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学科英语论文有关金融方面

发布时间:2023-02-21 19:35

学科英语论文有关金融方面

  现代金融学的发展
  一、金融问题中的不确定性研究
  在21世纪以前的经济学研究中,研究者大多关注的是企业中的投入产出效率问题,由于当时资本市场化程度低,很少有人专门研究与资本决策有关的问题,尽管如此,还是有些研究成果对以后金融学的发展起到了很大的推动作用,其中最大的贡献是资金时间价值概念的提出。
  随着金融市场的发展,以及人们对不确定性概念的认识,进入30年代以后产生了大量对金融决策问题的研究成果,同时这些成果又积极推进了金融市场的活跃与发展。在本文以下部分简要概述与评价了这一时期的重要研究成果。
  (一)不确定性研究在资产定价领域中的应用
  1.证券组合理论与资本资产定价模型
  在整个金融分析的框架中,不确定性概念的引入是具有重大作用的。最早Kenes(1936)和Hicks(1939)提出了风险补偿的概念,认为由于金融产品中的不确定性的存在,应该对不同金融产品在利率中附加一定的风险补偿。随后,Von Neumann(1947)应用预期效用的概念提出了解决在不确定性条件下的决策选择的方法,在此基础上Markowiz(1952)发展起了证券组合理论,他认为投资者选择证券组合时关注的只是未来现金流的均值与方差。他假设投资者的预期效用符合二次分布或者是多项式分布。Markowiz的主要研究结论是在不确定的前提下,最优的投资决策是分散化持有。Tobin(1958)认为投资者出于自身流动性偏好的不同选择收益与风险的均衡。这进一步完善了证券组合选择理论的框架。
  在资产定价领域另一著名的理论模型就是资本定价模型(CAPM),Sharp(1994)和Lintner(1995)用公式简明地表述了资产组合的价值与无风险利率以及资产的风险水平之间的关系。Black(1972)推出了即使在不存在无风险资产的情况下,Sharp和CAPM公式仍然成立,只是无风险利率被包括整个市场上所有资产的证券组合的预期收益率代替。与CAPM模型同时代出现的资产定价模型还有Ross(1977)的套利定价模型(APT)和Lucas(1978)典型代理资产定价模型。
  以CAPM为代表的资产定价模型,为资产定价提供了一个简洁的计算方法,并且得到了一些在实证方面的研究的支持(Fama and Macbeth,1973),但是对现实中的一些异常现象仍然缺少有效的解释能力,Brennan(1989)认为CAPM是建立在所有投资者对投资的预期与风险都具有共同的估计与判断,并且所有投资者的效用函数一致的假设基础之上,这一假设与现实不一致,这是导致CAPM对一些现实问题缺少解释力的根本原因。以后正是对这些假设的质疑,推动了信息不对称概念的提出与研究。
  2.市场有效性假说
  市场有效性假说认为,在一个完全竞争市场中,不存在不对称信息与市场摩擦,影响未来平均收益的只是投资风险的不同。在20世纪60年代有大量研究工作者对市场有效性假说进行了检验,Fama(1973)通过对美国证券市场的实证检验,认为有效市场假说是成立的,但是很多研究人员发现了在市场中,存在着许多市场有效性假说或者CAPM模型解释不了的异常现象。例如,Basu(1977)发现资产的平均收益除了与CAPM中的β系数有关外,还与资产的价格盈利比率(P/E比率)有关,在相同β系数下,价格盈利比率高的股票(成长型股票)的市场价格好于价格盈利比率低的股票(价值型股票);Benz(1981)发现股票的市场价格还与上市公司的规模有关;Stattman(1980)发现股票的价格与账面价值的比率(P/B比率)也是影响股票价格的重要因素。Fama和French(1993)在以上研究的基础上提出了三因素模型,即在影响资产价格的β因素外,加入了P/E比率和P/B比率因素。
  另外,许多研究人员从时间序角度研究也发现了一些市场有效假说与CAPM解释不了的异常现象,其中最为著名的就是Pozeff和Kinney(1976)发现的所谓“一月效应”;他们发现在纽约证券市场的指数在一月期间的存在明显低于其他月份的现象;还有就是Cross(1973)和French(1980)发现存在类似的“星期一效应”,以后许多研究人员在世界范围内验证了这两种现象的存在。
  对这些异常现象的解释,有效市场假说显得无能为力,有人曾经试图将“一月效应”解释为到年末税收流出的影响,但是在英国、澳大利亚等税收年度不在12月份的国家,仍然存在“一月效应”就无法解释了。有些学者从心理学的角度解释这些异常现象,例如,Dreman(1982)将股票价格的P/E比率效应解释为,由投资者总是过高估计具有高成长性股票的成长性,导致市场中具有高P/E比率的股票的价格被高估了,这是导致股票收益率低的原因。
  3.连续时间模型
