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论文参考文献过少的问题有哪些

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论文参考文献过少的问题有哪些

参考文献标注中常见的问题

按照字面的意思,参考文献是文章或著作等写作过程中参考过的文献。以下是我精心整理的参考文献标注中常见的问题,仅供参考,欢迎大家阅读。

凡直接引用别人的观点、论据、成果等,必须在论文中标注,并在后文的参考文献中注明出处、页码,不能“用而不引”。引用使用过程中,需要特别注意:并非阅读过的论著都值得引用,只有那些有独到见解的观点、事实材料才可以引用;那些无实质性材料内容的资料、不可靠的资料是不能引用的,“不选而引”是禁止的。

引文的水平也是有要求的,并非任何文字都可以随意的作为引文来使用。引文一般为正式发表具有自主版权的文献,以便读者查考,也是尊重版权的需要。不过在某些特殊情况下也可引用未正式出版的会议论文、咨询报告、学位论文等。亦可引用非文献的资料,如:广播、领导讲话、影视作品中内容。但是在引用上述非文献资料的过程中,需要特别慎重。

老师们在写作论文时,参考文献标注经常出现的问题有:

1、不标注。有的学生写的毕业论文全文没有一个参考文献。作者自说自话或者直接拿来别人的文章东拼西凑,毫无严谨可言。

2、少标注。有的学生写的毕业论文对文献信息标注不全,如只写出作者、书名、出版社,而没有出版年、页码等。对于期刊论文,不标注页码是一个普遍现象,需要纠正。

3、标假注。有点学生对文献信息记录不全,也不进行追溯,直接随意编造,这就是标假注。这种写作态度是错误的,不可取。

4、标注乱。有的学生文内的参考文献序号与文后的参考文献表无法对应,甚至连数量都对不上。这让阅读者无法进一步追溯文献。

5、标注错。有的学生毕业论文的参考文献有错字、漏字、多字等现象,缺乏认真、严谨的态度。

6、不统一。有的学生一篇文章中有多种文献著录方式,格式不统一。

7、文献旧。有的学生毕业论文中引用的参考文献都是几十年前的,近期的一条也没有,给人陈旧之感。参考文献要尽量新,因为近期文章更能反映科学研究的最新进展。

8、数量少。有的学生一篇论文只有寥寥几个参考文献,这就很难让人信服。通常期刊论文的参考文献应有10篇以上,本科毕业论文的参考文献应有20篇以上。

9、不权威。有些学生的毕业论文引用了很多非学术期刊、非权威期刊的文章,或者是教材上的资料,使得论文的信度降低。

(一)有“零散痕迹”,无“整体呈现”

不少论文作者在行文过程中会引用某某学者的观点,甚至有的论文作者还会将相应的话语标上引号,或在括号中注上所引用话语的作者姓名与发表年份。不难看出,这类作者在论文中向我们展示了文献引用的“痕迹”,似乎也在告诉我们,我写这篇论文引用了他人在相关领域内的学术观点或已有成果,而且也规范地进行了标示。但是,让人感到困惑的`是,在正文后面怎么也找不到相应的参考文献。这类作者有一定的引文意识,但缺乏完整的引用常识。在一篇规范的学术论文里,但凡正文中显性或隐性的引用,都需要被标示,并且要在论文的末尾将文中所实际引用的文献,以罗列参考书目的形式加以整体呈现。

(二)有“参考书目”,无“引用痕迹”

与第一种情况对应的是,论文作者在行文过程中没有任何引文标注,却在论文的末尾列出了相对完整的“参考书目”。换句话说,尽管在正文后列出了一大堆参考书目,读者却未能在正文中看到相应的引用痕迹。产生上述问题的原因,除了“不知道”文献引用规范的情况外,还可能有以下两种情况:

(1)论文引用过多,如一一进行标注的话,基本上就再也没有自己的内容,于是索性就不进行标注;

(2)论文写作中根本没有引用相应的文献,参考书目的罗列纯粹是在形式上给人制造一种“规范”的假象。论文作者应遵循实事求是的原则,凡有引用都要进行恰当的标注,没有引用的不随意在参考书目中罗列。学术论文的严谨性要求我们做到:但凡是在参考书目中列出的文献,读者必须能在正文中看到相应文献被真实引用的痕迹,并被恰当地加以标注。

(三)有“形式罗列”,无“内容考证”

如果说前两种情形更多意义上是由于对学术论文写作规范“不知道”“不清楚”的话,那么有“形式罗列”无“内容考证”则更多的是关乎学术严谨性。一方面,一些作者引用文献时,自己并没有亲自阅读过所引用的原始文献。更有甚者,直接用百度搜索来替代专业严肃的专业阅读。另一方面,不少作者由于缺乏常态的专业阅读,对本学科内的专业期刊了解不够,所以在文献引用时捉襟见肘,经常性地会出现这样或那样的问题。具体表现在:引用的一些文献“身份可疑”,它们往往是非公认的正规学科期刊,甚至是非法期刊,因此缺乏学术的可信度。论文作者应尽量引用那些学科领域认可度高的期刊,这些正规期刊往往具有较严格的编审流程,刊发的论文具有较高的学术水平。如想引用网络文献或对原始文献进行二次引用,应设法找到原始纸质或影印文献,一则考察文献来源的真实性,二则评估原始文献的权威性。

(四)有“引用意识”,少“学术素养”

上述所提及的各种问题如果是文献引用意识薄弱的表现,那么仅有文献意识也是不够的。一些论文作者尽管具有较好的文献引用意识,知道适当地在正文中标注,并能在论文末尾将正文引用到的文献一一罗列,但由于缺乏有关的学术素养,出现引用失范,如正文中引文格式与论文所附的参考书目格式不规范,不符合该学术期刊的有关规定等。

