中式英语特点及发展趋势全文

Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. What is Chinglish 2
2.1 Definition of Chinglish 2
2.2 Differences between Chinglish and China English 3
3. Characteristics of Chinglish 5
3.1 Characteristics of pronunciation 5
3.1.1 Voice substitution 5
3.1.2 Mixture of allophone 5
3.1.3 Confusion of voiced and voiceless sounds 6
3.2 Characteristics of vocabulary 6
3.2.1 Verbosity 6
3.2.2 Catachresis 7
3.2.3 Neglect of word order 7
3.2.4 Unsuitable match 8
3.3 Characteristics of grammar 8
3.3.1 Confusion of article 8
3.3.2 Omission of predicate 8
3.3.3 Inconformity between modifier and subject 9
3.4 Pragmatic characteristics 9
3.4.1 Mechanical use of Chinese structure 9
3.4.2 Simplified transfer of concept 10
4. The Causes of Chinglish 11
4.1 Mother tongue interference 11
4.2 Different thinking patterns 12
4.3 Different cultural background 14
4.3.1 Linguistic knowledge 14
4.3.2 Values 15
4.3.3 Customs 15
5. Trend of the Development of Chinglish 16
5.1 Inevitability of the development of Chinglish 16
5.2 Rationality of the development of Chinglish 17
6. Conclusion 18
Acknowledgements 20
References 21

1. Introduction

As we know, English is the most widely spoken language in the world and has been a multinational, multicultural and multifunctional language. With more and more communication between Chinese and English speakers in the fields of business and education, English is playing an important role among Chinese and has become a necessary tool in today’s competitive world. However, with an impressive command of English vocabulary and good master of grammar as well as phonetics, which, to some extent, are beyond the native speakers’ capacity, they are confronted with quite a few problems when they are talking or writing in English. Their gestures, either shrug or shake their heads, usually make the foreigners confused and at the same time make themselves trapped in an embarrassed situation. What has happened to the Chinese speakers? Why does the language they use sound alien to the foreigners? Retracing the cause, I find most of the Chinese learners’ mistakes are not made due to their lack of grammar or vocabulary but due to an odd language they use, namely Chinglish, an excrescence of standard English, which is defined as a portmanteau of the two words Chinese and English and refers to spoken or written English which is influenced by Chinese. In order to make English learners convey their views more efficiently both in speech and writing, I attempt to illustrate the characteristics and causes of Chinglish in detail and predict the trend of the development of Chinglish so as to help people make proper use of Chinglish when they communicate with native speakers of English.    

