19世纪中期,英国有以男性普选权为主要诉求的宪章运动,提倡无论男性的种族、阶级都有参政选举的权利。19世纪的民主运动自由主义者和社会民主主义者,尤其在北欧,使用了口号“均等共有选举权”。普选权运动包括社会、经济和政治运动,目标在于把选举权扩展到所有种族。但对于女性的女性普选权或投票权、选举权等等则要在19世纪末和20世纪初才被重视。而最早的普选权运动发生在19世纪早期,聚焦于减除选举所要求的财产条件。许多社会原先都对投票权有种族要求。比如,非白种人不能在种族隔离制度的南非投票,这种情况在1994年多党选举后才结束。在民权运动之前,美国南方黑人只是在理论上有投票权,但有很多手段使他们无法实现普选权。3K党在美国内战之后成立,很大程度是要求胁迫阻止黑人投票。有一些普选系统其实还是排除一些人的选举权。比如,拒绝承认犯人投票权和精神上有疾病的人。几乎所有司法系统都拒绝非公民居住者和未成年公民的投票权。由全民普选历史看来,虽然不同地方的制度或多或少有制度上的问题,人为的黑幕和贪污,但全民普选仍然是最尊重最多数人的,比较公平的方法,文明的象征,也是全球各国的发展趋势。
美国公民选举总统,首先选出该州的选举人。然后通过选举人投票决定总统。
18世纪英国在美洲殖民地的社会矛盾表现为广大殖民地人民与英国政府的矛盾。英国的殖民地政策严重地阻碍当地经济的发展,他们对殖民地人民采取的高压政策,又进一步激化了矛盾。1765年英国通过“印花税法”,向殖民地征收税款以供军事需用,引起殖民地人民的强烈反对,他们高呼“向无代表权者征税就是暴君”的口号,表示抗议。1775年4月19日列克星敦人民首先起义,打响了北美独立战争的第一枪。同年5月,北美十三州的代表召开第二届大陆会议,组成了统一的武装,由华盛顿任总司令。1776年7月4日,大陆会议通过了《独立宣言》,正式宣布脱离英国而独立。经过长期的战斗,北美人民终于在1781年赢得胜利,1783年英国正式承认美国独立。
美国的独立战争作为资产阶级革命是不彻底的,土地问题、奴隶问题都没有解决,资产阶级和地主阶级独占了胜利果实。这样,国内的矛盾又上升为主要矛盾,许多州爆发了人民起义;农奴制的存在,导致了后来1861年悲惨的南北战争;潘恩、杰斐逊、汉密尔顿都是这次斗争的思想家。
托马斯·潘恩(ThormasPaine,1737~1809年)是美国独立战争时期的启蒙思想家。他出身于英国诺福克郡一个基督教教友会的家庭,当过裁缝、教师、税务官。1774年移居美国,不久就投入独立运动。1787年他返回欧洲,参加了法国大革命。他的主要著作有《常识》(1776年)、《林中居民的信札》(1776年)、《人权论》(1791~1792)等。他核心的政治思想是主张北美殖民地脱离英国而独立,其思想基础是启蒙思想的天赋人权和社会契约论。在社会思想史上,他是最早把社会和国家区分开的思想家之一。他认为这两者具有不同的起源,社会是由我们的欲望所产生的,而政府是由我们的邪恶所产生的。前者使人们一体同心,积极增进幸福,它鼓励交往,是一个奖励者;后者制止人们的恶行,消极地增进幸福,它制造差别,是一个惩罚者。他将批判的矛头指向英国的君主制,认为君主制是我们自身堕落和失势造成的,世袭制是对我们子子孙孙的侮辱和欺。他提出以革命推翻君主专制是人民的天赋权利,他的政治理想是代议制的共和政府。他认为把代议制和共和制结合起来,就可以获得一种能够容纳和联合一切不同利益和不同大小的领土及不同数量人口的政府体制。在他看来,天赋人权是公民权利的基础。人在进入社会后保留了一部分天赋人权,而另一部分天赋人权则转变成公民权利,公民权利只有个人作为社会的一分子与社会携手合作才能实现。
托马斯·杰斐逊(ThomasJefferson,1743~1826年)是美国独立战争时期的政治家和思想家。他出身于一个种植园主的家庭,1769年当选为弗吉尼亚州的议员。1774年他被指定为起草《独立宣言》的委员,负责起草宣言。他认为所有人都是平等的,生命、自由和追求幸福的权利是上帝赋予人们的不可让渡的权利,人们是为了保障这些权利才通过契约成立政府的。人们在成立政府时并没有放弃这些权利,政府是由于被统治者的同意才取得正当权力的。
《独立宣言》宣称:“我们认为这些真理是不言而喻的:人人生而平等……其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。为了保障这些权利,所以才在人们中间成立政府。而政府的正当权力系得自被统治者的同意。如果遇有任何一种形式的政府变成损害这些目的的,那么,人民就有权利来改变它或废除它,以建立新的政府。”这一宣言在欧洲文化界引起了希望和期盼。宣言体现了启蒙运动思想家关于人的自然权利和自然法学说的思想,使人们对北美人民刮目相看。在人们的眼中,北美不再是善良的野蛮人和勇敢的殖民者居住的地方,而是一个善于从专制政府手中赢得独立,并建设起一个文明社会的国家;不仅是对伦敦政府的“造反”,而且是一个新的“公民社会”在大西洋彼岸诞生。
由于北美人没有那么多的封建包袱,他们有条件建立起一个更加合理的民主政治制度。杰斐逊就主张建立一个代议制的民主共和国,他既坚持了卢梭的民主原则,又吸收了洛克的代议制思想,从而在新大陆上发明了一种民主式的联邦共和制的制度,推进了西方的民主理论和实践。
杰斐逊十分强调民主自治的思想,强调要防止个人独裁的暴政的出现。为了防止暴政的出现,必须把人民自治作为代议制的基础和保证。人民的自治又要以个人的自治为基础。个人自治的首要原则是个人自由,即个人凭借其单独意志自我决定、自我管理。他尤其强调思想自由。在他看来,人如果没有表达思想的自由,就有如一架肉做的机器,只能靠外力来推动。为了做到个人自治,必须限制政府中行政和司法的权力,尤其要限制总统的权力。他认为联邦政府的权力不宜过分集中,应把国家权力尽量分散到各级政府。他认为人民是最可靠的。他把普选权看成是人民参政的基本前提,把人民监督看成是参政行使权力的重要手段;他所说的监督是指人民的检查权和罢免权。他还认为民主的多数原则并不意味着可以侵害少数人的权利,少数人的权利同样应得到法律的保护。当然,他作为一位资产阶级的民主主义者,主要是在为资产阶级争人权、争民主,但同时他接近和同情人民,主张废除农奴制,反对过大的财产的不平等。他被美国人民视为与华盛顿、林肯齐名的伟大人物,不是没有道理的。
亚历山大·汉密尔顿(AlexanderHamilton,1757~1804年)是美国建国初期的政治活动家和政治思想家,又是美国1787年宪法的主要起草者,被人誉为“宪法之父”。他主张建立君主立宪制的国家,但是当他的意见没有被采纳时,转而拥护多数代表的意见。他接受了霍布斯关于人是自私的、自然状态是一切人反对一切人的战争的思想,主张成立一个强大的中央集权政府,用铁的手段来管束群众、限制民主,以保证国家的秩序和利益,然而他又同意洛克和孟德斯鸠分权的原则,主张在三权分立的基础上互相混合、互相牵制。他尤其赞成用由富人和出自名门的人组成的参议院来箝制由人们直接选出的众议院。他还主张司法独立,从而使最高法院和议会互相牵制。这些思想确立了美国的政治体制,也就是用参议院箝制众议院,用行政、司法权力来牵制立法权力,同时又以弹劾权来约束行政权力,从而达到权力的平衡,保证国家的统一和稳定。
美国的独立战争虽然略早于法国大革命,然而两者是互相影响的,这两个革命的思想基础共同构成了西方政治文化的真正的民主和人权的传统。
美国的选举充满了虚伪,俩党候选人背后站着同一批大老板,没有利益集团的支持不可能选举成功,所有美国总统和议员都是利益集团的代言人,这就是美国总统下台后都是企业高管的原因。
今日美国(USA Today) 华尔街日报(The Wall Street Journal) 纽约时报(The New York Times) 洛杉矶时报(Los Angeles Times) 金字塔报(Al-Ahram) 纽约每日新闻报(New York Daily News) 华盛顿邮报(The Washington Post) 纽约邮报(New York Post) 芝加哥论坛报(Chicago Tribune) 基督科学教箴言报 圣何塞信使报
世界10大著名学术期刊:自然Nature、新英格兰医学期刊Nejm、科学Science、柳叶刀TheLancet、美国科学院院报Pnas、细胞Cell、化学评论ChemicalReviews、自然通讯NatureCommunications、先进材料AdvancedMaterials、化学学会评论Chemsocrev
1、自然Nature
《自然》杂志是世界上历史悠久的、最有名望的、科学界普遍关注的、国际性及跨学科的周刊类科学杂志,首版于1869年11月4日。
与当今大多数科学杂志专注于一个特殊的领域不同,《自然》是少数依然发表来自很多科学领域的一手研究论文的杂志,许多最重要、最前沿的研究结果都是以短讯的形式发表在《自然》上。2018年12月,世界品牌实验室发布“2018世界品牌500强”,《自然》排名第439。
2、新英格兰医学期刊Nejm
新英格兰医学期刊(TheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine),由美国麻州医学协会1811年创办的评审性质医学期刊和综合性医学期刊,始称《新英格兰医学与外科期刊》,经常被列为世界学术期刊医学领域中拥有最高影响因子之刊物。
期刊内容包含有:主题性之社论,原创性的论文,旁征博引性的评论性文章,即时短篇论文,案例报告,亦有一独特的报道项目称之为《临床医学影像》。
