印度英语的研究的全文（英文）

Contents

1．Introduction 1
2. Backgrounds of Indian English 2
2.1 History of Indian English 2
2.2 Present Situation of Indian English 2
3. Characteristics of Indian English 4
3.1 Pronunciations of Indian English 4
3.2 Characteristics of Grammar 6
3.3 Characteristics of Vocabulary 11
4. The Current Status and Influence of Indian English 14
5．Conclusion 15
Acknowledgements 16
References 17

1．Introduction

English, as the world communicative language, has made its great success ever since. There are more than 4000 million native English –speakers all over the world. However, it is said there are many of English learners all corners of the world. The number of non-native English speaker is far bigger than the number of native English speakers. And with the development of global economy, English now plays an indispensable role in the world.
Many Asian countries of “outer circle” and “expanding circle” were former colonies or semi-colonies of countries of “inner circle” in history. And for culture or many other reasons, English has developed into various varieties. Among those varieties, Indian English catches world’s attention. The Scholars at home or abroad to study Indian English from different point of view about some regularity of Indian English have been gradually. This paper tries to analyze the differences between Indian English and Standard English on pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary from the perspective of linguistics,  and to summarize the characteristics of Indian English, in hope of giving a better understanding of English language and a better understanding about the variation trends about the English language in different countries, especially in India, and hence to raise awareness of English variants.
To help people understand more about Indian English, this paper will analyze some elements of Indian English. This paper is made up of three parts to introduce Indian English. For the first part, the backgrounds mainly about the history of Indian English will be introduced. The second part is to compare the differences between Indian English and Standard English on pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary in order to sum up the characteristics of Indian English. The last part is to express the current status and influence of Indian English.

2. Backgrounds of Indian English

2.1 History of Indian English
Indian English has a history of more than 400 years. In the early 17th century, the British missionaries began to come to India. When the East India Company started to trade in India, English was brought into India. In the Early 18th century, a large number of religious schools were built to promote English education. Subsequently, the British colonial government in India began to develop the promotion of English. English sprouted out in India. In 1857, the first group of universities was built in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras by Britain to state that English is the only educational language for high education and to widely distribute English literature and science to Indians. English newspapers were widely spread and Indian literature which was created in English had made great progress. English gradually became the language used by intellectuals, governmental departments and public industry. When it came to 20th century, English had become India’s official language and medium of instruction.

2.2 Present Situation of Indian English
After independence, India had planned to replace English with Hindi, the language of sovereignty to achieve localization for about 15 years. However, the South Dravidian language regions strongly opposed Hindi to be the only official language of the country, as a result English as a neutral language was retained and became the Official language of India-assisted. There are only 3 percent of people in India speak English, but due to the large population, those 3 percent speakers make India one of the largest countries use English in the world[11]53. In India, people who speak English are those people who are bilingual or multilingual. They use English not only for their work, but also for the communication with other Indians who have a barrier in language exchange. Therefore, only a small number of people have the opportunity to communicate with native English speakers. And then Indian English formed its own characteristics in voice, vocabulary, grammar and semantic aspects. English in India belongs to those who are elites. Though the number of these people is small, they play an main part in the field of Indian politic and economy. In India, the use of English gradually becomes a symbol of privilege. But most Indians don’t so appreciate about the strong state of English.
Thus, Indian English gradually formed its unique characteristics on pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and semantic and thus become one of English varieties in Asia. Moreover, on behalf of the characteristics of English in South Asi an subcontinent, Indian English has fully inherited the elegance and norms of Standard English.

3. Characteristics of Indian English

3.1 Pronunciations of Indian English
3.1.1 Vowels of Indian English
We can divide vowels of Indian English into two groups: one basically has the same pronunciation with R.P.(Received Pronunciation) and the other doesn’t.
(1). Vowels have the same pronunciation with R.P, such as:
[u]           book [buk]          cook [kuk]         oops [ups]
[u:]           boot [bu:t]          root [ru:t]          pooh [pu:]
[i]            if [if]              lift [lift]            is [is]
[i:]           meet [mi:t]          free [fri:]           meat [mi:t]
[e]           bed [bed]            bent [bent]         let [let] 
[ei]           make [meik]         cake [keik]         fades [feid]
[əu]          go [gəu]             no [nəu]           home [həum]
[æ]           bad [bæd]           map [mæp]         tank [tænk]
(2). First of all, we must notice that Indian English has the trend to longer or stress the last syllable in vowel. For example: taxi and family closely pronounce [`tæksi:] and [`fæməli:], not [`tæksi] and [`fæməli]。
The pronunciation of , and etc.
, and etc.
The pronunciation of , etc.
Most Indians pronounce [D] as the short [ɑ:], there are also some people sound it as [ɑ], such as: doctor [`d Dktər]—[`dɑ:ktər], cot [k Dt]—[kɑ:t], spot [sp Dt]—[spɑ:t], and etc.
Some people sound [D:] as [ɑ:], or as[D:], but pay attention to that if there is r, r should read out, such as: court [kD:t]—[kɑ:rt], sport [spD:rt]—[spɑ:rt], horse [hD:s]—[hɑ:rs], etc.
, and etc.
,etc.

