斯也是世界上第一所完全为发展现代设计教育而建立的学院。“包豪斯”一词是格罗披乌斯生造出来的，是德语Bauhaus的译音，由德语Hausbau(房屋建筑)一词倒置而成。

　　第一阶段(1919—1925年)，魏玛时期。格罗皮乌斯(WALTER GROPIUS)任校长，提出“艺术与技术新统一”的崇高理想，肩负起训练20世纪设计家和建筑师的神圣使命。他广招贤能，聘任艺术家与手工匠师授课，形成艺术教育与手工制作相结合的新型教育制度; 第二阶段(1925—1932年)，德绍时期。包豪斯在德国德绍重建，并进行课程改革，实行了设计与制作教学一体化的教学方法，取得了优异成果。1928年格罗皮乌斯辞去包豪斯校长职务，由建筑系主任汉内斯·梅耶(HANNS MEYER)继任。这位共产党人出身的建筑师，将包豪斯的艺术激进扩大到政治激进，从而使包豪斯面临着越来越大的政治压力。最后梅耶本人也不得不于1930年辞职离任，由(L MIES VAN DE ROHE)继任。接任的密斯面对来自纳粹势力的压力，竭尽全力维持着学校的运转，终于在1932年10月纳粹党占据德绍后，被迫关闭包豪斯;

　　第三阶段(1932—1933年)，柏林时期。L·密斯·凡·德·罗将学校迁至柏林的一座废弃的办公楼中，试图重整旗鼓，由于包豪斯精神为德国纳粹所不容，面对刚刚上台的纳粹政府，密斯终于回天无力，于该年8月宣布包豪斯永久关闭。1933年11月包豪斯被封闭，不得不结束其14年的发展历程。

　　包豪斯由魏玛艺术学校和工艺学校合并而成，其目的是培养新型设计人才。虽然包豪斯名为建筑学校，但直到1927年之前并无建筑专业，只有纺织、陶瓷、金工、玻璃、雕塑、印刷等科目，因此，包豪斯主要是一所设计学校。在设计理论上，包豪斯提出了三个基本观点：①艺术与技术的新统一：②设计的目的是人而不是产品：③设计必须遵循自然与客观的法则来进行。这些观点对于工业设计的发展起到了积极的作用，使现代设计逐步由理想主义走向现实主义，即用理性的、科学的思想来代替艺术上的自我表现和浪漫主义。
　　国内工业设计的发展现状
　　由于历史的原因，在我国比较系统地引进工业设计的理念、方法30多年中，前20多年发展缓慢。随着科学发展观的贯彻落实，转变发展方式的需求，十年工业设计发展的步伐大大加快。胡锦涛同志、吴邦国委员长、温家宝总理等国家领导人次有相关重要指示和批示;国家“十一五”、“十二五”规划及政府工作报告都列入了要发展工业设计;2010年，工信部等11个部委联合发布了专门文件《关于促进工业设计发展的若干指导意见》;2011年底，国务院发出的《工业转型升级》五年规划，以及2012年初国务院办公厅发出的《关于加快发展高技术服务业的指导意见》这两份重要文件，都具体强调了要发展工业设计。北京、上海、广东、浙江、江苏、深圳等20多个省、市和地级市都制定了促进工业设计发展的政策措施。在“大环境”大大改善的情况下，一些原来领先的企业继续领跑，一批新兴后上企业急步向前，涌现了一批领军人物和优秀产品，许多产品不但获得国内“红星奖”，还获得国际上知名的奖项。

　　以深圳为例。《中国工业设计行业发展模式与前景预测分析报告》[1]数据显示，2011年深圳各类工业设计机构近5000家，在职专业工业设计师及从业人员超过6万人。2010年度工业设计产值近20亿，2011年工业设计产值增长也在25%以上，而通过工业设计带来的产业附加值超过千亿。同时，深圳已经形成具有集聚效应的创意设计产业园区45个，广东省工业设计示范基地和企业共6家。2011年，上善工业设计有限公司设计的一款专门适于老人、小孩等人群开启的小瓶盖，一举摘得2011年德国红点奖。