2. What is Chinglish

Chinglish appears in many aspects. This thesis will especially focus on the Chinglish appearing in the writing and speech of college students. In order to let readers have a thorough comprehension of Chinglish, definitions of Chinglish will be a first important part to be studied. From the various definitions of Chinglish, we get to know what Chinglish really is. Of course, Chinglish can hardly be understood fully without being studied in connection with the characteristics of Chinglish. According to a variety of studies, I believe we will get a better understanding of the development trend of Chinglish. 
2.1 Definition of Chinglish
In early and mid-20th century, Chinglish was derogatorily called“pidgin” in Chinese. Pidgin English is another term for Chinglish: A simplified form of speech that is usually a mixture of two or more languages, has a rudimentary grammar and vocabulary, is used for communication between groups speaking different languages, and is not spoken as a first or native language (Definition from the American Heritage dictionary). Thus, expressions like “People mountain, people sea” are taken as “Pidgin English”. Pidgin English occurred when Chinese began to trade with the native speakers of English. In China, Chinglish has been profoundly discussed since 1980’s. It is Professor Ge Chuangui who first puts forward the difference between Chinglish and China English in 1980’s. He pointed out that some peculiar language, such as 科举（imperial examination）、五四运动（May Fourth Movement）can not be taken as  Chinglish, but can be taken as China English [1]5.
Many teachers and scholars home and abroad have noticed this language phenomenon and studies on Chinglish are scattered in books and articles in the field of English teaching and learning. Nevertheless, due to the unsystematic and unsteady nature of Chinglish, people do not always resonate a clear and unanimous voice on what Chinglish is and hereby present diverse and incomplete definitions from different angles in light with their own understanding. The famous professor Pinkham defines it is a misshapen, hybrid language that is neither English nor Chinese but that might be described as “Engli sh with Chinese characteristics” 9. From the above, we can conclude that the main cause of Chinglish is the interference of language learners’ mother tongue and their Chinese thinking.
To sum up, Chinglish is defined differently by different scholars. It can be believed that to some extent, Chinglish has a very strong “Chinese flavor” in it. Chinglish is usually found in written form in which the choice of words or phrases and the manner of expression do not conform to standard English usage.
2.2 Differences between Chinglish and China English
The differences between Chinglish and China English have been a focus for a long time in the field of linguistics. Preliminary to the detailed discussion of Chinglish, it is necessary to draw a clear discrepancy between these two concepts.
The concept of China English was first put forward by Ge Chuangui in the early 1980s 15. Chinglish is a kind of defective and arbitrary English. On the ground of influence of Chinese thinking and superficial understanding of words, Chinese English learners usually directly put Chinese meaning or usage into English, which easily leads to Chinglish. Furthermore, for lack of certain cultural background of English-speaking countries, English learners get into habit of applying English mechanically, especially in the translation of idioms. On these circumstances, Chinglish comes out naturally and causes misunderstanding among native speakers.
Therefore, we can conclude that the main difference between China English and Chinglish lies in the communicative effect depending on the recognition of Normative English speakers. Say further, China English is better and widely accepted among communicators home and abroad, rather than Chinglish. However, I want to point out that the development of China English, to some extent, inevitably experiences the period of Chinglish.