3.1.2 Consonants of Indian English
There are two kinds of consonant in Indian English; one is basically the same with R.P., but the other not. Here we mainly describe some consonants that are different from R.P..
(1). Consonants pronounced as the same with R.P., such as: , for example:
[b]             bed [bed]               baby [`beibi]
[d]             dog [dɑg]             dab [dæb]
[g]           group [gru:p]            get [get]
[m]            map [mæp]              mad [mæd]
[n]             nap [næp]               noon [nu:n]
[η]             ring [riη]                thing [θiη]
[f]             foot [fut]                fat [fæt]
[v]             give [giv]               five [faiv]
[h]             home [həum]            hope [huəp]
[j]             you [ju:]                your [jər]

[s]             see [si:]                 sip [sip]
[z]             zip [zip]                zap [zæp]
[dӡ]            jeep [dӡi:p]              jelly [`dӡeli]
(2). Consonant pronounced different from R.P..
In R.P., phonemes like [p], [t] and [k] are transcripted by broad transcription method. But in fact，they are all aspirat ed. According to narrow transcription method, they are marked as .
[θ] is very different from R.P.. The spelling of [θ] is usually th, so Indians pronounce [t] as [th], like think [think], third [thЗ:d], three[thri:], and so on.
and so on.
[ӡ] in Indian English actually pronounced as [z], such as treasure [`treӡə]—[tre`zər], pleasure [`pleӡər]—[ple`zər] and so on.
[tr] and [dr] are the combination of [t] and [r], [d] and [r], and are pronounced [t] or [d] at first, then the [r], such as try [trai:], drama [dra:`ma:], driver [dra:i`vər].

3.2 Characteristics of Grammar
Grammar is the combination of the composition of words and changes in rules of which to make a sentence. Grammar is the most solid part in language. Chomsky defines grammar as “a description of the ideal speaker-hearer’s intrinsic competence” [4]33. The grammar of a language, to Chomsky, is an idealized description of the linguistic competence of the native speakers of that language. The grammar system of one language has no big difference among areas, so the grammar of Indian English is almost the same with that of Standard English. The distinction is that some unique elements when some Indians speak because of the influence of mother tongue. These elements which differ from modern Standard English have formed the characteristics of Indian English in both morphology and syntax.
3.2.1 Morphology
(1). Nouns. There are material nouns, abstract nouns, omitted nouns and compound nouns. Material nouns are usually uncountable nouns which have no single or plural forms. Some material nouns sometimes can come up as plural forms but have different meanings, for example: food and foods, sand and sands. Abstract nouns are mostly uncountable, and they also have no single or plural forms, such as: honesty, polity. But in Indian English, many material nouns and abstract nouns are used as plural ones:
We have bought many foods.
We ate fruits for supper.
The meeting was surrounded by secrecies.
Unit words show the individuality of the words. Uncountable nouns which should use unit words usually have no single or plural forms. Indians don’t use unit words where it should use, for example:
Everyone picks up a paper. (A piece of paper)
The teacher wrote with a chalk in his hand. (A piece of chalk)
Compound nouns refer to those nouns composed of two or more than two morphemes. Indians have extended the formation of compound nouns, for example:
Indian English                Standard English
Beer bottle                   a bottle of beer
Meeting notice                notice of a meeting
Schoolgoer                   one who goes to school
Color pencil                  colored pencil
(2). VerbS. Formations of constructions of some verbs in Indian English are not the same with Standard English.
Indian English: I would like that you come.
They are involved to collect stamps.
Standard English: I would like you to come.
They are involved in collecting stamps.
Verbs are divided into two groups in Standard English: transitive verb and intransitive verb. But in India, transitive verb is used as intransitive verb and intransitive verb as transitive verb
(3). Adverbs. Adverb “there” and “there”, used as anticipatory subjects, have different spellings, meanings and places in a sentence. “There” as an adverb means “where”, and usually is put at the end of a sentence. In the sentence pattern “there be”, “there” is used as anticipatory subject and is placed at the beginning of a sentence. Indians would like use location adverbial “there” instead of anticipatory subject “there”.
Indian English: What would you like to buy? Eggs are there, meat is there, fruits are there.
Standard English: What would you like to buy? There are eggs, meat and fruit.