　　我国设计产业在取得长足发展，北京、长三角、珠三角地区设计产业呈现欣欣向荣局面的同时，总体水平上还与成熟的发达地区有较大的差距。但我国工业设计产业仍具有较大的发展潜力，问题就在于如何正确合理地引导，这就需要借鉴国外先进国家发展的经验，找出适合我国发展的模式，实现我国工业设计产业的腾飞。

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2. 工业设计论文参考文献

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高分求工业设计英语文献

第17 卷第4 期 皮 革 科 学 与 工 程 Vol117 ,No14
2007 年8 月L EATHER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Aug1 2007
Artical ID :1004 - 7964 (2007) 04 - 0003 - 06
Received Date :2007205221
3 P. Mokrejs :Corresponding author. Phone N°: + 420 57 603 1230 ;Fax N°: + 420 57 603 1563 ;e2mail :mokrejs @f t . utb. c2
Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors
P. Mok rejs1 3
, D. J anacova2 ,M. Mladek1 , K. Kolomaz nik2 , F. L angmaier1 ,V . V asek2
(1. Tomas B ata University , Faculty of Technology , Department of Protein and Leather , nam.
TGM 275 , 762 72 Zlin, The Czech Republic ;2. Tomas B ata University , Faculty of
A p plied Inf ormatics , Institute of Processing Cont rol and A p plied Computer Science ,
N ad S t ranemi 4511 , 760 05 Zlin, The Czech Republic)
Abstract :Tannery belongs to typical indust rial branches which during t he technological process
p roduce considerable quantities of liquid and solid wastes cont ributing to polluting t he environ2
ment . The presented work describes dechromation of waste tanning liquor utilising chrome sludge
p roduced t hrough enzymatic hydrolysis of chrome2tanned leat her wastes. The principle of dechro2
mation consist s in sorption of chrome f rom waste liquor af ter tanning to chrome sludge. Recy2
cling technology is characterised by an almost 99 % efficiency , simplicity and low investment re2
quirement s.
Key words :solid waste ;liquid waste ;chrome sludge ;waste tanning liquor ;chrome recovery
CLC number :X 794 Document code :A
鞣制废液的循环技术
摘 要:制革属于典型的工业分支,制革工业中会产生大量的污染环境的废液和废固。该论文利用铬鞣革废物的
酶法水解用铬污泥除去鞣制废液中的铬。除去铬的原理是鞣后的铬污泥从废液中吸收铬。该循环技术回收率可
达99 % ,操作简单、成本低廉。
关键词:固体废弃物;液体废弃物;铬污泥;鞣制废液;铬回收
1 INTRODUCTION
The tanning indust ry p rocesses wastes of the
meat indust ry , raw hides , and t ransforms t hem
t hrough chemical , chemico2p hysical and mechani2
cal processes into leather s. During t he technologi2
cal process , solid and liquid wastes arise which ,
particularly as a consequence of t he cont rover sial
chrome t hey contain , burden the environment .
Processing one met ric ton of raw hide produces ap2
prox. 200 kg finished leat her . About 30 , 000 kg
wastewaters arise through processing and more
t han 70 % chrome passes into liquid and solid
wastes [1 ] .
In classic tanning , approx. 40 % chrome (t he
starting charge of 15 - 17 kg Cr / t ) remains in
leat her , 26 % - 30 % chrome passes into solid
wastes and 30 % - 34 % chrome remains in liquid
wastes. In t he tanning of hides using technological
procedures ensuring high removal of chrome com2
pounds by white hide , 54 % - 57 % chrome remains
© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.
in leat her , 31 % - 38 % chrome passes into solid
wastes and 5 % - 15 % remains in liquid wastes [2 ] .
For modifying t he tanning process , organic acids ,
e. g. are used , which cont ribute to improving the
removal of chrome ions.
1. 1 Liquid waste
Manufacture of chrome2tanned leat hers pro2
duces 115 - 2 times quantities of wastewater s t han
manufact ure of vegetable2tanned leat her s [3 ] . Los2
ses of chrome compounds in waste tanning liquor s
may be prevented in several ways. The simplest
approach is the direct recycling method consisting
in re2using exhausted liquor in t he tanning process.
The main shortcoming of t his method is a negative
effect of salt s and other contaminating substances
on quality of finished leather . Af ter being recycled
several times , wastewater has to be discharged into
sewage [4 ] . Anot her potential met hod is indirect
recycling , in which chrome is obtained f rom ex2
hausted sludge t hrough precipitation using a suit2
able alkaline agent , e. g. sodium hydroxide , sodi2
um carbonate , sodium hydrogen carbonate , mag2
nesium oxide , calcium sulp hate , calcium hydroxide
[5 ] . A f urt her met hod consist s in employing elabo2
