关于“Modern Architecture”的Modern architecture, not to be confused with 'contemporary architecture', is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification of form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building.1. OriginsSome historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions. Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his ‘fireproof’ design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description, "Dark satanic mills" of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new.2. Modernism as Dominant Style By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright's career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style.This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984. Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as "machines for living", but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was "bored with the box." Since the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern architecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a "style" that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[1] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.
In the past decade, the concept of a second-order or an advanced analysis has been described in various national design codes of practice such as the Load and Resistance Factor Design Specifi- cation for Structural Steel Buildings ( 1986 ) and the Australia standards ( AS4100 1990 ) . Unlike the 1inear analysis where checking of member strength against instability and second-order effect is carried out by the element design formulas in the codes, the second-order analysis automatically includes the effects of these nonlinear terms. As a result of this, stress, allowing for the second- order P-δand P-△ effects, can be automatically computed and compared with the factored yield stress, or the design strength, in the analysis so that the empirical approach to amplify the moment due to a large change of geometry becomes unnecessary, resulting in much convenience and accuracy. In addition, the second-order and advanced analysis--including various linear and nonlinear terms for a more accurate computation of member forces and moments-provides a much more effective and accurate means of assessing the strength, stability, and serviceability of a structure and is expected to be widely accepted by the engineer, provided that an effective and robust analysis method is available This "integrated design and analysis approach "is aimed at using a sophisticated second-order analysis to design practical steel frames fulfilling the design code requirements. A literature survey shows that typical second-order analysis methods ignore many important characteristics and requirements for practical design, including the member initial imperfection and its direction, consistency between the linear and the nonlinear models due to the need to use several elements per member for a second-order analysis, and loads along members. The proposed method includes these terms so that it can be used to directly design real and practical steel frames fulfilling the advanced analysis requirement.中文：过去十年中，二阶或高等分析的概念在各种国内设计规范中被描述，例如结构钢建筑负载和抗性因子设计规格( 1986 ) 和澳大利亚标准 ( AS4100 1990 ) 。不同于线性分析用规范中的元设计方程来执行构件强度反不稳定性和二阶效应的检查，二阶分析自动地包括这些非线性条件的效果。结果是应力允许二阶P-δ和P-△效应，可被自动地计算并与屈服应力或设计强度相比较，以便在分析中不再需要因几何形状的巨变而扩大力矩的经验方法，结果更方便、精确。此外，二阶与高等分析--包括更精确的构件力-力矩计算的各种线性和非线性条件，并提供更有效和更精确的结构强度、稳定性和适用性估计方法，可望被工程师广泛接受，提供一个有效的分析法是可行的。"综合设计和分析进展"针对使用复杂的二阶分析去实施规范需要的应用钢框架设计。一篇文献调查认为典型的二阶分析法忽视了许多重要的特性和实践设计需要，包括构件初始不完整性和它的方向，线性和非线性模型之间的一致性因为需要对每构件几个元件作二阶分析，和沿构件的负载。建议的方法包括这些条款以便它能直接用于实现高等分析要求的设计和应用钢框架。
【1】 王火利,章润娣，工程建设项目管理〔M〕,中国水利电力出版社, 2005.【2】 任多鑫,企业改革与标准化管理[J],管理现代化,1983年03期.【3】 冯玉清，从大连开发区看推行混凝土商品化的必要性[J]，建筑经济,1985【4】 张宽权,曹居易. 建筑工程质量管理〔M〕,四川大学出版社,2006年版.【5】 王佩建,浅谈建筑施工企业的文明施工管理[J],建材技术与应用,2007.【6】 陈永良,试论如何加强建筑企业文明施工管理[J],大众科技,2007,(03).【7】 陈桂久,施工项目动态管理〔M〕.企业管理出版社，2002年版.【8】 康宝锟,如何改进建筑企业大堆材料的管理和核算[J]，财会通讯，1982.2、 章克凌.《机械化施工组织与管理》[M].北京：机械工业出版社.2002；3、 邓学才.《施工组织的编制与实施》[M].北京：中国建材工业出版社.2002；4、 黄展东.《建筑施工组织与管理》[M].北京：中国环境科学出版社.2003；5、 吴根宝.《建筑施工组织》[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社.2001；6、 糜嘉平.模板工程施工专业化是必然趋势.[J].施工技术，2008，37（8）：24；8、 李书全.《土木工程施工》。上海：同济大学出版社.2004；9、 阎西康、张厚先、赵春艳.《建筑工程施工》.北京：人民交通出版社.2006；10、 江景波、赵志缙.《建筑施工》.上海：同济大学出版社.1990；11、 江见鲸.《土木工程施工》[M].北京：中国建筑出版社.2006；12、 江见鲸.《建筑工程管理与实务》[M].北京：中国建筑出版社.2007；13、 孟新田.《土木工程概预算与清单计价》[M].北京：高等教育出版社.2008；14、 丛培经.《工程项目管理》[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社.2008；15、 胡运权.《运筹教程》[M].北京：清华大学出版社.2008；16、 邹化烨、李为民、刘敏.施工组织设计的编制[J].水利天地.1997、06.26~27；17、 工程施工组织设计规范与施工规范实用全书[M].北京：中国城市出版社.1999、12； 19、 林锷.《预算与施工组织》[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社.2003.