3、科学Science
《科学》(英语:Science)是美国科学促进会出版的一份学术期刊。《科学》是发表最好的原始研究论文、以及综述和分析当前研究和科学政策的同行评议的期刊之一。
该杂志于1880年由爱迪生投资1万美元创办,于1894年成为美国最大的科学团体“美国科学促进会”的官方刊物。《科学》的科学新闻报道、综述、分析、书评等部分,都是权威的科普资料。2018年12月,世界品牌实验室发布《2018世界品牌500强》榜单,科学排名第383。
4、柳叶刀TheLancet
《柳叶刀》是1823年爱思唯尔(Elsevier)出版公司出版的杂志,1823年由汤姆·魏克莱所创刊,取名“柳叶刀”,寓意著期刊立志成为“照亮医界的明窗”。该杂志从诞生至今,未曾加入任何一个医学或科学组织,目前在整个医学界仍保持着其独立性和权威性。《柳叶刀》目前主要刊登原创性研究文章、评论文章、社论、书评、短篇研究文章,也有其它一些在刊内常登载的文章,如特刊消息、案例报道等。
5、美国科学院院报Pnas
《美国科学院院报》全称ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,简称PNAS,和《自然》《科学》齐名,是一种权威综合性科技期刊,自1914年创刊至今,《美国科学院院报》仍提供高水平的前沿研究报告、学术评论、学科回顾及前瞻、学术论文和美国国家科学学会学术动态的报道和出版,是被引用次数最多的综合学科文献/周刊之一。
美国最权威的报纸有:
1、华尔街日报(The Wall Street Journal)
华尔街日报(The Wall Street Journal)创刊于1889年,以超过200万份的发行量成为美国付费发行量最大的财经报纸。这份在美国纽约出版的报纸,着重在财经新闻的报道,其内容足以影响每日的国际经济活动。《华尔街日报》的读者主要为政治、经济、教育和医学界的人士,金融大亨和经营管理人员以及股票市场的投资者,其中包括20万名的董事长、总经理。美国500家最大企业的经理人员绝大部分订阅此报。
2、纽约时报(The New York Times)
《纽约时报》(The New York Times)有时简称为“时报”(The Times)是一份在美国纽约出版的日报,在全世界发行,有相当高的影响力,美国高级报纸、严肃刊物的代表,长期以来拥有良好的公信力和权威性。由于风格古典严肃,它有时也被戏称为“灰色女士”(The Gray Lady)。它最初的名字是《纽约每日时报》(The New-York Daily Times),创始人是亨利·贾维斯·雷蒙德和乔治·琼斯。
3、洛杉矶时报(Los Angeles Times)
《洛杉矶时报》(Los Angeles Times)是美国西部最大的对开日报,其影响与地位仅次于《纽约时报》和《华盛顿邮报》,被称为美国的第三大报。
《洛杉矶时报》于1881年12月4日在洛杉矶创刊,属“时报-镜报公司”,财政上受控于美洲银行财团,与摩根财团也有关系。该报平日出100多版,星期日常在200版以上,发行量经常保持在100至150万份,成为美国仅有的几家销路在百万份以上的大报之一,而其广告登载量为全美报纸之冠。
4、华盛顿邮报(The Washington Post)
《华盛顿邮报》(英语:The Washington Post)是美国华盛顿最大、最老的报纸。1970年代初通过揭露水门事件和迫使理查德·尼克松总统退职,《华盛顿邮报》获得了国际威望。位于美国首都,尤其擅长于报道美国国内政治动态。
2016年4月18日,《华盛顿邮报》团队获2016年普利策奖国内报道奖。2016年进入美国发行量前10名。美国当地时间2018年4月16日,荣获2018年度普利策奖调查性报道奖。2018年12月,世界品牌实验室发布《2018世界品牌500强》榜单,华盛顿邮报排名第490。
5、 纽约每日新闻报(New York Daily News)
纽约每日新闻报是美国最大的大众化报纸,发行量居美国日报前列。它创办于1919年,当年热衷于黄色新闻,在20年代的美国刮起了一场"小报旋风"。1929年经济危机以后遭到舆论抵制,这方面有所收敛,但仍然倾力于报道地方新闻、社会新闻和种种软新闻。即使是重大国际新闻,也要从"人情味"上做文章。网站配合报刊,免费阅览,还可以免费搜索1997年至今印刷报纸刊载的全部材料。
参考资料来源:百度百科-华尔街日报
The importance of family education Family education on the issue since ancient times by people's concern, but as a subject to study in China in recent years is also the matter. This is the development of the times, the demand, the National necessary to improve the overall quality of the issues involved. Here with the parents of the importance of family education, the aim is to the family and society, the education sector to shoulder the common task of educating the next generation. The education is a system of education works here include a family education, social education, collective (Tuoyouyuansuo, school) education, the three interrelated and organic combination of mutual influence, interaction and mutual constraints The education project from which one can, but in this project, family education is the foundation of all education. The former Soviet Union educators famous Su Huomu Belinsky transferred to a child than marble, he said, to shape this into a marble statue of need six sculptor: 1 family, 2 schools, 3 children of the collective; 4 child; books; 6 occasional factor. From the order, the family was included in the first place, can see the family in shaping children in the course of a very important role in the hearts of the educators occupy a position. For this reason parents understand the importance of family education is very necessary. First, family education is the starting point for education and basic point Family education generally refers to the family of parents and adult children of minors education process. Their educational objectives should be: the child into the community to accept collective education (kindergarten, school education) prior to guarantee the physical and mental health development of children, to accept the kindergartens, schools of education to lay a solid foundation. The child for admission into the school, with kindergartens, schools to moral, intellectual, physical, the United States, the various aspects of comprehensive development. Education is the focus of moral education mainly among children good moral quality and develop good habits mainly habits include: living