  在资产定价理论中的另一个重要假设是:证券市场总是在连续过程中,在这一假设前提下,Merton(1969,1971)将CAPM发展为瞬时资本资产定价模型(ICAPM),同样在信息对称、无摩擦的市场中,资产价格的变化符合Ito过程,在这种条件下,资产的价格与投资者的效用偏好无关。在随后的研究中Merton(1973)和Black(1973)应用以上连续时间模型成功地得到了期权定价公式,这一公式后来被大量的实证研究所证实,并且被广泛在实践中应用。
  (二)不确定性研究在公司财务管理中的应用
  金融分析研究的另外一个重要领域是公司财务管理,主要研究公司在投资决策中的有关负债与权益比例选择、公司的红利政策等问题。最早这方面的研究成果由Modigliani和Miller(1958)作出,他们的研究显示,在完全市场中(没有市场摩擦与信息不对称存在)公司的价值与公司的负债比率无关(M-M定理)。类似的研究结论还有,公司的价值与公司的利润分配政策无关。显而易见,这些研究结论与现实中的事实不符。依据M-M定理的结论,公司在利润分配时,由于派发现金红利会有现金流出,公司将更愿意选择股份回购的政策,而不是红利政策,而在现实中,许多公司更愿意选择分红而不是股份回购,这一现象被Black(1976)称为“公司红利的困惑(Dividend Puzzle)”,对此Miller(1977)所能给出的解释是,M-M定理的结论之所以与现实不同在于税收与所谓的破产成本对财务结构的影响,是由于一定的负债可以使公司达到税收减免的作用,另外由于对高负债率公司存在着破产的风险,所以负债率对公司股票价值存在影响,Miller以及其他的学者对这些财务问题做出的解释总体来说都不很令人满意,直到后来引入不对称信息以后,似乎才对这些问题的解释取得了突破。
  二、金融中的不对称信息问题的研究
  正如前文所述,对现实中的一些现象很难单纯用不确定性(风险)来得到满意的解释,正是在对这些问题的研究引起了人们对金融问题中的不对称信息的关注,加上在20世纪60年代以博弈论为代表的信息经济研究方法的突破,使得许多学者在对金融问题中的不对称信息的研究中取得了很多成果,特别是用不对称信息可以完美地解释许多有关财务结构方面的问题。以下仍然分两部分概述这方面的成果,首先是在财务决策方面的成果,接下来是在资产定价方面的成果。
  (一)不对称信息在公司财务管理中的应用
  1.红利信号模型
  关于公司红利决策的困惑引起了许多学者的关注,除了以上提到的公司更愿意支付红利而不愿意将利润用于股份回购的异常现象之外,Lintner(1957)还发现公司在进行红利决策时,由于受累进税制的影响,更愿意使各年的红利平滑些,所以公司每年的红利波动要远远小于股票价值波动,有关税收减免的理论解释较为理想,并且在以后被许多学者用实证方法证实了这一现象的存在(例如:Fama and Babiak,1968)。但是税收效应并没有很好解释公司为什么更愿意支付红利的困惑。
  最早Miller(1961)注意到红利可能是向投资者揭示公司发展前景的信号,但是直到Bhattacharya(1979)才应用博弈论方法建立起了红利模型,Bhattaeharya成为第一个将博弈论引入金融分析的学者,Bhattacharya认为公司的管理者对公司投资项目的前景与其他普通投资者相比具有信息方面的优势,管理者通过公司的尽可能高的红利向普通投资者传递信息,如果公司红利水平高意味着公司投资项目的未来前景好,而对于无法支付高额红利的公司将不得不向银行贷款,从而担负过高的财务成本。以后许多学者在此基础上对模型又进行了一个改造(Miller and Rock,1985;John and Williams,1985)。但是仍有学者质疑认为,按照以上模型认为只有在公司需要为新项目向市场融资时,才有积极性支付高水平的红利,但事实上模型的红利支付水平并不受公司是否有新项目的影响。也就是说,上面的信号模型不能很好解释红利的平滑性。为此,Kumar(t988)发展出了一个粗糙信号(Coarse Signaling)模型,其结论认为公司在一定的利润范围内会支付同样水平的红利,直到公司的利润水平超出了这一范围,公司管理者才会调整红利支付水平。红利信号模型的另外一个问题是,公司为什么愿意支付红利,而不是股票回购。Ofer和Thakor(1987),Barclay和Smith(1988)用逆向选择原理解释了这一现象,他们认为公司更愿意在市场上自己股票被低估时回购股票,所以回购股票行为向市场传达了股票价值被低估的信号,所以会引起股票价值的上涨,从而使公司支付了额外的成本,而用红利分配利润不存在这一逆向选择问题。
  2.资本结构
  正如上文提到的,公司资本结构问题的研究在引入不对称信息以前一直没有得到令人满意的结论。应用博弈论描述公司资本结构的决策过程,大大推动了对公司基本结构决策研究的发展。