(4). Pronouns. To stress the time and location, English people often express it by its intonation while Indians use reflexive pronouns “itself” and “only”.
Can we meet this Sunday itself? (use itself to stress.)
They got here yesterday only. (use only to stress.)
(5). Prepositions. In English, preposition which is used before nouns or noun phrases, pronouns or gerunds indicates the relation among people, things and matters. The use of preposition in Hindi differs from Standard English. 
Omi t preposition. Indians often omit the preposition after verb phrases.
Indian English                Standard English
To dispense                   to dispense with
To strike                      to strike out
To add prepositions. Verbs without prepositions add prepositions arbitrarily.
Indian English                Standard English
To return back                 to return
To fear of                     to fear 
Use different prepositions. To express the same meaning, the prepositions used by English people and Indians are  different.
Indian English                Standard English
To get down (the car)           to get off or out of (the car)
(6). Modal verbs. The use of modal verb shows courtesy and manners of different levels both in wording and the way to speak. Indian people consider that past tense of modal verb would be more tactful and more polite.
Indian English: I could sing this song.
School would be over at 4:00.
Standard English: I can sing this song.
School will be over at 4:00.
Indians prefer to use “could” while English people favorite in “was” and “able to”.
“May” in Britain English can be used to talk about the possibilities or the requirements while Indians use “may” to express obligations tactfully.
Indian English: The house may be cleared tomorrow.
Standard English: The house is to be cleared tomorrow.
(7). Quantifiers. In Hindi, some quantifiers are followed with propositions but Standard English not.
Indian English: He is making so much of noise.
Standard English: He is making so much noise.
3.2.2 Syntax
Sentence, which is a unit of a language, expresses a fully independent thinking.
The use of “tense” and “aspect”. Verb in English has two “tense”—present tense and past tense, and two “aspect”—perfective and present progressive tense. The combinations of tense and aspect of verbs in English have eight forms. There are differences between Hindi and Standard English about the use of tense and aspect.
(1). Present perfect（Present）tense is often associated with “since” to demonstrate something “since when” has been done or hasn’t been done. But In Indian English, present tense often takes place of the perfect tense.
Indian English: I have been doing my homework.
I have been seeing the film.
Standard English: I have been done my homework.
I have been seen the film.
(2). General present tense. In adverbial clause of conditions or that of time, Standard English usually use present tense not future tense which is just opposite in Indian English.
Indian English: Where you will go, please tell me.
If he will come, I will tell you.
Standard English: Where you go, please tell me.
If he comes, please tell me.
(3). Consistence of the tense. The tense of verb in some clauses, especially in object clauses, often is influenced by the tense of predicate in main clause. When the predicate in main clause is in present tense or future tense, the tense of these verbs in the clause will not be influenced. If the predicate in main clause is in past tense, the tense of the clause will be coordinated. But Indian English often do not follow the principle of temporal echoes.
Indian English: When I saw her yesterday, she told me that she is coming.
Standard English: When I saw her yesterday, she told me that she was coming.
(4). Progressive tense. Progressive tense expresses what is being done. Verbs, especially those verbs indicate continued actions, that can express actions can use general present tense to show the some kind of frequency and habit of some kind of actions in a certain time. General present tense states a certain level of continuity about the current situation. Therefore, it can only be applied by static verbs. Indian English use progressive tense to express frequent actions.
Indian English: He is doing exercise often.
Standard English: He does exercise often.
To express some actions have been done, Standard English use perfect tense while Indian English usually use progressive tense.
Indian English: What were you having for your lunch?
Standard English: What have you had for your lunch?
Some verbs express statement and feeling usually can not use progressive tense, because they cannot represent the progressive action, such as own, want. Indian English use the progressive tense of these verbs.
Indian English: Are you wanting anything?
He is having many books.
Standard English: Do you want anything?
He has many books.
(5). Perfect tense. Past tense mainly showed some actions or situations happened at a time in the past. Past tense with past time adverbial expresses the past. Under such circumstances, Indians replace the past tense with perfect tense.
Indian English: He has been there 4 years ago.
I have lent my pens to you yesterday.
Standard English: He was there 4 years ago.
I lent my pens to you yesterday.
(6). the formation of General questions and that of specific questions use inverted orders, but Indian English n ot.
Indian English: Who you have met?
Where you have been?
Standard English: Who have you met?
Where have you been?
When direct speech turns into indirect speech to a interrogative, the tense of the sentence should be the same with the main clause. What’s more, the order of speech should become the order of declarative clause, and the subject should be put before the predicate. Indian English still retains the order of interrogative.
Indian English: I asked him where was his hometown.
I don’t know where is he.
Standard English: I asked where his hometown was.
I don’t know where he is.
Anti-sense question raises questions and views and consists of two parts. The first part use forms of declarative sentence while the other part is a brief question according to the first one. And the first part is negative form, then the latter one is affirmative form, or on the contrary. When Indians use anti-sense questions to express their thinking, they all use “isn’t it?”, neither considers the tense, nor the pattern of the sentence.
Indian English: You are going with us tomorrow, isn’t it?
We will be there, isn’t it?
Standard English: You are going with us tomorrow, are you?
We will be there, shall we?