habits, labor practices, learning habits, the church children how to learn "life." As a result of family education in the family, and kindergartens, schools of education, social education, compared with the following characteristics of these features so that family education to become the starting point for education and basic point is by no other educational advantages. (A) family of early education The family is the cradle of life of children, who are receiving education after the birth of a venue that is the first class life; parents are children's first teachers, that is, the Enlightenment division. Therefore, parents of children by the application of early education the most. Generally speaking, after the birth of a child after three years of development, access to early childhood, from the 3-year-old…… 6-year-old is preschool, which is said in the early stages of education, this is the physical and mental development of an important period. China's Gu Yan: "Cang, with the Cang, with the yellow, yellow." Childhood is gradually nurture life with the beginning of many basic human capacity is a stage of this age, such as language, and some basic moves Living habits, and so on, the character is gradually taking shape. . psychologists Bloom, a person's intellectual development if his 17-year-old regarded as the level reached 100 percent, then 4 years old when it reached 50 percent. 4-8 years old and a 30% increase ,8-17-year-old also won 20 percent. This shows that children in the 5-year-old former intelligence is the fastest growing period, the early intellectual development is the best, if parents in this period by the implementation of good family education, early child will be the key to intellectual development. Since ancient times, many people with lofty ideals, celebrities in the early years of fruitful period by a good family education is their future become an important cause. For example, the German poet, playwright Goethe's become, effective early education in the family. Goethe 2-3 years old, his father hold on to the outskirts of the field visit to observe nature, culture Goethe's observation capability. 3-4 years old, his father taught him to sing, the songs back, said a fairy tale, and we intend to let him in the face of public lectures, training his speaking ability. These are awareness education so that young Goethe optimistic, progressive, happy to think, be good at learning. Goethe-8-year-old can use, Germany, Britain, Italy, Latin, Greek reading books, 14-year-old wrote the script, the 25-year-old with a month's time wrote a famous poem in Europe, "The Sorrows of Young Werther . " Another example of ancient "and his son calligrapher," Wang Xizhi's known for, Wang Xianzhi, there have been a number of 1350 Edison invented the great inventors, the generation of literary star Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and other celebrities of the growth process that the family education in the early intellectual development is very important . Instead, the period of childhood are not good family education and intellectual impact on the normal development of many of the examples is. Such as India, "Langhai" Ka Mala, who was Diao to the wolf, when 8-year-old was found, but their living habits with the same people, their living habits and almost like a wolf, limbs, crawling, eating raw meat, day V Night, Later, a man-made training, two years before standing, after six years can be like walking Xiangren, four years learned to six words, in his 17-year-old, the intellectual level reached only 3-year-old child's level. According to "China Women" revealed that China's Nanjing City Xingma one of the workers suffering from mental and psychological diseases, Shenpa children persecuted by the people, will own three children from small lock at home, people so that they contacts with the outside world, has a long Up to 10 years, resulting in the children mental retardation, speech delay, compared with their peers, intellectual capacity and very