迪拜帆船酒店In Dubai, say again name-drop hotels sailing hotel. The world's most luxurious hotel in the United Arab Emirates territory of Dubai, it is the hotel sailing on the first of the seven star hotels. Located in the Middle East in the united Arab emirates emirate of Dubai city in Dubai.。"The idea is initially porcelain hotel by the united Arab emirates defense minister. Dubai, o prince, mark the figure, his dream to Dubai a Sydney opera house, the Eiffel Tower type of landmark. Through the world hundreds of stylist strange think of clever want, plus one great pocket money in Dubai and 5 years and finally created a fantastic architecture - will be powerful Islamic styles and extremely costly adornment and high-tech means, building perfect combination, the building itself won.Hotel by the British designer w.s.Atkins, appearance as a drum design filled with wind sail, a total of 56 layer, 321 meters high, is the highest in the world than in France, the Eiffel Tower hotel is on high. And splendid hotel suite, let you feel the king Arabian oil. All the rooms are two 202 of floor area of room, suite are 170 square meters, But the most widespread royal suite, more 780 meters. And all is be born glazing, can face of the Arabian sea. The most surprising is entered the room, had a steward waiting room with you explain how to use the high-tech facilities, for luxury honorable service tenet is must have the tenant is king, Arab oil in ruthlessly surprise, also let a person plaint the power of money. The most common in the luxury suites, for example, including curtain and the light switch is on the desk, laptops, Toshiba, hang on the wall can access the painting is full is authentic.Time."Porcelain engineering spent five years time, two and a half years in the Arabian sea islands, fill out two and a half years time in building itself, the use of the steel, and 9,000 tones of 250 foundation piles construction in 40 meters deep.This looks like a moving images of the hotel built in sailing on the beach, is a new form of tower a sailing. Name-drop hotels is one of the world's highest building only seven-star hotels (because of hotel equipment was too high, far more than five standards, had an exception says it do seven-star), established in December 1999, it is built in from the shoreline 280 meters are man-made Sumerian The latest name-drop hotels mix of architecture and engineering technology, charming scenery and modeling, making it look like and sky.Name-drop hotels were 56 layers, 321 meters high, higher than the Eiffel Tower in France. Hotel using double membrane structure forms, modeling is lightsome, elegant, strong membrane structure characteristics and modern style. It has double rooms, 202 of 200 meters high overlooks Dubai city restaurant. To name- drop hotels, you can realize the real meaning of "resplendent and magnificent”. It is the atrium, it's the golden most luxurious 780 meters in the presidential suite is luxuriant, especially in the first 25, furniture is plated with gold, and with a cinema, two bedrooms, a living room, one dining room between two, have special elevator. Room area from 170 square meters to 780 meters. Seven-star hotels, the lowest price affirmation is to $900, presidential suites are to 1.8 million dollars. The hotel owns eight BMW and two Rolls Royce, for all passengers directly between airports, also can from the hotel and layer 4-storey airport, 15 minutes by helicopter overlooking scenery. Air in Dubai, Guests like seafood restaurant meal, they will be in by submarines to restaurants, so they can enjoy sea before dinner.In 1999 autumn porcelain hotel opening door, welcome completion. It’s luxurious degree breathtaking, experts are very difficult, I don't know which gives it a few stars, star, or five, six stars? It is without precedent, give out an exact result. Someone said, "Porcelain should to seven. Actually, a few stars in the world is not important, the key is the hotel ", "the desert and ocean between buildings and raise the human excellence of thinking and Hollywood's dream. Standing on the seashore of artificial islands, resembling a sailing, body, from head to foot article 56 layer, up 321 meters, with double rooms, in 202 set on the location of the building of the luxury restaurant overlooking the city, also a global finished top garden atrium。
你看下，vip英语论文这方面的东西比较多