3.3 Characteristics of Vocabulary
Any a language is influenced by other languages as well as its nation and the history. India was under Britain’s control for several centuries, as a result of which some Indian vocabularies have been entered into Standard English. According to Oxford English Language, there is not less than nine hundred vocabularies were absorbed into Standard English, and the number of its derivatives can reach to hundreds of thousands. The vocabularies which have been entered into Standard English have distinct characteristics of the nation and the times. They are fully reflected the Indian history controlled by Britain and Indian People struggle to fight for their own nation.
3.3.1 Characteristics of vocabulary in 17th century.
In 17th century, Britain had defeated Portugal and became one of main intruders to India. At that moment, Britain was aimed at monopolize the trade peacefully, so the Indian vocabularies entered into Standard English are mainly about commercial trade, cotton textile, nature and humanism. Vocabularies about commercial trade include appellation of money, weights and measures and about any other trade. Vocabularies about appellation are pagoda, mohur, rupee, etc. Vocabularies about weights and measures are like seer, candy, tola, guz, viss, mangelin, etc. Vocabularies about other trade are like batta, godown, banian, shriff, etc. Indian cotton textile once sold throughout the world has been well-known. Textile that traded with Britain had played an important part, and hundreds of Indian words came into Standard English, such as chintz, chuddar, palampore, calio, and etc. As geography meant a lot in the trade, the trade place became the name of the goods, like calicut (an important port in Indian). There are some products named by geographies, such as Bengal, Malabar, Surat, Jaconet, and etc. India, vast in territory and abundant in resources, is an old nation with thousand years’ history of civilization. In 17th century, English people borrowed vocabularies from India to describe the natural landscape and human environment. Vocabularies about natural landscape covered vocabularies about plants, animals, forest and so on, for example: mango, hookan, ghoont, anaconda, and etc. Vocabularies about human environment and other aspects are such as moonshi, raja, boy (male servant), pundit, and etc.
At that time, vocabularies about Indian indigenous people’s terms entered into Standard English had their characteristics. First, the number was huge, and had surpassed the next several centuries’. Second, some Indian vocabularies through Portuguese entered Standard English. And there are almost more than three hundred words. Third, all terms of Indian indigenous people from pronunciation to spelling experienced a long time to enter into Standard English.
3.3.2 Characteristics of vocabulary in 18th century.
In earlier 18th century, Britain monopolized trade with Indian. But in mid-18th century, Britain changed its foreign policy to India, altering peaceful trade to directly aggression and plunder. Because vocabularies about commercial trade had been borrowed largely in 17th century, terms of Indian indigenous people entered into Standard English had been very few in 18th century, and most of the vocabularies are mainly about the names of Indian products, such as Bandan, kincob. On the contrary, vocabularies about policy and military were largely entered into Standard English, such as nabob, pindari, telinga and so on. Some vocabularies of Indian indigenous people entered into Standard English in 17th century had been re-constituted into new compound words, like pagod-gods, paddy-bird, banianday, and so on.
Characteristics about Indian indigenous people’s terms entered into Standard English areas follows: first, the number of Indian borrowed by Standard English in latter 18th century was larger than that in earlier 18th century; second, the number of borrowed words in that century was obviously fewer than in 17th century; third, borrowed words about policy and military had become more whereas the words about commercial trade had become fewer; last but not the least, old words constituted new compound words or derived to new words increased.
3.3.3 Characteristics of vocabulary in 19th century.
In mid-19th century, Britain had totally conquered India, which intensified the conflict between Britain colonists and Indian people from all works. The protest of Indian soldiers in mid-19th century against Britain wakened the national consciousness of the People of India. And that protest was well reflected in vocabularies. For example, “pandy”, which was derived from “pande”, was the name of an Indian soldier who first joined the protest, and later has symbolized soldier who takes part in a mutiny. “Thug”, which means thief and derived from Indian English, was later refers those people who fight against the rule of Britain. Both the language of Britain and that of India belong to the same language family—Indo-European Language. That discovery made British people begin to study the national language of India at all the levels, and thus some vocabularies about Indian English entered into Standard English. Those vocabularies were about names of languages and other aspects, like Tamil, Dravidian, Urdu, Kashmiri, Hindi, sandhi, and so on. India, as a multi-religious country, attracted British colonists. In that period, vocabularies about religion appeared in Standard English, such as Brahman, Hinduism, Buddha, jataka, karma, yoga, and etc.
Characteristics about Indian indigenous people’s terms entered into Standard English in this period were obviously. First, the number of vocabularies borrowed from was more than those in the last century, and those vocabularies are mainly about ancient civilization of India. Second, changes of meanings of those vocabularies were highlighted. Third, vocabularies borrowed from India were not limited to materials and names of productions. Fourth, ways to form new words varied a lot.
3.3.4 Characteristics of vocabulary in 20th century.
Indian people were extremely oppressed a lot under the control of Britain in the period of world wars. With the decline of British empire, Indian people fought for their independence with all kinds of forms. Vocabularies entered into Standard English at that moment reflected the unique way to win their freedom, for instance: harta, Gandihism, satyagrahi, and so on. And there are some words entered into Standard English even before the wars, and the wars made them popular, like puggled, buckshee, deck, and etc.