其实主要的不是人物的影响力,而是是否能充分体现出观点的正确性,其次,标点也很重要

参考文献少的论文可以写,但是会有以下影响:有的同学在写论文过程中,为了控制重复率,就会尽量减少文献的引用,但这种做法也会造成一些问题。最突出的问题就是引用文献太少,会让老师认为你所阅读和搜集的资料过于少,论文缺乏学理支撑,犹如空中楼阁。因此文献引用的数量和质量都可以体现你的论文的水平。我们在文献引用时要尽可能的做到既有合理的引用,又能控制在合理的查重范围内。

环境问题核心期刊参考文献有哪些

《Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 》/《环境科学与技术评论》《环境科学与技术评论》目前为全球环境类最高SCI影响因子期刊(2008年IF=7.409)。该期刊每期仅发表有1-2篇文章,所刊登文章是对环境科学某个前沿领域研究进展的高度概括与方向把脉。

以下所有文献,中国知网都能查到。[1]董利民,李璇.洱海水污染动态模型的构建及分析研究[j].生态经济(学术版),2011,02:384-388.[2]房春娟,陈晓燕.淡水污染的微生物治理[j].湖南农机,2011,11:245+247.[3]张志锋,王燕,韩庚辰.中国近海海水主要参数基线值及其污染状况探究[j].海洋环境科学,2012,02:211-215.[4]魏正明.水危机——寻找解决淡水污染的方案[j].上海环境科学,2003,01:5.[5]迟凤玲.浅淡水污染对我国食物安全的影响及解决对策[j].中国食物与营养,2006,05:14-16.[6]尚立照.风力发电对河西走廊生态环境影响初探[j].环境研究与监测,2010,01:3-5.[7]杨贵本杨丽丽.我国淡水污染问题必须加大力度解决[n].延安日报,2007-03-12002.[8]刘洪波.不同水域淡水蚌类中元素积累和分布的特征研究[d].南京农业大学,2010.[9]项继权.湖泊治理:从“工程治污”到“综合治理”——云南洱海水污染治理的经验与思考[j].中国软科学,2013,02:81-89.[10]陈登勤,方宗熙.用紫露草微核技术监测海水污染的初步研究[j].山东海洋学院学报,1981,02:80-85.[11]高圣龙,柯明德.mobilemarinegis于海上污染监控之应用[a].中国航海学会救助打捞专业委员会.救捞专业委员会2004年学术交流会论文集[c].中国航海学会救助打捞专业委员会:,2004:11.[12]高乐华.我国海洋生态经济系统协调发展测度与优化机制研究[d].中国海洋大学,2012.[13]张德君.海水入侵地下水污染对土壤生态影响研究[d].辽宁师范大学,2007美国进口普卫欣天猫

,所谓“核心期刊”并非一个标准一成不变,而是动态调整的。这里我们整理了国内学术界较为认可的几种核心期刊评价体系最新环境类期刊目录,包括北大图书馆发布的中文核心期刊(四年调整一次)、南京大学发布的CSSCI及其扩展版(两年调整一次,也就是人文社科领域广受追捧的“C刊”)、科技部中国科学技术信息研究所发布的CSTPCD(一年调整一次),以及中国科学院文献情报中心发布的CSCD(两年调整一次)环境科学百,安全科学 1.环境科学 2.中国环境科学 3.环境科学学报 4.环境化学 5.环境污染治理技术与设备 6.环境科学研究 7.环境保度护 8.环境污染与防治 9.环境工程 10.农业环境保护(改名为:农业环境科学学报)11.化工环保 12.工业水处理 13.海洋回环境科学 14.中国环境监测 15.环境科学与技术 16.水处理技术 17.农村生态环境 18.应用与环境生物学报 19.中国人口、资源与环境 20.长江流域资源与环境 21. 环境监测管理与技术 22.自然灾害学报 23.水资源保护 要查询影响因子答,可在baidu中输入:“环境类核心期刊影响因子查询”

这类的不太好发

论文查重过程中有哪些常见的问题

规范性论文相比实证论文论文查重相对困难些,规定连续7个字以上相同会被标红,但实际上发现,不紧密连续时也可以被查出来,所以写论文时尽量要原创,引用别人的论文,即使标清楚了,也要换一种说法,这样查重容易通过些。

毕业论文的写作是每年毕业季时大学毕业生们都要完成的,而论文查重则是进行毕业答辩前的必经阶段。论文的重复率是高校判断学生能否毕业的一个重要依据,所以论文查重对于我们来说就显得非常关键了。下面小编就给大家说说在进行论文查重的时候,又会有哪些误区以及怎么快速去解决这些问题。论文查重查重过程中的常见误区:1、查重系统是怎么计算论文重复率的?论文查重就是将我们所写的论文与系统自身收录的数据进行一个相似度的比对,然后根据各查重系统的算法最后得出总体的论文相似度。由于不同论文查重系统对于抄袭的定义是不一样的,所以不同系统之间查重得出的重复率是不好进行对比的。2、是不是查重通过了论文就能合格?论文是否合格,不仅需要我们重复率达到要求,而且还要通过导师的审核才行。如果你所写的论文查重合格了,但因为你论文中的语序不通顺,词不达意,文章过于空洞等原因,通不过导师的审查,那么一样是不能合格的。论文查重时必须要知道哪些问题?3、直接删除论文的重复部分可以降低重复率吗?计算论文重复率的方法是根据每个语句相似度最后得出的,所以我们如果只是关删除这些重复字数作用是不大的,因为我们在删除的时候论文的全文字数也就跟着降低了,所以能够起到降低重复率的效果也就不大。如果我们直接将重复的部分进行删除,不仅会导致论文逻辑不同,还可能会导致论文的总字数不达标。