  最早Ross(1977)建立了一个公司负债决策的博弈模型,其中公司通过负债率向资本市场传递公司未来经营前景的信息,由于高负债率可能导致公司破产的风险加大,而一旦公司破产将为公司的经营者带来损失,所以只有公司管理者对公司未来的现金收益乐观时才会在资本结构决策时选择贷款,提高负债率。而前景乐观的公司提高负债率的决策是前景悲观的公司所无法模仿的,所以对资本市场来说,高负债率是公司发展前景乐观的信号。随后在Myers(1984)的模型中,认为如果管理者在公司项目发展需要融资时,如果管理者认为目前市场上自己公司股票价值被市场高估了,会选择通过发行股票的直接融资方式,而如果管理者认为公司股票价值被低估了,就会选择贷款等间接融资方式,所以说公司增加发行股票向资本市场传递的是公司目前股票价值被高估的信号。Myers认为经营者在面对新项目需要投资时首先选择的是用自身盈利积累完成投资,其次是选择贷款等间接融资方式,最后才会选择发行股票的融资方式,这被称之为“融资顺序理论(Pecking order theory of finance)”。
  在金融分析中应用博弈论的不对称信息理论取得较大成绩的研究就是所谓的代理问题的研究,Jensen和Mecking(1976)指出公司中存在两类代理问题,其一是债权人与股东的代理矛盾,其二是股东与公司管理者的代理矛盾。债权人与股东间的矛盾表现在股东总是扩大公司投资风险,因为项目成功了超额收益全部是股东的,而如果公司经营失败,破产的成本由债权人与股东共同负担。Diamond(1989)通过研究认为,在长期重复博弈条件下,股东的声誉可以在一定程度改善股东和债权人间的矛盾。股东与管理者间的矛盾是由于股东不能有效控制管理者的经营行为,因而管理者会最大化自己的利益,可能会损害股东利益。
  在80年代末与90年代,出现了有大量关于代理问题的研究成果,Hart和Moore(1989,1994,1998)研究发现当企业家计划投资新项目而需要向外融资时,与投资者签订贷款合同是最优合同,得到这一结论的关键在于虽然企业家与外部投资者在项目未来进展的各个时期都可以观察到项目的收益情况,但是第三方(例如:法官)无法观察到项目的收益,此时贷款合同是最优融资合同,并且Hart认为由于贷款人在企业家不能偿还贷款时可以控制公司的资产,所以企业家有积极性偿还贷款。
  3.公司所有权控制市场
  公司所有权控制市场的概念最早是由Manne(1965)提出的,他认为为了有效的配置资源,公司所有权控制市场的存在是必要的,现代资本市场的有效运转离不开公司所有权控制市场的存在。在公司所有权控制市场中所有权的转移方式是多样化的,包括:收购、兼并、股票的发行以及委托代理关系的变化等手段。在传统的完全竞争、无摩擦的资本市场假设下,很少考虑公司所有权转移对公司价值的影响,而事实上每次兼并收购活动都会引起公司股票价值的大幅波动。直到进入80年代以后非对称信息概念的引入,使得人们认识到了公司所有权控制市场对资本市场影响的内在机制。
  Crossman和Harl(19803研究了在公司收购过程中存在所谓的“免费搭车问题(Free Rider Problem)”,他们认为当收购方发现一个目标公司的运营效率低下,而决定收购目标公司时,面对外部的标购,原有的股东知道收购者通过收购后公司在新的经营者经营下,效率会提高,所以会自发抵制收购,等待收购价格的升高,直到收购价格升高到在新经营者的经营水平下的合理的价格时,原有股东才会出售手中股票。考虑到收购方在收购过程中搜集信息、组织收购是有成本的,所以采用标购行为实际上为收购方带来了损失。Shleifer和Vishny(1986)认为,如果收购方在标购目标公司以前就已经持有了目标公司的一定股票,可以解决上述“搭车问题”的困惑,收购方可以用自己手中股票的增值弥补收购带来的损失。然而Shleifer和Vishny的结论并没有在实证中得到证实,反而Desai和Kim(1988)的实证结果认为大多数的收购方在标购前并没有持有目标公司的股票。
  在收购行为研究方面的另外一个困惑就是收购行为往往导致股票价格的大幅上涨,例如:Jennings和Mazzeo(1993)发现收购发生时的收购人对目标公司的首次出价,大多数高于收购前10天的股票价格的20%。Fishman(1988)将这种现象解释为是由于有潜在竞争者随时会加入收购,较高的出价是为了阻止竞争者加入。
  4.新股发行(IPO)
  在1963年在由美国证券交易委员会组织的一项研究中,首次发现在新股上市后的短期存在着明显的超额回报的现象,以后许多学者在许多国家发现了这一现象,例如:Ibbotson和Ritter(1995)统计得出美国纽约证券市场1960-1992年发行新股的首日的超额回报是15.3%。在许多年中IPO现象成为挑战市场有效性假说的又一个证据。
  对IPO现象最早的解释是由Rock(1986)作出的,Rock认为IPO现象实质是个逆向选择问题,新股上市时市场上存在着两类投资者,一类是具有信息优势的投资者,一类是不具信息优势的投资者,信息投资者只是在新股定价低于其真实价值时才购买,而当定价高于其真实价值时只有不具信息优势的投资者才会参加购买,所以平均来说,不具信息优势的投资者购入了较大比例的被过高定价的股票,为了在市场中留住不具信息优势的投资者,公司在初次发行新股时常常有意低定价。类似Rock对IPO超额回报问题的解释,许多研究人员给出了这一问题的其他合理解释,例如:Allen和Faulhaber(1989)以及Grinblatt和Hwang(1989)将新股发行低定价解释为公司未来前景良好的信号;Hughes和Thakor(1992)认为公司新股发行低定价是为了规避诉讼风险;Ruud(1993)认为新股上市后的短期高回报是由于承销商的价格稳定活动造成的。