Building Types and Design A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in . As classified by their use, buildings are mainly of two types: industrial buildingsand civil buildings.Industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling, employment, education and other social activities. Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds, in such fields as the mining industry, the metallurgical industry, machine building, the chemical industry and the textile industry.Factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones. The construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings. However, industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used. Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings. Residential buildings should suit family life. Each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms: a living room, a kitchen and a toilet. Public buildings can beused in politics, cultural activities, administration work and other services, such as schools, office buildings, parks, hospitals, shops, stations, theatres, gymnasiums, hotels, exhibition halls, bath pools, and so on. All of them have different functions, which in turn require different design types as well. Before any of the building can begin, plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like, the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms, which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relationto the purposes for which they are intended.In a dwelling house, the layout may be considered under three categories: “day”, “night”, and “services”. Attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas. The “day “rooms generally include a dining-room, sitting-room and kitchen, but other rooms, such as a study, may be added, and there may be a hall. The living-room, which is generally the largest, often serves as a dining-room, too, or the kitchen may have a dining alcove. The “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms. The “services “comprise the kitchen, bathrooms, larder, and water-closets. The kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms.It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms, and those most in use should preferably face south as possible. It is, however, often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements, both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads. In resolving these complex problems, it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities, density of population, height of buildings, proportion of green space to dwellings, building lines, the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood, and so on. There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations. The modern trend is towards light, airy factory buildings. Generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction, a factory can be given a “shed” type ridge roof, incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare.摘自一片建筑学论文，具体我忘了，希望可以帮到你。
英文参考文献标准格式
参考文献是学术论文的重要组成部分，它的作用众所周知，在此不再赘述。参考文献是英语论文的重要组成部分，也是编辑加工和重要内容。为帮助大家顺利完成学术论文的撰写，我为大家介绍英语论文参考文献格式要求，欢迎阅读。
学位论文参考文献的.格式
丨 期刊
期刊作者.题名[J].刊名，出版年，卷(期)：起止页码
周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等.固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的溶解度[J].化工学报，1995，46(3)：317 323
Dobbs J M, WongJ M. Modification of supercritical fluid phasebehavior using polorcoselvent[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987,26:56
刘仲能，金文清.合成医药中间体4-甲基咪唑的研究[J].精细化工，(2)：103-105
Mesquita A C,Mori M N, Vieira J M, et al . Vinyl acetatepolymerization by ionizingradiation[J].Radiation Physics and Chemistry,2002, 63:465
丨 专著
专著作者.书名[M].版本(第一版不著录).出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码
蒋挺大.亮聚糖[M].北京：化学工业出版社，2001.127
Kortun G.Reflectance Spectroscopy[M]. New York: Spring-Verlag,1969
丨 论文集
论文集作者.题名[C].编者.论文集名.出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码
郭宏,王熊,刘宗林.膜分离技术在大豆分离蛋白生产中综合利用的研究[C].余立新.第三届全国膜和膜过程学术报告会议论文集.北京：高教出版社,1999.421-425
Eiben A E,vander Hauw J K.Solving 3-SAT with adaptive geneticalgorithms [C].Proc 4th IEEEConfEvolutionary Computation.Piscataway:IEEE Press,1997.81-86
丨 学位论文
学位论文作者.题名[D].保存地点：保存单位，年份
陈金梅.氟石膏生产早强快硬水泥的试验研究(D).西安：西安建筑科学大学,2000
ChrisstoffelsL A J . Carrier-facilitated transport as a mechanistic tool insupramolecular chemistry[D].The Netherland：TwenteUniversity.1988
丨 专利文献
专利文献题名[P].国别，专利文献种类，专利号.出版日期
仲前昌夫， 佐藤寿昭. 感光性树脂[ P ]. 日本， 特开平
Hasegawa,Toshiyuki, Yoshida,et al.Paper Coating composition[P].EP 0634524.1995-01-18
Yamaguchi K,Hayashi A. Plant growth promotor and productionthereof [P].Jpn,Jp1290606.1999-11-22
丨 技术标准文献
标准标准编号，标准名称[S]
ISO 1210-1982，塑料 小试样接触火焰法测定塑料燃烧性[S]
GB 2410-80，透明塑料透光率及雾度实验方法[S]
丨 报纸
报纸作者.题名[N].报纸名，出版日期(版次)
陈志平.减灾设计研究新动态[N].科技日报，1997-12-12(5)
丨 报告
报告作者.题名[R].保存地点：年份
中国机械工程学会.密相气力输送技术[R].北京：1996
丨 电子文献
电子文献作者.题名[电子文献及载体类型标识].文献出处，日期
万锦柔.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983-1993)[DB/CD].北京：中国百科全书出版社，1996
文献类型及其标识
根据GB3469 规定：
①期刊[J]
②专著[M]
③论文集[C]
④学位论文[D]
⑤专利[P]
⑥标准[S]
⑦报纸[N]
⑧技术报告[R]
电子文献载体类型用双字母标识，例如：
①磁带[MT]
②磁盘[DK]
③光盘[CD]
④联机网络[OL]
①联机网上数据库[DB/OL]
②磁带数据库[DB/MT]
③光盘图书[M/CD]
④磁盘软件[CP/DK]
⑤网上期刊[J/OL]
⑥网上电子公告[EB/OL]
英文文献采用 APA格式
丨 单一作者著作的书籍：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Sheril, R. D.(1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego:Halstead.