1、论文中的参考文献我们必须要注意到的。我们首先要弄清楚在论文查重的过程中,怎样去判断您的论文是否有参考性或者是抄袭性。实际上这个问题相对来说比较简单。即使我们把别人文章的引用加入到论文中,但是对于论文查重系统来说,都是统一看待的。想必大家都清楚查重系统是设定了一个门槛,当论文内容超出了这个临界值,那么就会被判为抄袭。所以,我们一定要注意这个问题。2、更要注意论文中章节的转换。部分同学为了节省时间,写论文的时候就直接抄其他人的研究成果下来,而且没有进行修改。那么你必然无法通过论文查重,但对全部的事情,都要有一个解决的方法。这里建议大家写文章一定要注意灵活性,不要说什么都抄,一定要有适当的变化,这样考试的时候风险会减少很多。3、词语之间的匹配也要注重。事实上对于大部分的论文查重系统来说,查重时间是比较严格的。只要不合格,卷面也不合格。用词也是如此。如果你的文章只有20多个单字的搭配,那么你的文章就评不上了。那么这个问题应该怎么处理呢?这就要求我们在参考别人的文章的时候不能抄袭,而且一定要进行适当的词语转换,这对于最后查重论文是很有帮助的。

PaperDoing,Logo,论文检测,论文查重官网首页论文查重人工降重文献检索真伪查询使用帮助关于我们注册 | 登录常见问题免费活动用户留言行业新闻论文技巧关于我们进行论文检测时有哪些细节是我们需要注意的?对于毕业生来说,毕业论文非常重要,只有毕业论文符合学校要求,才有资格参加学校答辩。目前,学校对论文合格标准的判断主要来论文查重后重复率的结果。论文完成后,如果我们对自己的论文没有把握,可以提前检测论文的重复率。只有当论文的重复率合格时,我们交给学校才能放心。那么论文查重有哪些细节是需要我们注意的呢?第一、引用问题写论文时,不可避免地要引用其他论文的内容。如果没有正确的注释,进行论文检测时重复率会很高。因为查重系统只能识别标注好的参考文献,不计算重复率。同时需要注意的是,如果参考文献太多,全文重复率所占比例过大,也会计入论文的整体重复率。第二、删除检测报告现在互联网上有许多论文检测系统。检测论文时,系统还会给出一些修改建议。你需要注意的是,你必须找到一个常规的重复检查平台来检测。同时,论文查重完成后,删除重复的检测报告论文是我们自己的,我们必须保护它,防止它泄漏,否则会出现短缺。第三、价格在论文查重时,不同检测软件的价格也是不同的。对于论文初稿,我们可以选择价格低廉的,就连正规的免费论文查重系统也可以。定稿时,一定要选择与学校相同的系统,这样检测结果才会准确,参考意义才会更大。

floyd论文的参考文献有哪些

足球运动是一项古老的体育活动,源远流长。据说,希腊人和罗马人在中世纪以前就已经从事一种足球游戏了。他们在一个长方形场地上,将球放在中间的白线上,用脚把球踢滚到对方场地上,当时称这种游戏为“哈巴斯托姆”。 到19世纪初叶,足球运动在当时欧洲及拉美一些国家特别是在资本主义的英国已经相当盛行。直到1848年,足球运动的第一个文字形式的规则《剑桥规则》诞生了。 然而众多的资料表明,中国古代足球的出现比欧洲更早,历史更为悠久。我国古代足球称为“蹴鞠”或“蹋鞠”,“蹴”和“蹋”都是踢的意思,“鞠”是球名。“蹴鞠”一词最早记载在《史记·苏秦列传》里,汉代刘向《别录》和唐人颜师曾为《汉书.枚乘传》均有记载。到了唐宋时期,“蹴鞠”活动已十分盛行,成为宫廷之中的高雅活动。 1958年7月,国际足联现任主席阿维兰热博士来中国时曾表示:足球起源于中国。当然,由于封建社会的局限,中国古代的蹴鞠活动最终没有发展成为以“公平竞争”为原则的现代足球运动。这个质的飞跃是在资本主义的英国完成的。 现代足球运动的诞生 从17世纪中后期开始,足球运动逐步从欧美传入世界各国,尤其是在一些文化发达的国家更为盛行。越来越多的人走向球场,投身到这一富有刺激性和畅快感的运动中去,以至于一度将足球运动开展得好坏作为衡量一个国家文化发达与否的标志。在这种情况下,英国人率先为足球运动的发展作出了重要贡献。 1863年10月26日,英国人在伦敦皇后大街弗里马森旅馆成立了世界第一个足球协会——英格兰足球协会。会上除了宣布英格兰足协正式成立之外,制定和通过了世界第一部较为统一的足球竞赛规则,并以文字形式记载下来。英格兰足球协会的诞生,标志着足球运动的发展进入了一个崭新的阶段因而,人们公认1863 年10月26日,即英格兰足球协会成立之日为现代足球的诞生日。 第一届FIFA世界杯,足球传奇的开始 尽管国际足联在1904年便宣告正式成立,但在此后的20年间还没有进行过任何一项国际性的足球比赛 。 1924年在巴黎举行的奥林匹克运动会上,足球终于成为正式比赛项目。这是一次空前的足球盛会,来自各大洲的球队齐聚巴黎,争夺代表最高荣誉的金牌。比赛无疑是成功的,超过50,000名热情的观众观看了最后的决赛,乌拉圭击败瑞士队获得了冠军。但是到了1928年,许多国家都拒绝参加在阿姆斯特丹举行的奥运会。很显然,随着职业足球的不断发展,现在是时候成立一项独立的国际足球赛事了。 1928年5月26日,国际足联代表大会在阿姆斯特丹召开。会上经过投票通过了于1930年举办一项新赛事的决议,该赛事将对国际足联下属的所有成员国开放。1929年5月18日,在巴塞罗那召开的会议上,乌拉圭被投票选举为首届FIFA世界杯赛的主办国。