different life, near idiots, so the family can not be neglected the role of early education, (B) family education continuity of family education second characteristic is the continuity. After the birth of a child, from small to large, almost 2 / 3 of time living in the family, Zhaochaomumu, all the parents in the education. Such education is the intentional and unintentional, planned and unplanned, consciously and unconsciously, are carried out, no matter what, in what time education, parents are in their own words and deeds at any time affect their children's education . Such education of children living habits, moral conduct and behaviour and so on in the style of conversation kept to influence and demonstrations, the subtle influence of the considerable role, accompanied by a person's life can be said to live to old to learn the old, some Parent educator again called for life teachers. This life of the education often reflects a family's Family Style, Family Style is good or bad often have to continue for several generations, or even a dozen, dozens generation, and this Family Style often with family members engaged in the employment-related . Such as: Xinglin family "," Pear Orchard House, "" family education ", etc. At the same time Family Style also reflects a family's style of study, study, good or bad is often the continuation of many generations, a dozen people, several dozens of generations . As in modern China, Wuxi people Yan Gong added-not "countries selected in the Museum", statistics from 2003-Shunzhi Branch to Guangxu 30 years Bing Xu Jia Chen Branch, the champion of 114 people, including his son by the first brothers Shuzhileishi Absolutely not, such as Suzhou Miao, Wu and Pan Sanxing, Changshu Weng, both surnamed Jiang, Chen Haining, Zhejiang, check the two surnames. See, family education is often the continuity of personnel groups have an important impact on the rise. This Situation. Ancient and modern times quite prominent in the contemporary with the development of science, and social needs of the unemployed increased, the broad people's careers, a family member can not have all engaged in the same work, but many see this situation That some family members work frequently appears in the results, be commended, but some family members one after another crime. This is a continuous education and family have great relations. (C) family education authority Family Education is the authority of parents in their children on their elders reflected by the power and power. The existence of the family, parents and children identified the blood relationship, upbringing, emotional, moral and ethical children in the living needs of the elderly parents have great dependence, family members and the fundamental interests of consistency, have decided The father of each of their children a greater role in the constraints. Parent education was easier to accept and submit to the children, parents and reasonable use of this feature, the children good moral character and habits formed the usefulness, for child care, in particular, is the case. Child care and other children in playing the game, when disputes arise when parents are often invoked to confirm their own speech act is right, if they like to say: "My father is saying this." Or "My mother is So do. "And so on. Children of parents in the eyes of the authority decided to accept the child how to treat the nursery schools and community education. The relationship between children and parents, the child is the first to face an important social relations. In this relationship, almost embodies the moral social ethics in all aspects, if such a relationship in the formation of cracks and defects, the children then to the community, in a variety of relationships will be reflected. Therefore stressed the importance of parental authority, but also because the children of parents in childhood has always played a dual role: the safety of children is not only the survival of protected persons, but also a life of