丨 两位作者以上合著的书籍：
姓，名字首字母., & 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992).Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON:McMaster University Press.
丨 文集中的文章：
Mcdonalds, A.(1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment ofsupernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies:Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London: OtherWorld Books.
丨 期刊中的文章(非连续页码)：
Crackton, P.(1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change?Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.
丨期刊中的文章(连续页码)：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.
Rottweiler, F. T.,& Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink ofdestruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66–146.
丨月刊杂志中的文章：
Henry, W. A., III.(1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
学位论文参考文献的格式
丨 期刊
期刊作者.题名[J].刊名，出版年，卷(期)：起止页码
周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等.固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的溶解度[J].化工学报，1995，46(3)：317 323
Dobbs J M, WongJ M. Modification of supercritical fluid phasebehavior using polorcoselvent[J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987,26:56
刘仲能，金文清.合成医药中间体4-甲基咪唑的研究[J].精细化工，(2)：103-105
Mesquita A C,Mori M N, Vieira J M, et al . Vinyl acetatepolymerization by ionizingradiation[J].Radiation Physics and Chemistry,2002, 63:465
丨 专著
专著作者.书名[M].版本(第一版不著录).出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码
蒋挺大.亮聚糖[M].北京：化学工业出版社，2001.127
Kortun G.Reflectance Spectroscopy[M]. New York: Spring-Verlag,1969
丨 论文集
论文集作者.题名[C].编者.论文集名.出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码
郭宏,王熊,刘宗林.膜分离技术在大豆分离蛋白生产中综合利用的研究[C].余立新.第三届全国膜和膜过程学术报告会议论文集.北京：高教出版社,1999.421-425
Eiben A E,vander Hauw J K.Solving 3-SAT with adaptive geneticalgorithms [C].Proc 4th IEEEConfEvolutionary Computation.Piscataway:IEEE Press,1997.81-86
丨 学位论文
学位论文作者.题名[D].保存地点：保存单位，年份
陈金梅.氟石膏生产早强快硬水泥的试验研究(D).西安：西安建筑科学大学,2000
ChrisstoffelsL A J . Carrier-facilitated transport as a mechanistic tool insupramolecular chemistry[D].The Netherland：TwenteUniversity.1988
丨 专利文献
专利文献题名[P].国别，专利文献种类，专利号.出版日期
仲前昌夫， 佐藤寿昭. 感光性树脂[ P ]. 日本， 特开平
Hasegawa,Toshiyuki, Yoshida,et al.Paper Coating composition[P].EP 0634524.1995-01-18
Yamaguchi K,Hayashi A. Plant growth promotor and productionthereof [P].Jpn,Jp1290606.1999-11-22
丨 技术标准文献
标准标准编号，标准名称[S]
ISO 1210-1982，塑料 小试样接触火焰法测定塑料燃烧性[S]
GB 2410-80，透明塑料透光率及雾度实验方法[S]
丨 报纸
报纸作者.题名[N].报纸名，出版日期(版次)
陈志平.减灾设计研究新动态[N].科技日报，1997-12-12(5)
丨 报告
报告作者.题名[R].保存地点：年份
中国机械工程学会.密相气力输送技术[R].北京：1996
丨 电子文献
电子文献作者.题名[电子文献及载体类型标识].文献出处，日期
万锦柔.中国大学学报论文文摘(1983-1993)[DB/CD].北京：中国百科全书出版社，1996
文献类型及其标识
根据GB3469 规定：
①期刊[J]
②专著[M]
③论文集[C]
④学位论文[D]
⑤专利[P]
⑥标准[S]
⑦报纸[N]
⑧技术报告[R]
电子文献载体类型用双字母标识，例如：
①磁带[MT]
②磁盘[DK]
③光盘[CD]
④联机网络[OL]
①联机网上数据库[DB/OL]
②磁带数据库[DB/MT]
③光盘图书[M/CD]
④磁盘软件[CP/DK]
⑤网上期刊[J/OL]
⑥网上电子公告[EB/OL]
英文文献采用 APA格式
丨 单一作者著作的书籍：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Sheril, R. D.(1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego:Halstead.