一、弗洛伊德的人格结构理论在弗洛伊德晚期的思想中,他构建了一个三元人格模型,即:本我(id)、自我(ego)和超我(super-ego)。他认为一个完整的人格应该是由本我、自我及超我三大系统构成的,在一个健全的人的身上,这三大系统会形成一个统一和谐的结构,一旦这种统一和谐的状态被打破,人就会陷入精神失常。 三元人格模型的基础是本我,即原我。从弗洛伊德在《精神分析引论》对本我进行描述的那段话,我们可以看出本我是混乱的,像一口永远在沸腾的大锅,不会变得平静,永远喧嚣着。从《自我与本我》一文中,我们进一步了解到了本我是按照生命的快乐原则行事,以追求本能冲动和被压抑的欲望的满足为目的,它是一个人最真实的世界,其在本质上是不受制约的本能冲动。换句话说,本我是潜意识形态下的本能和思想,它并不是人类心理的某个区域这么简单,它实际上是由驱动力构成的某个进程,而这种驱动力又通常以性驱动力为主。 所以,本我构成了我们人格中追求本能、欲望、好勇斗狠的那部分。不过幸运的是,本我一直都处在被压抑的状态中,只能在短暂、琐碎的行动中表现出来。 为什么说本我一直处在压抑状态呢?下面就需要介绍另外两个系统——自我与超我。 自我位于本我和超我之间,它以“现实原则”为指导而不受“快乐原则”的影响。但是由于本我可以设法进入自我,影响自我,使得自我的绝大部分精力其实花费在控制和压制本我上,还要通过适当的满足来安抚本我。这也表明虽然任何能成为意识的东西都在自我之中,但在自我中还有一部分是属于无意识状态的,所以要想成为一个现实的,有道德的人,必须要摆脱这一部分。. 自我寻求把外界的影响施加给本我及其倾向,并努力用现实原则代替在本我中不受限制地占据主导地位的快乐原则。在自我中,知觉起的作用就是在本我中本能所起的作用。自我代表我们所谓的理性和常识的东西,它和含有情欲的本我形成对照。 自我是有组织、有计划的,而不是本能或冲动的,它使人的行为更加的理智,既能获得更大的快乐,又能控制自己的行为以适应社会的环境,如果没有自我的保护,任由本我妄自追求欲望的满足,只会使本我遭受灭顶之灾,因此自我其实是本我与现实世界之间的桥梁。 除此之外,自我之中还存在着一个等级,一个自我内部分化的阶段,即超我或自我理想。 超我源于本我,从自我中分化出来,在三元人格模型中处于最高层次,然后又指导自我、帮助自我限制本我。它由规范、价值和理想构成,所以超我实际上遵循的是“道德原则”。但这并不意味着超我等于良知,虽然超我比自我具有更加强烈的社会取向,但它并不比本我更善良、宽容、理性,事实上它是以一种毫不妥协的原则追求道德伦理上的完美。 在弗洛伊德看来,人格结构虽然是由本我、自我和超我三大部分构成,但这三个部分的界限并不是泾渭分明的,它们是有机组合在一起的,图表1展现了三者的关系。图表 1 从上图可知,本我、自我与超我三者之间并不是静止不懂的,而是始终处于冲突、协调的状态之中。本我在于寻求本能欲望的满足;超我在于监督控制自我,使其按照内化的社会规则行事,并与外部的现实环境相适应;而自我既要反映本我的欲望,尽力满足本我,又要接受超我的监督,促进人格内部协调并保证与外界的交往活动的正常。 在《自我与本我》中,弗洛伊德用“马和骑马的人”的比喻来形容自我与本我的关系。这样在它和本我的关系中,自我就像一个骑在马背上的人,它得有控制马的较大力量;所不同的是,骑手是寻求用自己的力量做到这一点的,而自我则使用借力。这种类比还可以进一步加以说明。如果一个骑手不想同他的马分手,他常常被迫引导它到他想去的地方去;同样如此,自我经常把本我的愿望付诸实施,好像是它自己的愿望那样。 简单来说,本我是马,自我是骑手,骑手给马指明方向,自我需要驾驭本我,但事实上,马有可能不会乖乖听话,这时双方必有一者需要妥协。 由于超我与本我存在永恒的冲突,而自我处于两者之间,要同时接受两者的影响,这使得自我的压力过大,也使得人常常因为欲望和道德的冲突而倍感痛苦, 弗洛伊德是这样论述自我的角色的:“有一句格言告诫我们,一仆不能同时服侍两个主人,然而可怜的自我却处境更坏,它服侍着三个严厉的主人,而且要使它们的要求和需要相互协调。这些要求总是背道而驰并似乎常常互不相容,难怪自我经常不能完成任务。它的三位专制的主人是外部世界、超我和本我。” 