the Wizard of Enlightenment. The effects of parental education, depends on the extent to establish the authority of parents, foster parents must be authoritative Built on respect for children on the basis of personality, rather than the feudal patriarchal system, parents are wise to understand the importance of establishing authority, but also know how to establish the authority does not rely on repression and force, subjective assumptions, but the method used Gangrouxiangji. Both parents in the education of their children's attitude on the first concerted and coordinate with each other, should be wide, wide, it should be strict martial law, in front of their children establish a kind of dignity and image, so that parents accept their children's education. (D) of the infected family education Parents with children between the blood relationship and kinship between the natural and close, making the parents of the children have strong feelings on the role of infection. Children on the demeanour of the parents can often Xinlingshenkuai to intelligence-intelligence. In dealing with in and around the side of the relationship between matter and the issue of children on the attitude of parents is very easy to resonate. In the happy parents, the children will take part in joy, the parents showed irritability and Menmenbuyue, the child's emotions can easily be affected, even young children as well. If the parents lack of rational and emotional, hot temper, will enable blind children to absorb its weaknesses. Some parents in dealing with unexpected incidents, show panic anxiety, surprise, the impact on children is not good if the frightened parents the same, steady firm and children in distress will also calm the situation calmly, so the quality of child psychology training Play a positive role. (5) timeliness of family education Family education process, parents are parents of children in the family of the individual acts of education than kindergarten, school education should promptly. As the saying goes:知子莫若父, that women Morrow home. Overnight between parents and children, their situation can be said to be well known to the children was slightly changed, even a look, a smile can make parents Xinlingshenhui, so as parents through their children's every move, his every word and deed can make the best of At this very moment of their psychological state, found the child on the existing problems, timely education, timely corrective, not the problem overnight, so that bad habits in the embryonic stage of the eradication. And kindergartens, schools, teachers faced with dozens of children, only for the children of this age stage for general education, that is, education groups, because of time and energy constraints, it is impossible to take care of each child's characteristics, Prone to the phenomenon of loss, or even to take care of the children of teachers and the poor do not have a sense of trust, and parents could guide their children promptly correct understanding. So parents of children to the correct family education so that children can enter kindergarten before forming a good habit, to accept collective education has laid a good foundation, can make up for the lack of mass education. Second, a good family education is the 21st century created the necessary conditions for personnel "China's 1990s development program for children" in the specified: "Today's children are the masters of the 21st century, child protection and the bottom-up development is to improve the quality of the population base, which is a prerequisite for development. The healthy growth of children Related to the future and destiny of the motherland. Improve the quality of the entire nation, from the start with children. "And:" In 2000 to make 90 percent of children (under the age of 14) of the parents to varying degrees, master conservation, education of children of knowledge. "This Top targeted the parents shoulders for the state created the heavy responsibility of the 21st century