3. Characteristics of Chinglish
3.1 Characteristics of pronunciation
Pronunciation of Chinglish influenced by Chinese is non-standard. It has a negative effect on fluent communication for English learners.  Based on their mother tongue Pu Tong Hua, Chinese English learners easily make a mistake in voice substitution, mixture of allophone, confusion of voiced sound and voiceless sound and the like. Most of mistakes are produced owing to the limitation of the rules of Chinese pronunciation. Another cause is for lack of full understanding of English pronunciation. I explain these mistakes above in more detail.
3.1.1 Voice substitution
Voice substitution means Chinese English learners always use some sounds of their mother language to replace some sounds of English. It is a common mistake and often creates ambiguity. For example, value . In addition, English learners replace the pronunciation “-er” in words, such as later, player, summer, with Chinese “儿”.
3.1.2 Mixture of allophone
Under the influence of the rules of Chinese pronunciation, many Chinese English learners believe each letter should conform to its own pronunciation. For example, speak .
3.1.3 Confusion of voiced and voiceless sounds
Confusion of voiced and voiceless sounds is another aspect of pronunciation of Chinglish. In the pronunciation of English, the letter “s” as a symbol of plural words, which is behind voiceless consonants, except no matter what letter is in the front of it.
3.2 Characteristics of vocabulary
The characteristics of Chinglish are also reflected in vocabulary. According to the study of writing and translation from English major students and non-English major students, there are four types in the vocabulary of Chinglish, which is verbosity, catachresis, neglect of word order, and unsuitable match.
3.2.1 Verbosity
 Joan Pinkham pointed out that there are unnecessary words appearing in the translation and writing, which do not conform to the need of the conciseness of an English sentence. Let’s look at this sentence:
 There have been good harvests in agriculture.
Analysis: In English, harvests include the meaning of agriculture. Therefore, we can omit “in agriculture” to achieve conciseness.
More examples come from students’ language use. 
1) We will share the information resources together
  (“Share” implies having something with somebody together, so “together” should be deleted.)
2) My mother has gone to the shops to buy things.
  (The notion of “go to shop” implies buying things, so “to buy things” should be deleted.)
3) Fish must stay in water. If they don’t, they die.
  (Repeated reference to the same thing is another type of verbosity in Chinglish. The notion of “if they don’t” can be replaced by “or” to compound the sentence.)
3.2.2 Catachresis
To many English learners, catachresis is often seen in practice. The main reason to cause it is that English learners believe that there is absolute equivalence between Chinese and English. But in fact, there is not. Take some sentences as examples:
1) Later, many people found that the beggars were using their sympathy.
(“Use” is usually used to modify something concrete, while sympathy is an abstract noun. So “Sympathy” is suitable to be used with “play on”, instead of “use”. )
2) Their hearts become cold and detached.
  (Cold usually modify one’s attitude or weather. “Heart” can be modified by “chill”.)
3) Cut hundreds of buildings down
  (“Cut down” usually modifies “trees, price, and expense”. “Hundreds of buildings” shouldn’t be modified by “cut down”. We can say “Hundreds of buildings fall down”.)
4) You shouldn’t change the law of nature.
(“Change should be replaced by “violate”. “Change” means something is totally different from the original one. “Violate” means being against something. “Law of nature” is an objective law and cannot be changed or created. But it can be violated.)
3.2.3 Neglect of word order
In the Chinese and the English languages, there are many expressions in which the component words are arranged in just the opposite order. The neglect of word order often gives rise to Chinglish. For example:
1) Industry and agriculture ( Chinglish )
  Agriculture and industry ( Normative English )
2) Clothing and food ( Chinglish )
Food and clothing ( Normative English )
3) Forth and back ( Chinglish )
  Back and forth ( Normative English )
3.2.4 Unsuitable match
Word match has become one of the difficult points for Chinese learners of English, and commonly unsuitable match appears in Chinglish, for many English learners ignore the difference of word match between Chinese and English and translate English to Chinese or Chinese to English mechanically. For example, Chinese English learners would say “deep sleep”, “big rain”, “receive the telephone”, instead of “sound sleep”, “heavy rain”, “answer the telephone”. The following are the typical examples of the kind:
 We can learn a lot of knowledge by reading good books. ( acquire/obtain )
 We want the newest information. ( the latest )
The demand draws the particular concern of the public. ( arouses )
3.3 Characteristics of grammar
3.3.1 Confusion of article
Confusion of articles, including omission of articles and redundance of articles is a common mistake made by English learners. For example:
1).我们每个人有一套桌椅。
Each of us has a desk and a chair. (Chinglish)
Each of us has a desk and chair. (Normative English)
     “a desk and a chair” means two units, while “a desk and chair” means a unit. “一套桌椅” just refers to a unit.
2). 他们在桌子边上。
They are at table. (Chinglish)
They are at the table. (Normative English)
“At the table” means “beside the table”, while “at table” means “having meals”. 
3.3.2 Omission of predicate
 In Chinese, sometimes without verb, a sentence can still be complete. While a complete English sentence, at least, must be composed of subject, predicate. If a verb is omitted, we can not call it a sentence. I find some mistakes in English learners’ writing. For example:
 1) We must with a heart of kind. (Chinglish)
   We must be kind-hearted. ( Normative English)
2) But some students against it. (Chinglish)
   But some students are against it. ( Normative English)
3.3.3 Inconformity between modifier and subject
In English, when modifier, such as participle and infinitive, is regarded as adverbial, its logical subject should conform to the subject in the main clause. It is called the principle of subsidiarity. English learners make a lot of mistakes in this aspect.
1) Being no buses, we had to walk home. (Chinglish)
  There being no buses, we had to walk home. (Normative English)
3.4 Pragmatic characteristics
As to the aspect of pragmatic characteristics, I can divide Chinglish into two types: mechanical use of Chinese structure and simplified transfer of concept.
3.4.1 Mechanical use of Chinese structure
Syntactical structure in Chinglish is mostly influenced by Chinese structure. Although it can be understood by some readers who are familiar with Chinese, it disappoints readers and causes misunderstanding among native speakers. Take some examples:
1)  要钱没有，要命一条！
If you want money, I have no; if you want life, I have one. ( Chinglish )
I have nothing but a life to spare only! ( Normative English )
2)给你脸你不要脸，你丢脸，我翻脸。
I give you face you don’t wanna face, you lose your face, I turn my face. ( Chinglish )
We often fall out because you always make me feel bad. ( Normative English )
3) 他们应该离开父母的保护，亲身经历困难。
They should experience some difficulties by themselves out of the protection of parents. ( Chinglish )
They should experience some difficulties by themselves without the protection of parents. ( Normative English )
3.4.2 Simplified transfer of concept
Many English learners always transfer the single concept of Chinese to English without considering the whole sentence. Therefore, Chinglish easily appears.
1) 有他这颗扫帚星，什么事情都办不成。
With a comet like him, nothing can be accomplished. (Chinglish)
With a jinx like him, nothing can be accomplished. (Nornative Engllish)
 In Chinese culture, “扫帚星”(comet) means a kind of person who will bring disaster. In western culture, people use the word “jinx” to refer to somebody who is a symbol of disaster. “Comet” just means a kind of planet. 