如果这个冲突太过剧烈或者持续太久,就会导致神经症的爆发。 所以只有三“我”保持平衡的时候,人才能健康发展,否则,人就会处在失调的状态。 二、弗洛伊德的人格结构理论的例证 本小结将利用弗洛伊德的人格结构理论来分析几个例子。 我们先来看看第一次十字军东征的例子。据《罗马帝国衰亡史》记载,耶路撒冷城破之后,“骑士们摧毁了大清真寺,其中的七十盏明灯和巨大的金银制成的花瓶全部被毁坏或抢掠一空。他们就这样回馈了坦克雷德的奋勇,就这样展示了他的宽宏。一场血腥的屠杀被这些朝圣者们献祭给基督徒的上帝。在这场屠杀里,反抗只会激起骑士们的怒火,无论是老人孩子还是女人都无法幸免。骑士们让自己沉浸在这混乱肮脏的杀戮里整整三天,然后成堆溃烂的尸体造成了新的大规模传染病。七万穆斯林被交付了屠刀,无辜的犹太人在他们教堂里被烧死,而那些幸存下来的人,只能感谢他们的家产,或是骑士们杀戮之后的疲惫。” 为什么会出现这种情况?这时候的人到底是受到本我的支配、自我的支配还是超我的支配?私以为此时人格中本我和超我是同时沿着完全一致的方向前行的,换句话说,此时人既受到本我的支配,也受到了超我的支配。 在我们看到耶路撒冷的惨状时,我们更倾向于相信此时的人仅仅是受到了本我的支配,他们发动东征是为了满足自己得到救赎和获得东方大量的财富的欲望,在这种情形下,他们是为本我所驱。 但我们再来看另一段记载,“在十字军的时代,无论是东方还是西方教会的教徒们,都确信十字军们品德优秀、师出有名。或许有些异议淹没在对圣经无尽的滥用和巧辩上,但人们都坚信自己对于信仰和生存权利的守卫、对于圣城无可争议的拥有,也相信那些异教徒穆斯林敌人渎神的罪恶。 ”这段话表明了,在当时的社会规则下,他们的行为是被社会所认可且接纳的。从表面看起来,“收复圣地,援助东方基督教徒”的行为似乎是受到超我的支配,因为超我正是由价值、规范和理想构成的。 这样的话,无论是从受本我支配还是受超我支配的方面解释都是不恰当的,我们就需要采取另一种解释了。他们通过这样的做法,既服从了他们已经内化的社会规则,又从中获得了感官和心理上的快乐。此时,本我具有了超我的功能,人们的自我无法正确客观的判断自己的行为,这是非常危险的情形。 然而实际情况还要远比这个复杂,他们获得了来自做正确的事情(超我满足)和做快乐的事情(自我满足)双重的满足,表现出弗洛伊德人格结构理论的复杂性,本我、自我、超我不能单纯的分开来分析或者两两简单的相加,不管是本我征服超我,还是超我征服本我,其情形都是错综复杂的。 再来看看另一个简单的例子。逛街的时候我看到了水果摊上的苹果,现在我非常想去吃,这时我会选择拿钱去买,而不是去偷,因为我认为偷东西是一件很不道德的事情。 根据人格结构理论来分析。当我看到苹果产生想吃的愿望之时,是受到了本我的驱使,我想要满足我的这种愿望;为了吃到苹果,我选择了拿钱去买而不是去偷,这是受到了自我的影响,自我苦苦的挣扎,既要满足我的这个愿望,又要采取与外部现实环境相适应的最好的方式;当我想到偷东西是一件非常不道德的行为的时候,这是超我在起作用,超我并不考虑我是否必须得到这个苹果,它仅仅让我将我已经内化了的社会道德规范再次涌现并服从。 可以看到,其实我们行为基本都可以用人格结构理论来分析,这也是弗洛伊德对人性的剖析,通过以上的解释和例子,我们可以充分了解到了弗洛伊德对人的理解。 总而言之,弗洛伊德认为,本我是人的本性,人不需要消灭本我,当然这也是不可能被消灭的,我们必须学会管束本我。这个管束,可以靠自我,也可以靠超我。自我是通过后天的学习和对环境的接触发展起来的,自我会出于现实考虑而约束本我,而超我对本我的管理是通过道德评价的方式,当然,这个必须要有个度,不然面对过于强烈的超我,会造成抑郁自杀或者暴行的不良后果,三者必须处于平衡的状态。 参考文献: [1] 西格蒙德•弗洛伊德, 精神分析引论新讲[M],安徽文艺出版社 1987-1 [2] 西格蒙德•弗洛伊德, 自我与本我[M],上海译文出版社 2011-10 [3] 爱德华•吉本, 罗马帝国衰亡史(第六卷),[M]吉林出版集团有限责任公司, 2008-04 [4] 亨克•德•贝格, 被误读百年的弗洛伊德 [M]金城出版社, 2010-6