建筑节能技术及其应用论文
无论是身处学校还是步入社会，大家对论文都再熟悉不过了吧，论文是进行各个学术领域研究和描述学术研究成果的一种说理文章。还是对论文一筹莫展吗？以下是我精心整理的建筑节能技术及其应用论文，欢迎大家借鉴与参考，希望对大家有所帮助。
摘要 ：
近些年来，随着人们生活水平的提高，人们的环保理念越来越高，而本世纪的能源消费与应用也遵循着可持续发展战略、节能优先战略与新能源技术替代战略相结合的原则，而建筑行业的发展同样遵循这样的原则，全面开展建筑节能，解决建筑节能技术问题是实现建筑可持续发展的必要前提。本文就针对建筑节能技术以及建筑节能技术的具体应用进行了详细的分析与探讨。
关键词 ：
建筑节能技术；围护结构；太阳能
近些年来，随着人们的刚需以及一些炒房者的推动，建筑行业蓬勃发展，高楼大厦如雨后春笋般陆续崛起，而建筑采暖技术、建筑空调技术以及建筑照明技术也得到了飞速的发展，这些技术为人们的生活带来更大的便利度与舒适度。国外一些发达国家应用建筑节能材料已然非常普遍，但是我国这方面还较为落后，能源浪费现象较为严重，能源损耗是发达国家的三到五倍之多。由此可见，建筑节能技术的发展与建筑节能材料的应用是国家所需，是我们发展绿色建筑的必由之路。
1建筑运用节能技术的重要性
1.1我国资源形势所迫
如果从能源总量方面统计，我国的能源占有量在世界中排列在前三名，但是同时我国也是人口大国，如果将能源平均计算下来，我国的能源人均占有量在世界上排名41名。而近些年来，我国的经济飞速发展，人们的生活质量越来越高，对于能源的需求量越来越大。在人们大量需求以及大范围开采的形势之下，我国不可再生资源例如石油等的储备量都严重下滑，而下滑的速度已经无法满足人们对于能源需求的上涨速度，人们对于煤炭的需求也日益强烈，每年的消耗量能够达到12亿吨。同时，我国的能源分配非常不协调，在天然气能源方面，东部的储备量要比西部的储备量少很多，而东西部的经济发展水平也存在一定的差距，致使天然气的开发面临各种各样的问题：东部发展迅速需要大量的天然气，而西部发展落后财力无法满足天然气开采需求。我国对于能源的利用率只有国外发达国家的三分之一。由此可见，我国的资源形势并不乐观，建筑节能技术的应用是形势所迫、时代所需，也是迫在眉睫。
1.2建筑节能是可持续发展的迫切需求
能源耗费一直都是可持续发展面临的重要问题，合理的应对能源耗费问题能够改善能源结构、改善生态环境，减少能源结构不合理而引发的人均能源不足等社会问题。而能源技术中的建筑节能技术就肩负着重要的使命，综合建筑特性与社会需求研发建筑节能技术是时代所需，降低能源损耗，追求能源的最大利用率，合理应用废弃能源，实现变废为宝，进而减少温室气体排放，延缓温室效应，降低环境负载。上个世纪末期的能源危机之后，国外一些发达国家就对建筑能耗给予了重视，这些国家的建筑能源损耗已经从危机爆发之前的300kWh/m2降低到100kWh/m2，这些只是与北京地区采暖水平相近的一类国家，而一些高于北京水平的国家的能源耗费更低。由于人们对于环保的重视，即使节能效率会对经济效益起到阻碍作用，但是在可持续发展战略的影响下，能源耗费还会降低。此外，绿色能源的利用也是有效防止能源消耗过度的重要举措，例如太阳能就在建筑节能中发挥了巨大作用，应用太阳能可以进行收集热水、发电等。
2建筑节能技术的应用
2.1墙体节能技术
墙体保温层是建筑的重要组成部分，而建筑墙体的节能技术是确保建筑节能的关键，一般采用抹灰以及干挂的方式，并结合合适的工艺来进行施工。在保温层的喷涂之前，要保证墙体基层的干燥性与清洁度，确保涂层均匀、厚度合适。干挂工艺也是重要的墙体节能技术，它主要应用在外保温中，保温能力与防水能力非常强，并且可以减少空间的利用，该技术节能效果较好，但是需要较高成本，一般应用在公共建筑中，在住宅建筑中较少。该技术综合考虑各种自然因素：雨水量、下雪量、温度值、风量等等，以确保体系的稳定性，墙体稳定性提升，能够增加墙体的使用寿命，能够减少建筑施工所需墙体材料及能源损耗。
2.2屋面节能技术
首先，是保温材料的选用。一般来讲，屋面节能在选用保温材料的时候往往考虑下面几个因素：导热性能、吸水能力、材料强度等，保温材料的类型很多，有细骨料混凝土板材质、有聚苯乙烯材质，以及一些散料与水泥共同浇筑的材质，例如炉渣等等。在屋面材料选用方面还应该考虑到设计需求与规范要求，综合各项因素之后，并要重视材料的防水性能，在施工过程中设置合理的配合比，以确保材料发挥出更好的保温性能；其次，则是房屋建筑的屋面形式。现今的房屋建筑的屋面大多采用倒置式，颠覆以往传统的保温层与防水层的排序，以确保无眠的保湿性能更加明显。传统的'屋面技术是在保温层上设置防水层，而现今应用的屋面节能技术则是在防水层上设置保温层，这是因为保温层大多采取水泥等材料，这些材料一旦出现湿润情况，他们的导热系数就会上升，造成屋内闷热，但是新型屋面节能技术却能够将两层调换，来延缓防水材料以及保温材料的老化，延长两层材料的使用寿命。
2.3门窗节能技术
门窗的密闭性以及导热性与外墙的节能性具有紧密的联系，因此在施工过程中选取合适的门窗，将取得更好的节能效果。门窗安装之前，需要选取符合需求的门窗材料，一般选择单框双层玻璃，在安装过程中，需要对窗框角度进行测量，如果出现窗框角度变形的情况，则不可以进行门窗安装，一旦在这样的情况下继续门窗安装，将会引起严重的事故。之后，选择合适密封条，保证透气与防水，如果出现缝隙较大的情况，则需要适当的采用密封剂加以封闭。同时在安装门窗之前一定要做好清洁工作，保证连接处的干燥性，这样才能够确保门窗发挥出更好的保温功效。门窗材料选择恰当，安装过程合理可靠，能够提升建筑外墙的节能性，延长建筑外墙的使用寿命，提升建筑的节能效益。
2.4太阳能节能技术