  在IPO领域中的另外一个难以解释的现象就是新股上市后长期表现不好。Ritter(1991)研究发现,在1975-1984年间发行的新股在发行后3年间的回报比正常股票的回报至少低15%。以后Loughran(1993,1995)再次证实了这一现象的存在。Shiller(1990)用所谓“主持人效应”解释新股长期回报不好的现象,他认为新股上市的初期承销商出于对自身声誉的考虑会创造短期超额需求的假象,随后随着承销商从市场的退出,导致了新股长期回报不佳的现象。
  (二)不对称信息在资产定价领域中的应用
  Grossman和stiglitz(1980)最早将非合作不对称信息的概念引入资产定价领域的研究中,建立了所谓资产定价的理性预期均衡理论,他们认为资本市场中的每个参与者都从市场价格的变化中获得信息(所谓的学习过程),并且每个参与者的行为不会对市场价格构成影响。在80年代初期这一理论成果主要用于解释公司财务方面的问题,直到Kyle(1985)以及Kyle和Milgrom(1985)研究做市商制度下的价格形成机制的成果出现以后,不对称信息对资产价格的影响才越来越多地引起人们关注,以后在Kyle Milgrom框架的基础上出现了大量的研究成果。由于在这一框架下的价格决定机制不同于Modigliani Miller的市场均衡机制,是通过研究具体市场条件下的资产价格形成机制,所以常常将这部分研究成果称为市场微观结构理论。
  Kyle研究了在做市商制度下证券市场的价格形成机制,在Kyle的模型中,市场由三类参与者构成:风险中性的做市商、噪音交易者和信息交易者,噪音交易者出于自己的流动性需求进入市场交易,信息交易者根据自己的信息交易,为了最大化自己的利益,信息交易者选择自己在市场上的交易数量。与Kyle不同之处在于,Milgrom建立的序贯交易模型(Sequential Trade Model)中交易者每次交易的数量都是固定的,即每次都只能买入或卖出一个单位的资产,做市商根据交易指令的类型来设定买卖价差,在均衡条件下,由于有竞争做市商的存在,买入报价是做市商收到卖出指令时关于资产价值的条件期望值,卖出报价是做市商收到买入交易指令时关于资产价值的条件期望值,因而交易者的交易指令将促使做市商调整其买卖报价,这种调整从本质上是一种贝叶斯学习过程。
  Easley和O'Hara(1987)在Milgrom模型的基础上考察了交易规模对做市商价格行为的影响,其结论是做市商的定价策略会依赖指令的规模,数量比较大的指令往往以比较差的价格成交。以后Easley和O'Hara(1992)又考察了交易时间对价格行为的影响,发现交易时间会影响价格,并且交易间隔影响交易价差的大小。
  现代金融理论方法经过近一个世纪的发展,取得了许多重大突破,特别是进入80年代以后,越来越多的金融难题得到解释。但是由于金融市场的复杂性,至今对许多问题的解释还很难令人满意,例如:对P/E比率和P/B比率对资产价值的影响的现象至今还没有合理的解释,对IPO以及基金中的折价现象的研究结果也没有较为统一的认识,另外市场中是否存在信息操纵问题也是一个争论的焦点。对这些问题的研究与解释,将进一步推动金融理论的发展。

金融学小论文英文

  The development of modern finance
  First, the financial problem of the uncertainty
  (A) the uncertainty of the field in the application of asset pricing
  1. Portfolio Theory and Capital Asset Pricing Model
  In the framework of the financial analysis, introduction of the concept of uncertainty is a major role. First Kenes (1936) and Hicks (1939) proposed the concept of risk compensation that the financial products in the presence of uncertainty, should interest rates in different financial products in compensation for additional risks. Subsequently, Von Neumann (1947) applied the concept