talents. Can this generation of children training to become Dezhitimei the all-round development of people, this country is Houjiyouren relationship to the Bainiantaiji. Fu-Lu Bell also said: "The country's fate is not so much lies in the hands of those in power, we might as well have said to be in the hands of his mother." This sentence is very philosophical, it profoundly understand the parents pick in the education of their children in The role played by. Parents should first clear direction of education and national interests, the people's request in line with the principle, the child can not be regarded as private property, it is necessary to establish the idea of the country, correct educational purposes. China's 21st century is what the situation, with the words of Comrade Deng Xiaoping, to make our country in the middle of the 21st century to achieve the level of moderately developed countries, per capita income reached 4,000 . dollars, in gross national product amounted to 6 trillion . dollars. The 21st century should be a good ideologies and noble moral character, and improve the psychological quality, positive spirit of cooperation with others, strong adaptability, Chikunailao the comprehensive development of the new generation. If the 21st century do not have such a group of high-quality builders is very difficult to complete this great, with such a quality is not overnight can do, and a good family education training is a prerequisite for high-quality people. Third, a good family education is a catalyst to optimize the children hearts Children from infancy into childhood, with age, from the family environment will eventually enter the small community, contact with the crowd outside the home, things. Lee Jia Choue those in society from time to time to enter the child's perspective, adults take isolation tactics will not work, because in the family video from different angles will continue to reflect the reality in today's society, issues both positive and negative have The. Children, especially young children lack a rational ability to distinguish right from wrong, but sensitive than adults have the feeling of capacity. They occurred around the kind of terrible things, sensitive, and this sensitivity training is the ability to rationally distinguish between a good basis, as parents should take advantage of this extension, help the children feel in this capacity on the basis of , The development of the social life of the ability to identify and psychological capacity, social filter information, optimize the hearts of young children. If parents in their daily life can be for young children is not strong capacity to accept the characteristics specific to seize the day-to-day chores, help children understand the community in identifying the Shishifeifei, specifically so that they feel Lee's bright side, Experience to the ugly despicable, can help children enhance the Yangshan Chuxie sense of justice, thus resist the dark side of the ugly soul of the child erosion. For example, today's video into the urban residents in almost every family, the children almost every day to deal with them, it can be said is not out of their homes, Bianzhi the world. Which can be received from all over the world all kinds of information. There are political situation, scientific and technological progress, ordinary people of Sushi, from which you can learn a lot of knowledge and understanding of major domestic and international events, both within and outside small home. It is inevitable that some homicide violence, obscene absurdity of the lens Yingru child's eyelid. Parents should address these issues timely guidance, to improve their children's ability to identify, we need to keep their own perceptions of behaviour, for their children establish a positive image, optimizing the hearts of children, the prevention of child make mistakes, and even violations of law and discipline. Family to work in this area, help small and stability of the environment. The family is