4. The Current Status and Influence of Indian English

Professor David Crystal, one of the world’s foremost experts and author of the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language, said that the new Standard English’s likely Indian characteristics would signify the end of primacy of American English. Future users of global Standard English might routinely say “I am thinking it’s going to rain” rather than the British “I think it’s going to rain”. In language, numbers count. There are more people speaking English in India than in the rest of the native English-speaking world. Even now, if you ring a centre call, often it’s an Indian voice you hear at the end of the phone. As the Indian economy grows, so might the influence of Indian English.
More and more Indians consider that Indian English now belongs to the same order of geographical variations in the English-speaking world and could compared with American English, Britain English, Australian English, Canadian English and Singapore English. But what depressed the Indians is that still India has not been acknowledged English is its first language by Britain and America and its students who will study abroad should take part in the TOEFL or IELTS examination. What can not be ignored is that English in India indeed has a pivotal status. The reason that Indians have markets in the world stage is that their English are proficient.
According to one research, there are 0.35 billion people can speak English and people who master at it are about 0.1 billon. Materials for high education, no matter about science, medical, legislation or management, are all in English. Most private schools are teaching in English. Nearly 90% official documents of Indian centre government and the constitution which Indians pride of are use English as a carrier.
Till nowadays, English has become one of the most important languages in India. Some experts consider English has turned in to a major media for the modernization and westernization of India. Good foundations in English, especially the capabilities in reading and writing, make India an advantageous position in international competitions.

5．Conclusion

Because of history, English has been accepted by Indians and has been marked by Indian local culture to become Indian English with its unique characteristics. India has been a multi-country and be the colony of Britain, so English has been deeply-rooted in India. In such a country with multi-languages, English has become the common language and serves as a very important role though media. In spite of the reason of history, elements about the wide spread of English in science and technology and world trade have made English popular in India. As the official language, English in India has made great influence.
The growth of Indian economy has given confidence to those Indians about their English. However, when it comes to the success of India in global economy, almost everyone would think about Indians’ proficient English. The advantages of pronunciation provide conditions to the Indian economic development while the success of Indian economy makes Indian English a greater use of space. Indian English continuously absorbed, accommodated and created from other languages and achieved its national characteristics of English language distinct from that of other countries. And this variant of the language is the only way for the development of the language.
Indian English is a phenomenon of language-contact, and we should cherish it. Indian English is a symbol of Indian culture and a sign of India in the world. Because of its unique characteristics, people accepted Indian English as a symbol of India. In my conclusion, we should view Indian English as a symbol of English globalization and to deepen its variants.

 
Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who helped me during the writing of this thesis. I gratefully acknowledge the help of my supervisor, Ms Chen Xuefen, who provided me with cherished information and guidance step by step throughout my writing of this dissertation, and gave me enough time to prepare the thesis.
Then I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my classmates for their sincere friendship and for offering me the precious sources.
I’m also greatly indebted to all the teachers in English department, who educated me and cultivated me to be a useful person to get a good job.
I am extremely grateful to my parents for their continued love, encouragement and support during my pursuit of knowledge.

 
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