一直以来，太阳能备受环保界的推崇，它是一种清洁能源，并且储备量非常雄厚，因此在建筑领域也得到了广泛的应用。例如，在建筑房屋的时候，可以在房屋的屋顶安装太阳能发电系统，该系统能够将太阳能转换成电能，并将电能储备起来，这些电能能够满足一部分的供电需求，例如普通的动力系统等等。除此之外，建筑采暖中的供热采暖体系也会应用到太阳能技术，这些体系都是将太阳能转换成热能，并将热能储备起来，这些热能能够满足一部分的供热需求，也能够满足一部分的采光需求，大大提升了房屋建筑的节能效率。对于房屋建筑而言，太阳能技术具有天然无污染，取之不尽，用之不竭的特点，并且该技术简单易行，安全可靠，因此太阳能技术将成为建筑节能领域的重点研究对象。
3结束语
建筑节能技术是时代的发展所需，是可持续战略的重点，而要实现建筑节能，就需要考虑到建筑的方方面面，从各方面采取节能技术，才能够实现有效的节能。大力发展墙体节能技术、屋面节能技术、门窗节能技术等等，并且合理应用与研发太阳能技术，加大清洁能源在建筑领域中的应用。除此之外，在建筑施工过程中，合理的施工方案同样能够实现有效的节能，合理安排施工人员、调整施工程序、完善施工工艺，都能够减少建筑过程中的环境污染与资源损耗，以此确保建筑行业的稳定发展与持续进步。
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把英文输入到翻译软件中翻译，自己再整理一下翻译出来的汉语，推荐软件有道词典
The urban river embankment discuss the ecological constructionAnonymous XXXXXXXXAbstract: the urban river embankment construction as the object, discuss the current social background, analyses and compares the river embankment design of traditional methods and characteristics of ecological methods, and puts forward three modes of ecological design and their advantages and disadvantages, and expounds the present situation of the ecological construction in domestic bank and future prospects.Keywords: the bank; Ecology; Design way; Domestic situationText:A, backgroundRiver Banks part is the amphibious interlaced transition belt, has the remarkable edge effect. Here are active substances, nutrient and energy flow, offer a habitat for a variety of creatures. Natural state Banks often species richness, productivity high.The traditional embankment design often single ?一、背景河流的堤岸部分是水陆交错的过渡地带，具有显著的边缘效应。这里有活跃的物质、养分和能量的流动，为多种生物提供了栖息地。自然状态下的堤岸往往物种丰富、生产力高。传统的堤岸设计往往会单纯从防洪角度出发，采用土堤或者土石混合堆砌起来高高的堤岸。它的优点在于高度的可靠性，结构设计后加起防护堤岸抗流水冲刷能力显著增强。对于洪水暴发频繁、侵蚀严重的区段，这样的设计无可厚非，而对于一般河流堤岸的修建，这样的设计则显得缺乏环境的美化和绿化，同时也破坏许多对生态起重要作用的自然因素，如破坏植被与河床间的联系，造成冲刷侵蚀转移等。另外，河流作为城市风貌不可多得的珍惜资源，也是城市风貌的特色要素，它的景观塑造显得十分必要。同时，堤岸景观建设必然使滨河地区土地价值提升，滨水开发的高投资回报的特点更增强了对城市堤岸景观建设的需求。二、需求——堤岸的生态化建设河流堤岸作为城市中最邻近河流的区域，是城市与河流的衔接线，它的景观规划是提高城市生活品质的需要，也是丰富城市景观的需要。生态化建设，它的根本思路是运用自然本身抗干扰和自我修复的能力来处理人与自然的关系。生态设计方法不同于传统用人工的结构和形式来取代自然的方法，而是用自然的结构和形式来顺应自然的进程。将河岸与河道在生态上联系起来，也就实现了物质、养分、能量的交流：对于生物，它提供了合适的栖息地；植物根系可固着土壤，枝叶可截留雨水，过滤地表迳流，抵抗流水冲刷，从而起到保护堤岸、增加堤岸结构的稳定性、净化水质、涵养水源的作用，而且随着时间的推移，这些作用被不断加强。同时，生态化建设以自然的外貌出现，容易与环境取得协调，造价也较低，不需要长期的维护管理。三、河流堤岸生态化设计方式河流堤岸生态化设计，要遵守生态设计的原则，注重地方性、保护与节约自然资本、让自然做功、显露自然，主要体现在对地域气候环境、河流地质地貌、水文变化的适应，对河流生态环境的考虑，对堤岸地形的处理和对筑堤材料的选择和构造方式方面。1） 人工类：传统方法是采用块石或混凝土块砖等堆砌。可在此基础上加以改进以适应河流景观设计的需求。a) 块石或混凝土块砖干砌，不用砂浆。这样在砌块之间就留有空隙，为后期滨河植物的生长提供了空间。随着时间的推移，堤岸会逐渐呈现出自然的风貌。b) 堤岸采用台阶式分级，台阶面上的空间加以利用，种植植物。当然这两种改进方法对于河岸处现有植被仍存在一定的不良影响，人工痕迹也过于明显。