society's cells, with healthy cells, can we have a sound body, the sick cells, the body will cause disease. As an ancient saying goes: "body repair and then home-and-then-State governance, rule of the then-world", "Qijia, the country, the world-the" point of view is that this truth. For this reason parents do a good job in optimizing the work of children's mental stability and social, stability and national power in ages. In short, as parents to the importance of family education fully and conscientiously do a good job in their children's education, make good parents responsibilities and obligations for the country to train qualified personnel in the building.
我找到一篇大学的作业 给你好了。但是注没法给你复制进来。或者你留个邮箱 给你发去。这论文是我当年的美国史作业 经不起推敲,呵呵。简论二战后美国黑人民权运动兴起的原因摘要:美国是一个移民国家,对美国来说,种族问题是一个与生俱来的问题。对有色人种的歧视,使现实的美国与其所宣称的“人人生而平等”的国度存在着巨大的差距。黑人为了争取自己的平等权利,进行了反对种族歧视和压迫的长期不懈的斗争,在二十世纪五六十年代期间,由于国际环境和国内状况发生的变化,这种斗争发展到了新的阶段,即“民权运动”。关键词:黑人 民权运动 中产阶级 二战黑人在美国历史上起过非常重要的作用,也对美国经济、文化的发展作出了巨大的贡献。尽管如此,黑人却一直处于美国社会的底层,南北战争后,虽然奴隶制被废除,黑人争得了公民权,但是,他们并没有享受到作为美国公民应有的平等权利。相反,他们仍然生活在种族隔离的樊篱之下。1896年,美国联邦最高法院确定了“隔离但平等”的原则,使种族隔离具备了法律依据,各州遂在居住、交通、教育等方面对黑人实行公开隔离。长期以来,黑人问题是困扰美国政府的一大难题。托克维尔在《论美国的民主中》曾这样预言:“在威胁美国的未来一切灾难中,最可怕的灾难是黑人在这个国土上的出现.一些观察家虽然出发点不同,但他们在考察美国的目前困境和未来危险的原因时,几乎总是归结于这一主要事实”。 黑人为此进行了顽强的抗争,但是种族隔离和种族歧视问题一直没有得到有效的解决。二战后,尤其是20世纪50、60年代,黑人民权运动风起云涌,成为当时美国重大的社会运动,最终促使联邦政府从法律上废除了种族隔离制,从而书写下黑人历史上光辉的一页,本文就二战后民权运动兴起和高涨的原因进行初步探究与分析。 一、教育是黑人夺取选举权的基础 黑人要拥有选举权,自身素质的提高是非常重要的,而教育是衡量一个人、一个民族乃至一个国家民族素质的重要尺度。南北战争后,随着似有身份的降临,黑人渴望接受教育,许多黑人学校建立起来,遍及美国的黑人教育制度就是在这个时候开始的。但是教育并非朝夕之事,长达两个多世纪的奴隶制留给黑人的只能是无知和愚昧。进入20世纪以后,黑人的教育状况有了改善,19世纪后期培养出来的学生开始走向社会,而学校里的黑人学生数量仍有增无减。1910年时,在南部10个州里,在校黑人学生增加到1426102人,1930年达到1893068人。1930年时,美国黑人中的文盲率下降到16%。黑人教育发展最迅速的时期是在第二次世界大战以后,此时黑人受教育的水平,是美国历史上各个人口集团中上升最快的。到1970年,黑人所受教育年限和白人相比只相差半年左右。战后黑人教育还有这样的特点:层次提高、黑白人同校。1960年,黑人攻读学位的有22.7万。1970年增长到55.2万。黑人还进入白人大学学习,1970年,大约有378000名黑人在这样的大学或学院接受教育。这一切,表明战后的黑人已具备了“文明交往的基本条件”。再也不用“文化测验”等手段来阻止他们行使选举权了。用知识武装起来的黑人。再也不满足于二等公民、被剥削选举权,因为他们懂得:“只有黑人拥有选举权时,才能学会保护自己。”随着黑人教育水平的提高,他们在为选举权抗争时,能进行有理论、有策略、有组织的斗争。因而,黑人在自身素质普遍提高的五六十年代赢回选举权是不足为奇的。二、中产阶级是黑人争取选举权运动的领导力量有人认为,第一批黑人中产阶级产生于南北战争后。但够得上中产阶级条件的黑人,在当时是属凤毛麟角。主宰着当时黑人社会的事谷物成分农,在南部390万黑人中,谷物成分农占到85.6%,他们生活水平和地位十分低下,无力自拔。在这种情况下,20世纪初一部分黑人开始离开南方农村,进入北方大城市寻求新的机会。在激烈的竞争中,少数黑人站稳了脚跟,上升为中产阶级。1910年,“在一千万的黑人人口中,有工作的男子共3178554人。其中做牧师的有17427人,做医生的有3077人,做律师的有796人,做教师的有7035人。在同一年间,妇女做学校教员的有22450人。 第二次世界大战以后,黑人中产阶级人数增加,力量增强。1950-1970年,黑人平均收入由占白人收入的54%上升为64%,其中,黑人妇女平均收入由占白人主妇的40%上升为92%。 到70年代中期,已有1/3的黑人家庭上升为中产阶级。 中产阶级的产生与壮大,对黑人在20世纪五六十年代取得选举权具有重要的意义。凡为中产阶级,都是受过良好教育的人,经济上也有相当的地位。这些人有知识与才干,懂得自尊与自信,也有参与美国社会和政治的要求。他们已超越了对基本生存的需求,而进入了更高的对政治权力与平等权利的要求阶段。因而,他们要求选举权的迫切程度大大超过了别的阶层,正如美国史学家所说:“大多数具有进取精神的黑人,都来自具有‘中产阶级’背景的那些人中,是摆脱了贫困的黑人”。 1909年成立的全国有色人种协进会,就是由中产阶级组成与领导的一个影响深远、颇有力量的组织。著名黑人领袖布克•华盛顿和马丁•路德•金也是中产阶级的典型代表。在20世纪五六十年代争取黑人选举权的斗争中,黑人中产阶级义不容辞地承担起运动领导的责任,从而为这一斗争提供了训练有素的领导力量。三、黑人在地理分布上的比的变化 我们已经知道,19世纪后期的黑人,主要从事的是农业劳动。他们集中在南部地区,分散在农村中。至于北部地区,少有较大规模的黑人迁徙。数目众多的城市,居住者主要是白人。地理分布上的这种特点,不利于黑人获得选举权。第一,南部是民族矛盾尖锐,种族实力强大的地区,正是在这一地区,种族主义者处心积虑地要剥夺黑人选举权。第二,农村相对闭塞落后,黑人长期生活于此,觉悟和意识比较低下,不利于组织与领导。 20世纪初,这种情况开始改变,黑人开始了向北部和西部城市的迁徙。第一次世界大战后,这种迁徙速度加快。战火燃起时,大批白人青年应征入伍,许多工厂劳动力缺乏,芝加哥、克利夫兰、底特律及其他北方城市的工厂主,纷纷到南方去招募工人,这就给南方黑人提供了机会。 黑人的大规模迁徙发生在第二次世界大战后。1950年时,住在城市的黑人人口已经超过了居住在农村的黑人人口。1970年,纽约、华盛顿、底特律、费城、芝加哥、洛杉矶等城市,黑人居民超过50万。伯明翰、亚特兰大、新奥尔良、纽瓦克、加里等城市,黑人人口占全市人口的一半以上。从布局看,黑人迁出南部后分布在全国各地,北部中央地区占26%,东部占22%,西部占19%, 其余则分布在南部。 黑人迁出南部,分布于全国各大、中城市,对于五六十年代黑人获得选举权有着重要的意义。黑人集中于城市,为现代文明耳濡目染,开始变得见多识广,富有朝气,对于体现他们政治地位的选举权格外看重起来,他们毅然投入到五六十年代为恢复自己权利而进行的斗争中。另外,黑人集中在城市,便于动员和组织,也便于形成强大的力量,五六十年代能出现如此声势浩大的民权运动,这也是其中一个重要的原因。四、美国政府在一定程度上的干预二战后,随着美国国际地位的提高,出于维护其国际形象的需要,美国政府开始正视几个世纪以来竭力回避却仍然无法回避的黑人问题。与此同时,20世纪50、60年代的黑人民权运动对联邦政府也造成了巨大的压力。马丁•路德•金明确指出:“黑人已组织成强大的力量,这使得政府无法回避他们的要求,他们已从实力出发来发展形势,使政府感到同他们合作是明智和深谋远虑的”。 此外,二战后世界民族解放运动的蓬勃发展,特别是非洲的独立运动,对美国黑人也产生了深远影响。面对这一形势,美国政府只能顺应时代发展潮流,一改压制黑人斗争、维护白人利益的做法,采取了一系列支持、推动黑人斗争的措施。首先,美国总统发表言论支持黑人斗争。肯尼迪总统说:“这个国家是建立在人人生而平等原则基础上的……如果一个美国人,因为其皮肤是黑色的,就不能在对公众开放的餐馆就餐,就不能送子女去最好的公立学校读书,就不能投票选举能代表他的人出任公共官职,一句话,就不能享受充分的自由生活,那么,这个国家就不是一个完整的国家,除非全体公民都得到自由。