4. The causes of Chinglish
Chinese and English are quite different languages that belong to two language families. The former is an important member in the Sino-Tibetan language family, while the latter belongs to the Germanic branch in the Indo-European language family. They are poles apart. Language is not only a way or a symbol to express people’s thinking, but also a kind of mode of thinking. Different groups of people who speak certain languages share different experiences and observation, at the same time, the way of thinking is also unlike. The appearance of Chinglish is due to incompatibility of some parts between the two languages. This kind of incompatibility is derived from mother tongue interference, cultural differen ces and discrepancies between the Chinese and the English thinking patterns.
4.1 Mother tongue interference
Mother tongue interference, or linguistic interference is one of main causes of Chinglish. English, as a kind of second language, is interfered by the first language. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is primarily the study of how learners acquire or learn an additional language after they acquire their first language (L1). In SLA literature, linguists often use the terms native language or mother tongue instead of first language and target language instead of second language. Robert Lado, who published his influential book Linguistics Across Cultures, pointed out that foreign or second language learners have come to the task of acquiring a second language with their L1 knowledge, whether they learn the target language consciously or subconsciously 6. The most obvious cause of errors in language production seems to be the interference of L1, which belongs to interlingual errors that affect the performance of second language learners at the intermediate level of English, while intralingual errors play a relatively minor role.
Interlanguage was the term introduced by Larry Selinker (1972) that became widely accepted for the L2 learner’s independent language system [5]8. It represents the learner’s transitional competence moving a learning continuum stretching from one’s L1 competence to the target language competence. Selinker also said: “L2 learners generally do not reach the same level of competence as native speakers. Their ‘final state’ grammar is not the target-language grammar [5]9.” Thus, certain rules and items ‘fossilize’ and naturally Chinglish appears. In foreign language learning, fossilized language in the form of mother tongue interference is common in Chinese students’ language output. For example, in Chinese, it is unnecessary to change the form of verb as person plural into person singular. So, Chinese English learners often use a third person singular present tense verb without the additional morpheme “-s-”. In addition, a common fossilized error is the Chinese sound /d/ in English interlanguage pronunciation of “dat” for “that”. Some other noted fossilized errors made by many Chinese English learners include the use of the present tense form for a past tense verb, the frequent production of incorrect match like “although…but…”.
4.2 Different thinking patterns
The differences and discrepancies between the Chinese and the English thinking patterns contribute to the appearance of Chinglish. It is known that language has a close connection with thinking patterns. Thinking patterns are underlying mechanisms for the creation and development of language. At the same time, language has an active effect on the development of thinking patterns. On account of the influence of traditional culture, there is a tendency that eastern people pay more attention to integrative and concrete thinking and objectivity, while western people focus on analytical and logical thinking and subjectivity.  The following will explain the influence of thinking patterns on Chinglish in detail.
Firstly, English pays more attention to cohesion, which means integrity in construction and preciseness in form, while Chinese focuses on coherence, which means integrity in context or expression. Englishmen are good at analytical thinking and tend to separate the whole into several parts and get to know the relation between each part. Therefore, there are many clauses in the sentence. Compared with Englishmen, Chinese lay stress on the integrative thinking so that they are confused with the relation between each part in English. If we don’t know the clear distinction between cohesion in English and coherence in Chinese, it is easy for us to use the mode of Chinese coherence in English and be trapped into Chinglish.