2） 自然类：充分利用堤岸植被原型，可直接将适用于滨河地带生长的植被种植于堤岸上，利用植物的根、茎、叶来稳固堤岸，防止侵蚀、控制沉积的同时也为生物提供了栖息地。3） 人工自然相结合综合了以上两种方法的优点，具有人工结构的稳定性和自然的外貌，见效快、生态效益好，以下为常见的两种类型：a) 种植植物的堆石将由大小不同的石块组成的堆石置于与水接触的土壤表面，再把活体切枝插入石堆中使斜坡更加稳定。根系可提高强度，植被可遮盖石块，使堤岸外貌更加自然。b) 与植物结合使用的插孔式混凝土块将预制的混凝土块以连锁的形式置于岸底的浅渠中，再将植物切枝或植株扦插于混凝土块之间和堤岸上部，其上覆土压实，再播种草本植物。堤岸生态化建设也存在一定的局限性。如：选用的材料及建造方法不同，堤岸的防护能力相差很大，需要运用多学科知识认真分析，这就为设计人员提出了更大的挑战；建造初期若受到强烈干扰，则会影响到以后防护作用的发挥等。这也就对河流堤岸的生态化设计提出了更高的要求。四、国内现状1）省会城市在我国省会城市及计划单列市中有近80％进行了堤岸景观规划。（参考文献[3]）城 市 项目名称 城 市 项目名称北 京 长河城市水系统综合治理 南 宁 堤岸园工程长 沙 湘江风光带 宁 波 滨江大道沿江景观工程成 都 府南河绿化工程 上 海 外滩、陆家嘴滨江大道福 州 闵江江滨公园 沈 阳 浑河观光旅游带广 州 珠江二沙段堤岸景观、芳村长堤建设 太 原 汾河公园贵 阳 南明河景观绿化工程 天 津 海河堤岸改造工程哈尔滨 松花江南岸沿江风景长廊 武 汉 汉口江滩一二期工程昆 明 盘龙江中段滨水生态景观建设 西 安 灞河大水大绿工程兰 州 黄河风情线 重 庆 南滨路滨江旅游观光大道从规划后建成情况看，这些城市河流堤岸景观项目都得到了当地政府与市民的肯定。在这些项目中，堤岸既可成为当地最具吸引力的城市公园，如太原的汾河公园和福州的江滨公园；堤岸也可成为市民日常休闲活动的热点地段，如南宁的堤路园和武汉的汉口江滩工程；堤岸还可成为城市最具特色的地段，如重庆的南滨路滨江旅游观光大道；堤岸更可成为城市旅游的热点，如上海的外滩和陆家嘴滨江大道。总之，经过景观规划的堤岸已成为当地最具特色的地区。从建设效果看，相对堤岸的原来面貌而言，统计资料中的这些景观工程都是较成功的，都成为当地城市关注的热点，成为当地政府的政绩工程，成为当地的民心工程。城市河流堤岸通过景观规划，有效地改善了滨河地段的环境，并带动滨河地段的开发。但必须清醒地认识到，这些城市堤岸景观项目规划并非尽善尽美，也存在这样或那样的问题，仍有待完善。2）中小城市城市经济实力的强大决定了其城市建设水平的高标准和高水平。中小城市河流堤岸景观与统计资料中的城市存在较大的差距，存在更多的问题。特别是由于资金问题，堤岸景观是，纯人工，状态的钢筋混凝土防洪堤，或保持自然防洪状态的土石堤，没有经过景观规划，易造成城市资源的极大浪费。五、前景目前，河流景观建设，特别是城市河流景观建设，在中国正方兴未艾；在发达国家中也是一个久盛不衰的话题。 回顾发达国家河流景观建设的历史，自20世纪70年代以来，随着人们环境意识的普遍增强，重视河流景观的生态功能已成为一个时代的呼唤，河流景观建设的生态设计方法也已得到了空前的重视和发展。他山之石可以攻玉，借鉴发达国家已经形成的成熟的理念和做法，可以使我们少走弯路，搭上隆隆前进的生态建设之车。
你是哪个省的啊 看看如果可以的话 可以给你一份全面的
In the 20th century, bridge construction technology evolved and was fueled by the Industrial Revolution. At the turn of the century, steel bridges were riveted together, not bolted; concrete bridges were cast in place, not precast; and large bridge members were built from lacing bars and smaller sections, not rolled in one piece. Plastic had not yet been invented. Construction techniques such as post-tensioning, slurry walls, soil freezing, and reinforced earth walls had not yet been conceived. Surveying was performed mechanically since infrared, optical technology was still 75 years away. Bridge construction is changing as the new millennium begins. New construction techniques and new materials are emerging. There are also new issues facing the bridge building industry relative to the research needs associated with these new techniques and materials. LONG-SPAN BRIDGES Suspension Bridges While suspension bridge building was conducted at a modest pace throughout the 20th century, an unprecedented