有关英国文化The culture of the United Kingdom is rich and varied, and has been influential on culture on a worldwide scale. It is a European state, and has many cultural links with its former colonies, particularly those that use the English language (the Anglosphere). Considerable contributions to British culture have been made over the last half-century by immigrants from the Indian Subcontinent and the West Indies. The origins of the UK as a political union of formerly independent states has resulted in the preservation of distinctive cultures in each of the home nations. Language Main article: Languages in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom has no official language. English is the main language and the de facto official language, spoken monolingually by an estimated 95% of the UK population. However, some nations and regions of the UK have frameworks for the promotion of their autochthonous languages. In Wales, English and Welsh are both widely used by officialdom, and Irish and Ulster Scots enjoy limited use alongside English in Northern Ireland, mainly in publicly commissioned translations. Additionally, the Western Isles council area of Scotland has a policy to promote Scottish Gaelic. Under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which is not legally enforceable, the UK Government has committed itself to the promotion of certain linguistic traditions. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish are to be developed in Wales, Scotland and Cornwall respectively. Other native languages afforded such protection include Irish in Northern Ireland, Scots in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where it is known in official parlance as "Ulster Scots" or "Ullans" but in the speech of users simply as "Scotch", and British Sign Language. The Arts Literature Sherlock Holmes, played here by Jeremy Brett, was created by British author Arthur Conan Doyle.Main article: British literature The earliest native literature of the territory of the modern United Kingdom was written in the Celtic languages of the isles. The Welsh literary tradition stretches from the 6th century. Irish poetry also represents a more or less unbroken tradition from the 6th century to the present day, with the Ulster Cycle being of particular relevance to Northern Ireland. Anglo-Saxon literature includes Beowulf, a national epic, but literature in Latin predominated among educated elites. After the Norman Conquest Anglo-Norman literature brought continental influences to the isles. English literature emerged as a recognisable entity in the late 14th century, with the rise and spread of the London dialect of Middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer is the first great identifiable individual in English literature: his Canterbury Tales remains a popular 14th-century work which readers still enjoy today. Following the introduction of the printing press into England by William Caxton in 1476, the Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the fields of poetry and drama. From this period, poet and playwright William Shakespeare stands out as arguably the most famous writer in the world. The English novel became a popular form in the 18th century, with Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe (1719), Samuel Richardson's Pamela (1740) and Henry Fielding's Tom Jones (1745). After a period of decline, the poetry of Robert Burns revived interest in vernacular literature, the rhyming weavers of Ulster being especially influenced by literature in Scots from Scotland. The following two centuries continued a huge outpouring of literary production. In the early 19th century, the Romantic period showed a flowering of poetry comparable with the Renaissance two hundred years earlier, with such poets as William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and Lord Byron. The Victorian period was the golden age of the realistic English novel, represented by Jane Austen, the Brontë sisters (Charlotte, Emily and Anne), Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, George Eliot, and Thomas Hardy. World War One gave rise to British war poets and writers such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, Robert Graves and Rupert Brooke who wrote (often paradoxically), of their expectations of war, and/or their experiences in the trench. The Celtic Revival stimulated new appreciation of traditional Irish literature, however, with the independence of the Irish Free State, Irish literature came to be seen as more clearly separate from the strains of British literature. The Scottish Renaissance of the early 20th century brought modernism to Scottish literature as well as an interest in new forms in the literatures of Scottish Gaelic and Scots. The English novel developed in the 20th century into much greater variety and was greatly enriched by immigrant writers. It remains today the dominant English literary form. Other well-known novelists include Arthur Conan Doyle, D. H. Lawrence, George Orwell, Salman Rushdie, Mary Shelley, Zadie Smith, J. R. R. Tolkien, Virginia Woolf and J.K. Rowling. Important poets include Elizabeth Barrett Browning, T. S. Eliot, Ted Hughes, John Milton, Alfred Tennyson, Rudyard Kipling, Alexander Pope, and Dylan Thomas. Religion Main article: Religion in the United Kingdom Although today one of the most 'secularised' states in the world, the United Kingdom is traditionally a Christian country, with two of the Home nations having official faiths: Anglicanism, in the form of the Church of England, is the Established Church in England. The Queen is Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Presbyterianism (Church of Scotland) is the official faith in Scotland. The Anglican Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920. The Anglican Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1871. Other religions followed in the UK include Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Judaism, and Buddhism. While 2001 census information [2] suggests that over 75 percent of UK citizens consider themselves to belong to a religion, Gallup International reports that only 10 percent of UK citizens regularly attend religious services, compared to 15 percent of French citizens and 57 percent of American citizens. A 2004 YouGov poll found that 44 percent of UK citizens believe in God, while 35 percent do not [3]. The disparity between the census data and the YouGov data has been put down to a phenomenon described as "cultural Christianity", whereby many who do not believe in God still identify with the religion they were bought up as, or the religion of their parents. [edit] Food Main article: British cuisine Although there is ample evidence of a rich and varied approach to cuisine during earlier historical periods (particularly so amongst wealthy citizens), during much of the 19th and 20th century Britain had a reputation for somewhat conservative cuisine. The stereotype of the native cuisine was of a diet progressing little beyond stodgy meals consisting of "meat and two veg". Even today, in more conservative areas of the country, "meat and two veg" cuisine is still the favoured choice at the dinner table. Traditional British fare usually includes dishes such as fish and chips, roast dishes of beef, lamb, chicken and pork, as well as regional dishes such as the Cornish pasty and Lancashire Hotpot. On 8 January 1940, four months after the outbreak of World War II, a system of food Rationing was introduced to conserve stocks and feed the nation during the critical war years. Rationing persisted until July 4, 1954 [4] when a fourteen year period of relative privation (which profoundly affected a generation of people attitude to 'a culture of food') finally came to an end. With the end of rationing, Britain's diet began to change, slowly at first during the 1950s and 1960s, but immeasurably by the closing decades of the 20th century. During the transitional period of the 1970s, a number of influential figures such as Delia Smith (perhaps Britain's most famous homegrown exponent of good food), began the drive to encourage greater experimentation with the new ingredients (e.g. pasta) increasingly being offered by the supermarkets. The evolution of the British diet was further accelerated with the increasing tendency of the British to travel to continental Europe (and sometimes beyond) for their annual holidays, experiencing new and unfamiliar dishes as they travelled to countries such as France, Italy, and Spain. Towards the mid to late 1990s and onwards an explosion of talented new 'TV chefs' began to come to prominence, (with figures as diverse as Jamie Oliver, Ainsley Harriott, Ken Hom, Nigella Lawson, Madhur Jaffrey, Nigel Slater, and Keith Floyd) this brought about a noticeable acceleration in the diversity of cuisine the general public were prepared to try and their general confidence in preparing food that had would once have been considered pure staples of foreign cultures, particularly the Mediterranean European, South and East Asian diets. As a result, a new style of cooking called Modern British