of expected utility of the proposed settlement in the decision-making under uncertainty in the method chosen, on this basis Markowiz (1952) developed a portfolio theory, he thought when investors choose portfolio concerned only with future cash flow of the mean and variance. He assumed that the expected utility of investors consistent with secondary distribution or multinomial distribution. Markowiz The main conclusions are subject to uncertainty, optimal decision-making is a diversified investment holding. Tobin (1958) that investor liquidity preferences for their own benefits and risks of different options for the balance. This further improved the framework of portfolio choice theory.
  In the field of asset pricing model is another well-known theory of capital pricing model (CAPM), Sharp (1994) and Lintner (1995) using the formula succinctly expressed the portfolio value and risk-free interest rate and the level of risk assets, the relationship between . Black (1972) introduced even in the non-risk assets zones remained the case, Sharp and the CAPM formula is still valid, just without the risk of interest rates are including the entire market on all assets of the portfolio rate of return instead of the 预期. Contemporary with the CAPM model of the asset pricing model also Ross (1977) arbitrage pricing model (APT) and Lucas (1978) the typical agent asset pricing model.
  Represented by CAPM asset pricing model for asset pricing provides a simple method of calculation, and obtain some support from empirical studies (Fama and Macbeth, 1973), but in reality some of the anomalies is still a lack of effective explanatory power, Brennan (1989) that the CAPM is based on the expectations of all investors in the investment and risk are common in estimates and judgments, and all investors the same utility function based on the assumption that this assumption is inconsistent with the reality This is leading to some practical problems CAPM on the root causes of the lack of explanatory power. It is beyond doubt on these assumptions, to promote the introduction of the concept of asymmetric information and research.