rate techniques , e. g. elect ro2dialysis , membrane
separation , ion exchangers , wit h which chrome
may be separated f rom ot her salt s contained in ex2
hausted sludge. Chrome thus obtained is character2
ised by much higher p urity than that obtained
t hrough indirect recycling. Disadvantages are a
high cost and limited po ssibilities of applying t hese
demanding technologies in tanning factories [ 4 ] .
Unutilised chrome in liquid wastes , apart
f rom significant economic losses for tanneries , al so
poses great hazard for t he environment and for
man. The most stable and most important oxida2
tion state is Cr ( III) . Compounds of Cr (VI) occur
in t he form of chromates and dichromates and ex2
hibit quite st rong oxidative properties [6 ] .
Chrome is found in liquid tanning wastes in it s
t rivalent form , there exist s , however , potential
danger of it s oxidising to hexavalent compounds ,
particularly when t reating groundwater s to drink2
ing waters. Hexavalent compounds , when com2
bined wit h calcium or magnesium ions , are st rong2
ly carcinogenic[7 , 8 ] .
An extensive research exploring negative
effect s of tanning wastewaters f rom local tanneries
on t he adjacent ecosystem was conducted in Indi2
a[9 ] . Highest level s of chrome contained in soil
were found in t he vicinity of tanneries , at approx.
60 g/ kg. Highest chrome accumulation was ob2
served in cauliflower stalks (72 mg/ kg) in locali2
ties near tanneries. In st udies investigating Cr ac2
cumulation in fish organs it was found t hat most
chrome accumulates in t he liver (approx. 22 mg/
kg) and least in muscles (approx. 1 mg/ kg) . The
po ssible t ransfer of hazardous Cr doses into t he
food chain and consequently to human beings is
t hus quite obvious.
112 Sol id waste
Tannery processing al so produces a considera2
ble quantity of solid chrome2tanned wastes which
present a significant problem due to t heir chrome
content . The problem of solid wastes has been
solved so far by land filling which , of course , be2
side ever increasing land filling co st s al so brings
t he danger of chrome escaping into t he ecosystem.
Due to t heir containing a sizeable proportion of
protein material , solid tanned wastes started to be
processed. Enzymatic hydrolysis has being em2
ployed to considerable extent in latest year s , wit h
it s particular advantages being mild reaction condi2
tions and economic cost2effectiveness [10 , 11 ] . The
main product of enzymatic hydrolysis is collagen
hydrolysate , whose application possibilities are
broad , e. g. as feed additive , nit rogenous fertili2
ser , raw material for preparing adhesives , corro2
sion inhibitor s , etc. The remaining waste product
af ter enzymatic hydrolysis (chrome sludge) has not
yet found lucrative application. It s employment ,
due to chrome content , has not been much adopted
for preparing combined tanning bat hs.
Subject of the presented work is potential use
4 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷
© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.
of t he waste product af ter enzymatic hydrolysis of
chrome2tanned solid wastes (chrome sludge) for i2
solating chrome compounds f rom waste tanning
liquor s.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Solid was determined according to ISO 4684
[12 ] , ash according to ISO 4047 : 1998[13 ] , nit rogen
according to ISO 5397 : 1984 [14 ] , Cr2 O3 according
to ISO 5398 [ 15 ] , Cr according to ISO 9174 : 1998
[16 ] and Mg according to ASTM D511203 [ 17 ] .
Chrome sludge is a waste product of enzymatic
hydrolysis of chrome2tanned solid waste and it s
composition is given in Tab. 1. Typical composi2
tion of chrome2tanned solid waste is given in Tab.
2.
Tab11 Composition of chrome sludge1)
表1 铬污泥成份
Parameter Value
TS/ % 1614
Ash/ % 3410
N / % 114
Cr2O3 / % 1215
MgO / % 1115
1) based on total solids
Tab12 Composition of chrome2tanned solid waste1)
表2 铬鞣革固体废弃物成份
Parameter Value
TS/ % 6911
Ash/ % 1019
N/ % 2011
Cr2O3 / % 415
1) based on total solids
Tab13 Composition of waste tanning liquor
表3 鞣制废液成份
Parameter Value
TS/ % 718