Secondly, English has a long history from Old English to Modern English. Old English is a synthetic language. A synthetic language, as defined in Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, is “characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships”. The inflections include gender, number, case, tense, aspect, voice, mood, degrees of comparison, person and etc., which play an important role in English grammar. Modern English is derived from Old English and is a synthetic-analytic language. It inherits some Characteristics of Old English, at the same time it keeps characteristics of analytic language. Chinese is an analytic language, as defined in Random House College Dictionary, which is “characterized by a relatively frequent use of function words, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms”. Inflected forms and function words which show differences between Chinese and English, are two ways to express grammatical meaning. Although inflected forms of Modern English are not as complex as those of Old English, they occur frequently, especially they are reflected in inflection of affixation, such as “apples”、 “goes”、 “Lucy’s”、 “enjoyed”. However, strictly speaking, Chinese has no inflected forms. In the aspect of word order, English relies on a large number of relative and conjunctive words and prepositions to express grammatical meanings. Function words in Chinese are not only far less in the amount but also are far less frequently used than in English. As a consequence, Chinese relies more on word order to express grammatical meaning.
Thirdly, English tends to be abstract in thinking, while Chinese tends to be concrete in thinking. In the field of English, on account of various changes in the form of English, for instance, adjectives and verbs can be changed into abstract nouns. “Happy” can be changed into “happiness”; “Enjoy” can be changed into “enjoyment”. A lot of such kind of words can be used to express abstract notions. However, Chinese tends to be concrete in thinking. We can not tell which one is abstract since adjective and verb are in the same form.
Lastly, Englishmen attach importance to objectivity, which means things without life can be regarded as subject. While Chinese focus on subjectivity, which indicates that things with life are used as subject. The discrepancy can be best displayed in the following example:
她着急万分，心都碎了。
1. She was very anxious and her heart broke. ( Chinglish )
2. Anxiety tore her heart into pieces. ( Normative English )
4.3 Different cultural background
As I have mentioned above, language has a close connection with culture. Different cultures, to some extent, determine the way of language application. It fully falls into three aspects: linguistic knowledge; values; customs.
4.3.1 Linguistic knowledge
For lack of linguistic knowledge, it easily causes pragmatic failure. For example, the phrase “of course” should be applied in certain contexts. English learners always make a mistake when they apply it in some case. When a foreigner asks you “is that the Great Wall Hotel? If you answer “of course” to him, the foreigner will think that you reply with haughty disdain and laugh at his ignorance. Take another example. As we know, the pattern of answer to affirmative sentence is similar in Chinese and in English. However, it is not the case when we are confronted with negative sentence. Many English learners, especially beginners will make a mistake here. Look at the following sentence:
Don’t you like playing basketball?
Yes, I do. (Normative English)
No, I don’t. (Normative English)
Yes, I don’t. (Chinglish)
No, I do. (Chinglish)
The answer of “yes, I don’t” and “no, I do” both will cause misunderstanding to native speakers. They will be confused whether you like playing basketball or not, for “yes” to “I don’t” or “no” to “I do” is contradictory. Normative English will answer the question according to the fact rather than the question.
4.3.2 Values
In western countries, people are deeply ingrained in self-centeredness and individualism and pay more attention to the realization of their own values, while Chinese emphasize the interests of the group and get used to conventional remarks. For example, when a Chinese English learner comes across an old and strong man, he would like to say politely: “you have not changed much.” It means that in terms of the man’s age, he is old, but judging from his appearance, he still looks young. It is a conventional remark among Chinese. However, to English native speakers, the utterance means “you make no improvement or progress and h aven’t realized your value”. Therefore, different values will cause embarrassed and unhappy situation.
4.3.3 Customs
Custom is also a factor to cause Chinglish. As we know, westerners pursue equality and are willing to project themselves. They are ready to accept others’ praise and say “thank you” politely. However, in China, some English learners may reply with “where, where” modestly. It is a typical Chinglish. In addition, privacy is another factor. Most westerners pay special attention to privacy and are unpleased when asked about their age, income and so on. Their frequent topic is weather. But in China, owing to their traditional practice, Chinese are willing to know each other and are willing to help each other.
Through the analysis of causes of Chinglish, we have the chance to learn English better. We can conclude that the influence of mother tongue plays an important role in the formation of Chinglish. What’s more, different cultures and thinking patterns have negative effects on English learning as well. Hereby, English learners should know cultural background of English and realize their social customs and make a contrast with the mother tongue. Only in this way, can we be aware of non-normative language and avoid it, strengthening the awareness of idiomatic expressions.