  2. Market efficiency hypothesis
  Market efficiency hypothesis that in a perfectly competitive market, there is no asymmetric information and market frictions affect the future earnings of the average investment risk is different. 60s in the 20th century a large number of research workers on the market efficiency hypothesis was tested, Fama (1973) through empirical tests on the U.S. stock market, that the efficient market hypothesis holds, but many researchers found that in the market, There are many market efficiency hypothesis or CAPM model can not explain the abnormal phenomenon. For example, Basu (1977) found that the average earnings assets, in addition to the β coefficient of the CAPM, but also with the price earnings ratio of assets (P / E ratio) is related to the same β coefficient, the higher the price earnings ratio stocks (growth stocks) better than the market price of the low price earnings ratio of stocks (value stocks); Benz (1981) found that the market price of the stock with the size of the listed company; Stattman (1980) found that stock prices and the ratio of book value (P / B ratio) is also an important factor affecting stock prices. Fama and French (1993) On the basis of the above three-factor model proposed that the impact of asset prices in the β factors, joined the P / E ratio and P / B ratio factor.
  The interpretation of these anomalies, the efficient market hypothesis seems powerless, someone had tried the "January effect" to the end of Shuishou interpreted as the impact of outflow, but in the United Kingdom, Australia, the annual revenue of the country is not in December, there are still "in January effect "can not be explained. Some scholars from a psychological perspective to explain these anomalies, such as, Dreman (1982) the stock price P / E ratio effect interpreted as the investor always overestimate growth stocks with high growth, leading to market high P / E ratio of stock market was overvalued, that it is a reason for low stock returns.
  3. Continuous time model
  In asset pricing theory is another important assumption: stock market is always in a continuous process, under this assumption, Merton (1969,1971) to develop instantaneous CAPM Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM), the same information symmetry, frictionless market, asset price changes in line with Ito process under these conditions, asset prices and investor preference for independent effectiveness. In subsequent studies Merton (1973) and Black (1973) The application of these continuous-time model has been successful in the option pricing formula, the formula was later confirmed that a large number of empirical studies and has been widely applied in practice.
  (B) the uncertainty of financial management in the company of
  Financial analysis is another important area of financial management, major research firms in the investment decision-making in the proportion of the debt and equity options, the company's dividend policy and other issues. Results of the first studies in this area by the Modigliani and Miller (1958) made their study shows that full market (no market frictions and asymmetric information exists) the value of the company has nothing to do with the company's debt ratio (MM theorem). A similar study concludes that the value of the company's profit distribution policy has nothing to do. Obviously, these research findings and practical in reality. MM theorem based on the conclusions in the distribution of profits, due to the cash outflow will be sent found Jinhong Li, the Company repurchased shares will be more willing to choose policies, rather than the dividend policy, in reality, many companies prefer to dividends rather than Share buy-back, this phenomenon is Black (1976) referred to as "Company dividend puzzle (Dividend Puzzle)", which Miller (1977) can give the explanation, MM theorem conclusion is that the reason and the reality of different tax and the so-called bankruptcy costs on the financial structure is the result of certain liabilities of the company can achieve the role of tax relief, another company because of the existence of high debt ratio risk of bankruptcy, so the debt ratio to the value of existing shares affected, Miller and Other scholars make on these financial problems are not very satisfactory interpretation of the whole until later after the introduction of asymmetric information, it seems Caidui explain these issues to achieve a breakthrough.
  As mentioned above, some of the phenomena of reality is difficult to simply use the uncertainty (risk) to get a satisfactory explanation, it is in the research of these issues raises the question of asymmetric information on financial concerns, plus last 60 years in the 20th century to game theory, represented a breakthrough in the information economy research methods, leading many scholars to the financial problems of asymmetric information in the study achieved a lot, especially the use of asymmetric information can explain a lot of perfectly the financial structure issues. Following is an overview of this still results in two parts, first in the results of financial decision-making, followed by the asset pricing results.
  (A) asymmetric information in corporate financial management application

关于金融的英语文章

经济学人:加拿大的住宅市场
Finance and Economics; 财经;
Canada's housing market; 加拿大的住宅市场;
Time for a bigger needle; 该出手时就出手;
The latest attempt to prick a bubble;戳破泡沫的最新举措;
经济学人:
Canada's reputation for financial regulation is starry. Its banksgot through the crisis unscathed. According to Moody's, a ratings agency, Royal Bank of Canadasits alongside HSBC and JPMorgan Chase in the top tier of global banks. And Canadianpolicymakers are old hands at pulling “macroprudential” levers of the sort now in vogue amongrich-world central banks.