Ash/ %1) 8713
N/ %1) 018
Cr/ (mg/ kg) 1 ,769
Mg/ (mg/ kg) 693
p H 412
colour blue2green
1) based on total solids
Waste tanning liquor was obtained f rom tan2
ning of cowhides and it s composition is presented
in Tab. 3.
The experimental part was divided into two
part s. The fir st part contained five selected mass
ratio s of chrome sludge ∶ waste liquor and three
various dechromation times , see Table 4. Practical
dechromation was performed under laboratory con2
ditions by stirring chrome sludge with waste tan2
ning liquor at room temperat ure in accordance wit h
t he scheme shown in Fig. 1. Af ter dechromation ,
t he heterogeneous mixt ure was cent rif uged. A part
of supernatant was analysed for Cr content . The
investigated object in view was quantity of residual
chrome in waste tanning liquor af ter dechromation.
The second part of test s followed up result s of
waste liquor dechromation efficiency in t he first ex2
perimental part . The mass ratio of chrome sludge
∶waste liquor producing greatest dechromation ef2
ficiency was selected and a series of test s per2
formed to t he p urpo se of st udying dechromation re2
action kinetics.
Fig1 1 Scheme of dechromation of waste tanning liquor
图1 鞣制废液的脱铬流程
3 RESULTS
Test s and dechromation result s at various
mass ratios of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor and va2
rious dechromation times are shown in Tab14.
Tab15 t hen shows dechromation result s at mass ra2
tio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and va2
rious dechromation times. Each test was performed
t hreefold and arit hmetic mean calculated , standard
deviation ranged wit hin ±5 %.
第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 5
© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.
Tab14 Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor at mass ratios of Cr sludge/ waste liq. and dechromation times
表4 铬污泥与废液不同质量比以及不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果
Test
No.
Batch( g)
sludge :liquor
t
/ min
In2process
pH
Cr liq. /
( mg/ kg)
Eff iciency
/ %
1 7114 ∶50 30 6134 -
2 90 190 8912
3
4 20183 ∶50 30 6195 -
5 90 58 9617
6 180 33 9811
7 35171 ∶50 30 7121 - 7168 53 9710
8 90 33 9811
9 180 36 9810
10 50 ∶50 30 7130 - 7190 24 9817
11 90 23 9817
12 180 17 9910
13 70 ∶50 30 7148 - 8102 41 9717
14 90 32 9812
15 180 79 9516
1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor = 1769 mg/ kg
Tab1 5 Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor and
times1)
表5 铬污泥与废液质量比为1 ∶1 不同脱铬时间条件下鞣
制废液的脱铬结果
Test
No.
t
/ min
In process
pH
Cr liq.
/ ( mg/ kg)
Eff iciency
/ %
1 4 7120 -
2 8 7127 -
3 12 7151 -
4 16 7176 -
5 20 7180 -
6 24 7181 -
7 28 7181 -
8 32 7182 - 7199 43 9716
9 36 7188 - 8103 32 9812
10 40 7190 - 8104 19 9819
11 60 7186 - 8106 28 9814
12 80 7187 - 8107 22 9818
13 100 7180 - 8111 35 9810
1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor =
1769 mg/ kg ;mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1
∶1
Figure 2 shows column plot s representing re2
sidual chrome content in waste tanning liquor af ter
t he dechromation procedure at various chrome
sludge ∶waste liquor ratios and various dechroma2
tion times. With a mass ratio of 1 ∶7 af ter 30 min
dechromation , a drop of chrome in liquor exceeding
50 % was found , af ter 180 min the dechromation
efficiency was greatest . Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶214 ,
t he tendency of chrome content in liquor to de2
crease wit h time was at it s greatest , residual
chrome content in liquor coming down to 3314 ppm
which represent s dechromation efficiency exceeding
98 %. Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶114 t he tendency of
chrome decrease is similar , when t he greatest drop
of chrome content in liquor was already recorded
af ter 90 min of dechromation ( to 3312 mg/ kg) .
Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶1 , lowest level s of residual
chrome in liquor were already at tained in 30 min of
dechromation app rox. 24 mg/ kg , representing al2
most 99 % dechromation efficiency. A f urt her in2
crease in dechromation times produced but negli2