emerged. This process of increased variety and experimentation in food inevitably dovetailed with the very profound impact that the post-war influx of immigrants to the UK (many from Britain's former colonies in the Caribbean and Indian sub-continent) had on the national cuisine. The new communities propelled new and exciting dishes and ingredients onto restaurant tables and into the national consciousness. In many instances, British tastes fused with the new dishes to produce entirely new dishes such as the Balti, an English invention based on Indian cuisine that has since gained popularity across the world. Many of these new dishes have since become deeply embedded in the native culture, culminating in a speech in 2001 by Foreign Secretary, Robin Cook, in which he described Chicken Tikka Masala as 'a true British national dish' [5]. With the rich diversity of its peoples and its (arguably) relatively successful attempts at creating a true multicultural society, married to a reputation as an experimental and forward thinking nation, the future of British cuisine looks positive. [edit] Education University College, Oxford was founded in the 13th centuryMain article: Education in the United Kingdom The education system in the United Kingdom varies in important respects between England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Education is devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the assemblies in Wales and Northern Ireland. Education is compulsory for all children between the ages of five and sixteen. Most children in the UK are educated in state funded schools financed through the tax system and so parents do not pay directly for the cost of education. Less than ten percent of the UK school age population attend independent fee-paying schools. Many prominent independent schools, often founded hundreds of years ago, are known as public schools of which Eton, Harrow and Rugby are three of the better known. Most primary and secondary schools in both the private and state sectors have compulsory school uniforms. This is a contentious point with generations of school children who would like to see them abolished, only to support their retention once they become parents, this is due to people wanting to have a 'uniform' appearance in schools and it reduces the brand logo culture from coming out in educational establishments. Due to the multicultural nature of England, some allowances have had to be made in the uniform regulations to accommodate the needs of some children's religious beliefs. [edit] England Main article Education in England Most schools came under state control in the Victorian era, a formal state school system was instituted after the Second World War. Initially schools were separated into infant schools (normally up to age 4 or 5), primary schools and secondary schools (split into more academic grammar schools and more vocational secondary modern schools). Under the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s most secondary modern and grammar schools were combined to become comprehensive schools. Although the Minister of Education is responsible to Parliament for education, the day to day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of Local Education Authorities. Northern Ireland Main article Education in Northern Ireland Scotland Main article Education in Scotland Wales Main article Education in Wales Higher education The United Kingdom includes many historic universities. These include the so-called Oxbridge universities (Oxford University and Cambridge University) which are amongst the world's oldest universities and are generally ranked at or near the top of all British universities. Other universities include the University of St Andrews, the oldest university in Scotland. Academic degrees are usually split into classes: first class (I), upper second class (II:1), lower second class (II:2) and third (III), and unclassified (below third class). [Sport Main article: Sport in the United Kingdom The national sport of the UK is football, and the UK has the oldest football clubs in the world. The home nations all have separate national teams and domestic competitions, most notably the Scottish Premier League, the FA Cup and the FA Premier League. The first ever international football match was between Scotland and England in 1872. The match ended goalless. Other famous British sporting events include the Wimbledon tennis championships, the Grand National, the London Marathon, the ashes series of cricket matches and the boat race between Oxford and Cambridge universities. A great number of major sports originated in the United Kingdom, including: Football (soccer), squash, golf, boxing, rugby (rugby union and rugby league), cricket, snooker, billiards, badminton and curling. National costume The kilt is a traditional Scottish garmentThere is no specifically British national costume. Even individually, England, Wales and Northern Ireland have only vestiges of a national costume; Scotland has the kilt and Tam o'shanter. In England certain military uniforms such as the Beefeater or the Queen's Guard are considered by tourists to be symbolic of Englishness, however they are not official national costumes. Morris dancers or the costumes for the traditional English may dance are cited by some as examples of traditional English costume. Naming convention The naming convention in most of the United Kingdom is for everyone to have a given name, usually (but not always) indicating the child's sex, followed by a parent's family name. This naming convention has remained much the same since the 15th century in England although patronymic naming remained in some of the further reaches of the other home nations until much later. Since the 19th century middle names have become very common and are often taken from the family name of an ancestor. Traditionally given names were largely taken from the Bible however in the Gothic Revival of the Victorian era Anglo Saxon and mythical names became commonplace. Since the middle of the 20th century however given names have been influenced by a much wider cultural base. 英国式足球(Wall game)的英文介绍Wall gameWally (pronounced Wall - ey ) is a groupe of games played predominantly in secondary schools in England. The games are generally played during breaks and require a wall and tennis ball or football. Numbers involved in games range from four to 30-ish; however, numbers become unmanageable beyond 15.How to playUsing a tennis ball The game is played against a stretch of wall with a smooth flat surface underneath. The wall should preferably be above two meters (although skilled players never use more than meter). The ball is 'served' by throwing the ball hard at the ground and making it bounce on to the wall; this is normally done from two to three meters away from the wall. Players then have to hit the ball in the cupped palm of their hand towards the wall ensuring that it bounces on the ground before it hits the wall. A player is out if they fail to hit the ball, fail to make the ball bounce before hitting the wall, or miss the wall. The winner is the last person left in.A tennis raquet can be used instead of handsUsing a football The rules are the same although the ball is kicked rather than hit with the handDetailed RulesThe length of wall is changeable depending on the number of players but generally stays under eight meters. Players can call for a re-serve if they feel there was a bad serve; this can only be done before the ball is hit. The person who is nearest to the ball is the one that has to hit it. Failure to do so results in them being out. Players can step out of the way of the ball if there is someone behind them, thus making the person behind them responsible for hitting the ball. If two players begin to claim the other person was nearer to the ball then both players are out. The ball is sometimes aimed at other players because they are out if the ball hits them. If the ball hits the joining of the wall and floor (a '50/50') players can call for the round to start again. Playing StyleThe game is played differently to the way the rules would suggest. The playing style is fast and furious and when well-played the ball is hit very hard and low to the ground three or four meters away from the wall. Playing occasionally changes to the ball being hit very softy close to the wall requiring players to be very close to the wall; this is generally used tactically as players can then hit the ball hard so that it shoots off almost parallel to the wall catching out people who had not been playing close to the wall. This tactic generally only last a round or part of one as it is considered unsporting.VariationsThere are a few variations of the game although they are played with less frequency than the main game. 'Stings' is played exactly the same as the normal game except at the end of a game the first person has to stand against the wall while the winner gets one shoot against them with the ball. '3D' wally is generally played in corridors or classrooms, in this variant of the game 2 or 3 walls are used as well as the roof.