“ 约翰逊总统继承了肯尼迪的政策,并进一步支持黑人争取平等权利的斗争,称“他们(指黑人)的事业也应该是我们的事业“,认为“我们大家应该战胜(种族隔离制)这一并非完美的顽固不化和不正义的遗产”。 其次,联邦政府采取一系列民权立法措施。艾森豪威尔政府于1957年颁布了第一个非常重要的民权法,该法令禁止干预黑人投票。肯尼迪政府在司法部专设一名民权助理部长,在三年内,该助理部长共向国会提交了几十个民权方面的议案。约翰逊政府颁布了1964年的《民权法》、1965年的《投票权利法》和1968年的《防止住房歧视民权法》。最后,联邦政府对违抗民权法令者采取强硬措施。1957年9月,阿肯色州小石城地方法院根据1954年联邦最高法院判决,宣布该市中心中学接纳9名黑人学生入学,但此举遭到种族主义者的坚决反对。州长法布斯以“防止暴乱”为名,派出200名武装的国民警卫队员,在小石城中心中学周围布岗,阻止这9名黑人学生入学。已注册的黑人学生被赶出校门,暴徒还殴打黑人,在市内煽风点火,从而引发严重骚乱。艾森豪威尔政府迫于世界舆论的压力,派兵开往小石城,以军管措施平息了阻止黑人学生进入白人学校的小石城事件。1962年9月,黑人梅雷迪思申请入密西西比大学就读,引起该州一场地震级的哗变。在肯尼迪总统的支持下,梅雷迪思最终在联邦政府的“伴护”下入校注册。1965年,约翰逊政府采取保护措施,压制亚拉巴马州州长华莱士,使从塞尔马到蒙哥马利的黑人进军得以顺利进行。联邦政府的上述措施推动了黑人民权运动向纵深方向发展。从某种程度上来讲,没有美国联邦政府的有力支持,美国黑人的斗争也就不可能取得如此大的成果。五、二战的影响作用不容忽视 1939年,希特勒挥师偷袭波兰,挑起了第二次世界大战。美国虽未举全力出战,但大力发展国防工业,充当了“民主国家的兵工厂”,需要大量的劳动力和兵役。广大黑人群众对此做出积极响应,他们怀有满腔热忱准备报效国家,但是却遭到种族歧视的挫伤和打击。在复苏的国防工业中,他们受到严重的歧视;在军队里也受到各样的限制,黑人只能参加完全由黑人组成的军队;各种支援战争的社会活动,也将黑人排斥在外。当报国热情和希望与白人“并肩作战”的美好愿望被现实打击后,黑人在痛心之余,也对真正实现民主平等原则产生了强烈的要求。二战对此来说,正是一个良好的机遇。 众多黑人确信,他们必将从战争中获益。如专栏作家乔治•斯宾勒认为“和平意味着……当前地位的延续……如果黑人想要获得自由,就必须结束这种状况”。因此,二战持续得越久越好,因为有一天“或许我们会发现自己已从长期受压迫的地位中翻了身”。黑人们之所以对二战抱有如此厚望,是因为他们逐渐认识到,战争给黑人提供了一个让美国百人的良心受到谴责和震撼的绝好机会。“是战争让我们有机会……来劝说、强迫我们的政府和国家,并让其感受到尴尬和羞耻……从而对占其人口十分之一的黑人采取更加开明的态度!”美国黑人在二战民主宣传的激励下,开始从新审视自己在美国的社会位置。米尔多指出:“毫无疑问,美国各阶层黑人的精神与几十年前已大不相同。”美国黑人中间的却出现了一种新的精神。这种精神的基本特征就是战斗性增强,用于大声抗议,强烈表示不满。二战则是为黑人进行提供了更多的理由和机会。上述黑人的思想和行动的所有倾向——不满、希望、增强的种族意识和战斗精神,都在“向华盛顿进军”等运动中体现出来。这些活动,显示了黑人的抗议行动已经逐渐向有组织的大规模运动方面发展。虽然在战争这种非常时期,此类斗争形式不可能持久,也不可能形成全国性运动,但是这些小范围的活动已经为民权运动的兴起作了组织上的准备,其所开创的群众性抗议活动形式为后来的民权斗争所广泛采用。 战争危机为美国黑人认清并指出美国所宣称的民主信条与其实践之间的反差提供了绝佳的机会。二战期间黑人种族意识和黑人群众战斗性的增强及战争所全力维护的民主思想意识和观念,使黑人重新看到了希望。他们确信,二战已将旧有的种族结构永远地摧毁了。当美国白人拒绝承认这种变革的存在时,广大黑人便行动起来。这颗斗争的火种几经孕育,不断壮大,终于在50年代中期形成燎原之势,发展为声势浩大的民权运动。六、黑人自身的斗争以及国际国内的推动力量 弗雷德里克•道格拉斯说:“没有斗争就没有进步”,黑人争取自己政治权利的斗争也是如此。当重建结束,保护黑人选举权的大环境不复存在时,在贫困线上苦苦挣扎的黑人,再也无力为选举权抗争了。黑人的斗争在总体上处于低谷时期。加上当时的资本主义社会尚处于无序阶段,人们的文明程度还有待于提高,对于剥夺黑人选举权的行为,以及三K党屠杀黑人的野蛮行径,很难引起全国舆论的关注与谴责。这些都为剥夺黑人选举权又添一筹。 二战以后,黑人们掀起了震动整个美国社会的民权运动,他们向种族制度的各个方面发起了冲击。据美国史学家和社会学家布赖恩特•道勒斯的统计,1963年到1968年的5年中,爆发各种族骚乱的城市有265个,骚乱总次数341次,骚乱总日数703天,被捕人员53409人,受伤人数8459人,死亡221人。 正是在如此激烈的冲突中,黑人赢回了选举权。黑人著名活动家查尔斯•希尔伯曼说:“在美国过去和现在的历史上,没有那件事情能说明,没有直接的对抗,黑人就能在美国社会获得正当的地位。” 二战后,白人的种族观念也发生了变化,他们对于黑人的苦难不再熟视无睹。1964年,三位民权工作者在密西西比州的内肖巴县给黑人选民登记时被暴徒杀害,这激起了全国舆论的愤怒,从而推动国会于1964年7月通过了重要的民权法。在1965年亚拉巴州塞尔马市的黑人示威活动中,维奥拉•利厄佐夫人于3月9日被暴徒杀害,消息传出,举国震惊,北方许多城市举行了声援示威。副总统对利厄佐夫人的家属表示慰问,总统发表了电视讲话,并于3月15日向国会提交了投票权利法案,8月,国会通过了这一法案。国际社会的支持也对黑人争取选举权起了推动作用。例如,小石城事件发生后,许多国家的报纸质问道:“从小石城事件看来,美国到底是怎样一个国家?”对于迫害黑人的行径,周恩来总理也曾发表措辞严厉的声明:“美帝国主义对黑人的法西斯暴行,揭穿了美国的所谓民主和自由的本质,暴露了美国政府在国内的反动政策和在国外的侵略政策的内在联系。”在同声谴责的世界舆论面前,美国政府必须有所交待。战后的几个民权法和投票权立法也可以看作是对国际社会做出的反应。道格拉斯说,黑人选举权“对于那个曾长期被奴役的人民来说是生死之权”。重建时期的参议员桑门腊说:“黑人没有选举权,就等于没有自由……光有自由是不够的,一个公民既需要自由又需要平等……这两者对于构成一个完整的美国公民的资格是缺一不可的。” 二战后美国黑人的“民权运动”,是一种对种族歧视与压迫的直接回击,是历史沉积下,时代条件与社会现实综合作用的结果。经历了10余年的斗争,使形形色色的种族隔离制被消除,黑人的斗争迫使美国政府通过许多有关民权的法律和命令,黑人的选举权在各州基本上得到保障,在一定程度上改善了自己的处境,为美国社会注入了活力。但是美国的种族问题有根深蒂固的渊源,并不可能一蹴而就,不过,只要美国黑人坚持不懈地斗争,在美国社会的不断发展下,几百年来黑人梦想的平等与权力就能最终实现。[参考文献][1](法)托克维尔著、董果良译,《论美国的民主》,商务印书馆。[2] 布罗莱,《美国黑人简史》〔M〕,纽约。[3] 威廉•伊塞尔,《美国社会的变化1945-1983》〔M〕,纽约。[4] 哈利•A•波罗斯基,詹姆斯•威廉,《美国黑人历史》〔M〕,纽约。[5] 威廉•伊塞尔,《美国社会的变化1945-1983》〔M〕,纽约。[6] (美)乔安•妮格兰特改编,郭瀛、伍江、翟一我等译,《美国黑人斗争史》,社会科学出版社,1987版。[7] 何章银,《肯尼迪政府民权政策成因探析》,载《学海》,2002年第3期。[8] (美)阿瑟•林克 、威廉•卡顿著,刘绪贻、王锦瑭、李世洞、胡志宽等译,《1900年以来的美国史》。[9] 卡罗•林罗斯,《少数民族问题》〔M〕,纽约,1972 年版。[10]格瑞德•迈克维尼,《重建与自由之人》〔M〕,芝加哥。
写美国的三权分立吧或者议会与人大的比较,都可以写的很深刻
主要原因是:为了争取政治经济和社会平等权利,以及反对种族歧视和种族压迫!(说白了,就是你白人有的待遇、地位,我们黑人也要有)...你说是吧,呵呵puS
全美排名前10位的汽车杂志:
这些在中国都能订到。具体方法在各杂志的网站上有。
车世界,里面画图很好的一种。
专门做越野汽车的杂志可能不多,一般汽车杂志是综合类的。国内的有 中国汽车画报、汽车之友、汽车与驾驶维修、汽车族等等。这类杂志大多是导购类型的。国外的了解不多。美国的Motor Trend,与汽车族版权合作。官网欧洲的Quattro Ruote,与车王版权合作。官网如果lz经常上网的话,浏览一些汽车网站也很不错。国外的几个越野汽车/SUV网站:这个是大脚车另外推荐几个知名的网站欧洲有名的汽车评测网站,很权威。
国外的汽车杂志,首先力推的就是德国最著名的汽车杂志之一《Auto motor und sport》(简称AMS)。日本老牌的汽车杂志《Car Graphic》,简称为CG英国: 1 《Top Gear》2、《What Car》3、《Evo》希望上述回答能帮助.....
推荐《艺术评鉴》杂志,排版大气,拿得出手。投稿联系方
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《艺术百家》,这本杂志比较学术化,面向海内外,大力弘扬民族文化,提倡自由平等交流基础上的文化融合,对实践拥有实际指导意义。
《世界美术》 这本杂志算得上国内比较好的艺术类杂志了,起码介绍了不少其他国家的艺术,比如日本的一些艺术创作,还是非常经典的。