gibly decreased chrome content in liquor . Wit h a
ratio of 114 ∶1 , t he greatest drop of chrome con2
tent in liquor was recorded af ter 90 min dechroma2
tion. Fig13 shows dechromation kinetics of waste
tanning liquor at mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶
waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and various dechromation
times. From result s it is obvious t hat af ter 40 min
6 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷
© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.
dechromation chrome content in waste tanning liq2
uor decreased to approx. 20 mg/ kg , which com2
pared wit h starting content of chrome in waste tan2
ning liquor ( 1769 mg/ kg) signifies almost 99 %
chrome removal efficiency. Further increases in
dechromation time did not show in markedly in2
creased chrome removal efficiency , and values of
residual chrome content in slurry fluct uated be2
tween 20 and 35 mg/ kg.
4 DISCUSSION
During past decades , a t ransfer occurred of a
notable part of tanning plant s f rom economically
advanced west European count ries to developing
count ries and to count ries of t he Asian continent .
In latest year s , however , t he environmental load
produced by t hese plant s became unsustainable and
intensive negotiations on resolving t he mat ter got
under way. When rest ructuring existing and con2
st ructing new tanning plant s , issues coming partic2
ularly under consideration are solid and liquid
wastes containing chrome. Contamination of
groundwater s wit h liquid wastes containing chrome
is obvious. Release of chrome f rom solid wastes
第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 7
© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.
can proceed particularly t hrough elution by rain
with great hazard of groundwater contamination.
The danger of Cr ( III) oxidising to Cr (VI) was al2
ready mentioned in t he fir st part of this cont ribu2
tion.
Test result s showed t he solid waste product ,
chrome sludge , may be successf ully employed to i2
solate chrome f rom waste tanning liquors , and t hat
with an efficiency of app rox. 99 %. The advanta2
ges of recycling technology may primarily comprise
simplicity and low demand for investment cost s ,
which make it ideally applicable when recycling
waste tanning liquor s especially in tanning plant s
in t he developing world.
Utilisation of chrome2enriched sludge remains
an open issue. A feasible alternative is it s combus2
tion and separation of chrome , which may be used ,
e. g. in pigment manufacture. A particular compli2
cation is presented by accompanying magnesium ,
which is undesirable for t hese applications. Isola2
ting magnesium f rom chrome sludge will be subject
of a following research. Employment of chrome2
enriched sludge for p reparing f resh tanning baths
al so remains an open issue.
5 CONCLUSION
Recycling technology developed for removing
chrome f rom waste tanning liquors wit h application
of waste chrome sludge achieves almost 99 % effi2
ciency. Dechromed waste liquor represent s a mini2
mal load on t he environment . Chrome2enriched
sludge , following isolation of ot her accompanying
element s (especially magnesium and calcium) com2
plicating it s f urther processing , could serve to pre2
pare pigment s. Result s of experimental measure2
ment s and an elaborated mat hematical model of re2
cycling technology will serve to propose an algo2
rit hm of enclosed dechromation cycle cont rol which
will be t he subject of pilot2plant test s.
Acknowledgements : The aut hors would like to
t hank to The Minist ry of Education of The Czech
Rep ublic for financial support to t his work execu2
ted under MSM Grant No : 7088352102.
References :
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8 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷
© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.

急！！！参考文献中[s.n ]是什么意思

International Conference on Computer-Aided Industrial Design and Conceptual Design thesis Compilation 中文：应用计算机辅助工业设计研讨会论文和概念设计的编辑：华盛顿:[s.n]。到2009年

[s.n.]. 出版者

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