sars论文的参考文献有哪些

论文的参考文献格式怎么写

关键字:社会、经济、文化、风俗习惯等因素摘要:随着卫生设施的改善、医疗水平的提高以及人类文明的不断发展,诸如霍乱、天花等曾经肆虐全球的传染性疾病已经得到有效的控制。但是一些新的、不断变异着的传染病毒却悄悄向人类袭来。20世纪80年代十分险恶的爱滋病毒开始肆虐全球,至今带来极大的危害。长期以来,建立制止传染病蔓延的手段等,一直是各国有关专家和官员关注的课题。不同类型传染病的传播过程有其各自不同的特点,弄清这些特点需要相当多的病理知识,这里不可能从医学的角度一一分析各种传染病的传播,而只是按照一般的传播模型机理建立几种模型。模型1在这个最简单的模型中,设时刻t的病人人数x(t)是连续、可微函数,方程(1)的解为结果表明,随着t的增加,病人人数x(t)无限增长,这显然是不符合实际的。建模失败的原因在于:在病人有效接触的人群中,有健康人也有病人,而其中只有健康人才可以被传染为病人,所以在改进的模型中必须区别这两种人。模型2SI模型假设条件为1.在疾病传播期内所考察地区的总人数N不变,即不考虑生死,也不考虑迁移。人群分为易感染者(Susceptible)和已感染者(Infective)两类(取两个词的第一个字母,称之为SI模型),以下简称健康者和病人。时刻t这两类人在总人数中所占比例分别记作s(t)和i(t)。2.每个病人每天有效接触的平均人数是常数,称为日接触率。当病人与健康者接触时,使健康者受感染变为病人。方程(5)是Logistic模型。它的解为这时病人增加的最快,可以认为是医院的门诊量最大的一天,预示着传染病高潮的到来,是医疗卫生部门关注的时刻其原因是模型中没有考虑到病人可以治愈,人群中的健康者只能变成病人,病人不会再变成健康者。模型3SIR模型大多数传染病如天花、流感、肝炎、麻疹等治愈后均有很强的免疫力,所以病愈的人即非健康者(易感染者),也非病人(已感染者),他们已经退出传染系统。这种情况比较复杂,下面将详细分析建模过程。模型假设1.总人数N不变。人群分为健康者、病人和病愈免疫的移出者(Removed)三类,称SIR模型。三类人在总数N中占的比例分别记作s(t),i(t)和r(t)。病人的日接触率为l,日治愈率为m(与SI模型相同),传染期接触为s=l/m。模型构成由假设1显然有s(t)+i(t)+r(t)=1(12)根据条件2方程(8)仍然成立。对于病愈免疫的移出者而言有方程(14)无法求出s(t)和i(t)的解析解,我们先作数值计算。模型4SIR模型SIR模型是指易感染者被传染后变为感染者,感病者可以被治愈,并会产生免疫力,变为移除者。人员流动图为:S-I-R。大多数传染者如天花流感肝炎麻疹等治愈后均有很强的免疫力,所以冰域的人即非易感者,也非感病者,因此他们将被移除传染系统,我们称之为移除者,记为R类假设:1总人数为常数,且i(t)+s(t)+r(t)=n;2单位时间内一个病人能传染的人数与当时健康者人数成正比,比例系数为k(传染强度)。3单位时间内病愈免疫的人数与当时的病人人数成正比,比例系数l。称为恢复系数。可得方程:模型分析:由以上方程组的:=p/s-1p=l/k,所以i=plns/-s+n.容易看出当t无限大时i(t)=0;而当p时,i(t)单调下将趋于零;上批示,i(t)先单调上升的最高峰,然后再单调下降趋于零。所以这里仍然出现了门槛现象:p是一个门槛。从p的意义可知,应该降低传染率,提高回复率,即提高卫生医疗水平。令t→∞可得:―=2*(―p)/p所以:δps0=p+δ,当时,s≈2δ,这也就解释了本文开头的问题,即统一地区一种传染病每次流行时,被传染的人数大致不变。模型的应用与推广:根据传染病的模型建立研究进而推广产生了传染病动力学模型。传染病动力学[1]是对进行理论性定量研究的一种重要方法,是根据种群生长的特性,疾病的发生及在种群内的传播,发展规律,以及与之有关的社会等因素,建立能反映传染病动力学特性的数学模型,通过对模型动力学性态的定性,定量分析和数值模拟,来分析疾病的发展过程,揭示流行规律,预测变化趋势,分析疾病流行的原因和关键。对于2003年发生的SARS疫情,国内外学者建立了大量的动力学模型研究其传播规律和趋势,研究各种隔离预防措施的强度对控制流行的作用,为决策部门提供参考.有关SARS传播动力学研究多数采用的是SIR或SEIR模型.评价措施效果或拟合实际流行数据时,往往通过改变接触率和感染效率两个参数的值来实现.石耀霖[2]建了SARS传播的系统动力学模型,以越南的数据为参考,进行了MonteCarlo实验,初步结果表明,感染率及其随时间的变化是影响SARS传播的最重要因素.蔡全才[3]建立了可定量评价SARS干预措施效果的传播动力学模型,并对北京的数据进行了较好的拟合.参考文献:[1]姜启源编辅导课程(九)主讲教师:邓磊[2]西北工业大学(数学建模)精品课程[3]耀霖.SARS传染扩散的动力学随机模型[J].科学通报,2003,48(13)1373-1377附录:[1]数学建模就是用数学语言描述实际现象的过程。这里的实际现象既包涵具体的自然现象比如自由落体现象,也包涵抽象的现象比如顾客对某种商品所取的价值倾向。这里的描述不但包括外在形态,内在机制的描述,也包括预测,试验和解释实际现象等内容[2]数学建模的几个过程:模型准备:了解问题的实际背景,明确其实际意义,掌握对象的各种信息。用数学语言来描述问题。模型假设:根据实际对象的特征和建模的目的,对问题进行必要的简化,并用精确的语言提出一些恰当的假设。模型建立:在假设的基础上,利用适当的数学工具来刻划各变量之间的数学关系,建立相应的数学结构。(尽量用简单的数学工具)模型求解:利用获取的数据资料,对模型的所有参数做出计算(估计)。模型分析:对所得的结果进行数学上的分析。模型检验:将模型分析结果与实际情形进行比较,以此来验证模型的准确性、合理性和适用性。如果模型与实际较吻合,则要对计算结果给出其实际含义,并进行解释。如果模型与实际吻合较差,则应该修改假设,再次重复建模过程。模型应用:应用方式因问题的性质和建模的目的而异。

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