number of spans of remarkable record lengths were built in the Far East and Denmark. Both the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan and the Great Belt Bridge in Denmark were completed in 1998. The Akashi Kaikyo Bridge is the largest suspension bridge in the world, with a span of 1991 m, and the Great Belt Bridge is the second largest, with a span of 1624 m. While spans lengths have increased nearly fivefold during the course of this century, they may have reached their physical limits with today’s materials. Research will be necessary to develop the new, ultra-high-strength steel wire or carbon fiber wire required to build the longer main suspension cables that will make it possible to increase span lengths to beyond 2000 m. As we enter the new millennium, rehabilitation and ongoing maintenance of the existing suspension bridges must continue as well. Recent rehabilitation measures for the main cables and suspension systems of these bridges have uncovered degradation through corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement. Research is needed to determine the remaining useful service life of suspension bridge cables and what measures can be taken to slow or halt the degradation process. Transportation in the New Millennium 2 Other components of long-span bridges, existing and new, are being revolutionized as technology moves forward. Advances in deck technology are producing stronger, lighter decks. Orthotropic and exodermic decks are becoming increasingly popular on long-span structures as a means of reducing dead load. Bearings, joint systems, and seismic retrofitting components are becoming increasingly efficient as more large-scale testing facilities are built.在20世纪,桥梁施工技术,是由进化而来的 工业革命。随着新世纪的到来,钢桥受到铆接在一起,而不是 螺栓、混凝土桥梁被扔在的地方,不是预制、大型桥梁成员 从系酒吧和小的部分,不卷在一块。塑料尚未 发明了。制作等施工工艺、浆墙、土壤冻结, 加筋土墙尚未怀了孕。测量进行机械 自从红外、光学技术仍然是75年。 大桥建设是新千年开始转变。新建筑 技术和新材料正在浮出水面。也有新的解决面临的桥 建筑行业的相关研究的需要,这些新技术 材料。 大跨度桥梁 悬挂的桥梁 虽然悬索桥建设进行了整个20速度不快 世纪,前所未有的跨越了卓越的长度是建在记录 远东和丹麦。双方在日本明石海峡大桥正式通车,伟大的带桥 在丹麦是在一九九八年完成。这个明石海峡大桥正式通车是世界上最大的悬架 在这个世界上,与桥梁的m,1991年是中国的第二大带桥, 用一段1624)。 虽然已经增加了近5倍长度的跨世纪的过程中, 他们已经达到了他们的物理极限与今天的材料。研究将 必须发展新的、ultra-high-strength钢丝、碳纤维丝要求 建立了悬索,将不再主要可能增加到跨度的长度 超出2000米。 当我们进入新千年、康复和持续的维护现有的 悬索桥必须继续。最近的戒毒措施为主要 电缆悬架系统与这些桥梁发现退化 氢脆腐蚀,。研究还剩下的 寿命悬索桥电缆和什么措施可以减缓或 停止退化的过程。 在新千年的运输 其他组件的大跨度桥梁,现有的和新的,正在发生了革命性的变化 技术的进步。提出了在甲板上技术生产强的,更轻的 甲板。正交各向异性和exodermic牌是大跨度越来越受欢迎 作为一种手段,降低结构自重荷载。轴承、联合系统和抗震能力 越来越多的有效成分是更大规模的测试设备 建造。 50分！！~~谢谢 参考资料：我的大脑