5. Trend of the development of Chinglish
5.1 Inevitability of the development of Chinglish
Humboldt regards language as a way of recognition rather than a way of expression. On the basis of it, he builds world outlook of language, which refers to the relation of language and thinking. There is no doubt that language reflects thinking and their close relation is apparent. He thinks language is companied with the power of spirit. Language and spirit are limited by some common reasons and they are indiscerptible outcomes from the activity of intelligence. Language is derived from spirit and reacts on spirit. In the mutual influence, thinking plays the decisive role. Therefore, the study on the mode of thinking is the study on the trace to the source of language. According to the analysis, we can conclude that the development of Chinglish is inevitable. As I have mentioned above, one of the causes of Chinglish is the diverse thinking patterns of Chinese and English. To English learners, they will mix their subjective concept with objective aesthesia and process of thinking. In view of the form of Chinglish, it contains the characteristics of Chinese and English. Its essence of development is based on the mutual action of the world outlook of Chinese and English. The combination of two languages is bound to produce another form of English variety, namely Chinglish on the ground of incompatibility of the outlook between the two languages.
5.2 Rationality of the development of Chinglish
The development of Chinglish is also reasonable. On the one hand, each language is independent. On the other hand, language is an open system in order to keep it vivid. The power to promote the development of language is not only internal, but also external. The external power mainly comes from the interaction among the different languages. Cohesion in the system of English lies in the whole controlling parts and the fact that each part must be conform to the whole. Therefore, when Chinese is integrated into the system, Chinese must adhere to the principle, and accept the chosen system. However the system always changes. Its change begins from some part. Because of the change of the part, the balance of system is destroyed and each part has new organization, so that new relation is produced. Chinglish begins to develop in this system. Although there will be a period of difficult time at its beginning of generation, nowadays it is used by many people and some words, such as “纸老虎—paper tiger”、 “丢脸—lose face” have developed towards China English and gradually accepted by foreigners. Of course, Chinglish is not expected to be entirely accepted by foreigners, but the large scale use of Chinglish is a fact. The foundation of language is the existence of activities of parole. Therefore, the external power of development of language determines the rationality of the development of Chinglish.

6. Conclusion

The above discussion of study and research give us a comprehensive understanding of Chinglish. Strictly speaking, Chinglish is a kind of language which is excluded from English language system. However, we should not deny its existence and we can not avoid it in our daily life. Chinglish has its own characteristics of pronunciation, characteristics of vocabulary, characteristics of grammar, and pragmatic characteristics. It is caused by many factors, which mainly are the interference of mother tongue language, different thinking patterns, and different cultural background. As far as linguistic worldview and development are concerned, Chinglish is the essentia l product derived from the mixture of English and Chinese. In spite of its defects and some misunderstanding in the communication with native speakers, it has won the popular support and to some extent, provides an opportunity to strengthen communication. At the same time, it provides a platform for the development of China English.
 
Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhu Min, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Guo Xuexia, Chen Zhuo, Qiu Yanghui and many others.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
 
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