加拿大的金融监管一向广受赞誉。它的银行业在这场危机中做到了独善其身。根据评级机构穆迪的报告,加拿大皇家银行与汇丰银行以及摩根大通同列,跻身全球银行界的第一梯队。同时,加拿大的政策制定者也是运用宏观审慎政策的老手,这一政策如今也常被其他富国的央行使用。
But questions still nag. Some say that Canada's banks are flattered by a huge indemnity offeredby Canada Mortgage and Housing Corp (CMHC), a public institution that insures mortgages witha loan-to-value ratio of more than 80%. CHMC's book grew to 567 billion Canadian Dollar(557 billion Dollar) in 2011, up from 345 billion Canadian Dollar four years earlier. And Canada'shousing market looks very frothy on some measures: The Economist's analysis of price-to-rentratios suggests that Canadian properties were about 75% above their long-run “fair value” in thefirst quarter of 2012 (see chart). Although less than 0.5% of CHMC's mortgages are in arrears, such exuberance is a worry. The central bank recently labelled housing as “the most importantdomestic risk to financial stability in Canada”.
但是,仍有问题缠身。部分人士认为,加拿大的银行被加拿大抵押和住房公司(CMHC)提供的巨额补偿金美化了,CMHC是一家为贷款估值比率超过80%的抵押贷款提供保险的公共机构。在2011年,CHMC的抵押贷款额从四年前的3450亿增长到了5670亿加元(合5570亿美元)。并且,从一些指标来看,加拿大的房地产充斥着泡沫:《经济学人》以房价租金比所做的分析显示,在2012年第一季度,加拿大的物业价格高出它们的长期公允价值75%。纵然仅有低于0.5%的CHMC抵押贷款存在拖欠的情况,但这样的繁荣仍让人忧虑。最近,央行也冠以楼市 “危及加拿大金融稳定性的最大国内隐患”。
Repeated efforts by policymakers to take the heat out of housing have not had a noticeableeffect. So on June 21st Jim Flaherty, the finance minister, had another go, his fourth in fouryears. Some of the new measures were cosmetic. Buyers of homes worth more than 1m Dollarhave been able to get mortgage-default insurance from CMHC with a downpayment of only 5%. In practice, it is hard to find buyers in this bracket who do not have lots of equity in their homes. But after July 9th mortgages for homes of this value will not be eligible for CMHC coverage.
政策制定者们给楼市降温的不断尝试并无明显成效。于是,在6月21日,加拿大财长吉姆·费拉逖,在四年来第四次出台了一些新举措。新措施中的一些不过是表面功夫。价值过百万美元住宅的买主能得到由CMHC担保的债务违约保险以及首付仅付5%的优惠待遇。而事实上,很少有这类购房者在购房时不以大量自有资金支付价款的。不过,在6月9日之后,这类住宅将不再适用于CMHC的保险范围。
Other measures have more teeth. The maximum amortisation period for a mortgage will now be25 years, down from 30. That should hurt demand: last year about 40% of new mortgages werefor terms longer than that. Refinancing a home will be allowed only up to 80% of its value, downfrom 85%. Homebuyers will have to demonstrate their housing costs are no more than 39% oftheir gross household income. On top of Mr Flaherty's measures, the Office of theSuperintendent of Financial Institutions, Canada's banking regulator, slapped a loan-to-value limitof 65% on borrowing against home equity.
其他那些则更为有力。抵押贷款最长还贷期限如今将从30年降低至25年。这势必将减少需求:去年约有40%的新贷款的期限是超过25年的。允许的房屋再融资的上限从房屋价值的85%降至只有80%。购房者还须证明他们的住房支出不超过家庭总收入的39%。费拉逖的举措中,紧随其后的是,加拿大的银行监管部门,联邦金融机构监督办公室,将贷款和自有资金间的贷款估值比率的限制猛降至65%。
Craig Alexander, the chief economist for TD Financial Group, estimates all this will be theequivalent of about a 1% rise in mortgage rates for most homebuyers. He believes that willproduce a slow unwinding of the housing market. If he is right, and Mr Flaherty's variousinterventions avoid the collateral damage that would be caused by an actual interest-rate rise, Canada's admirers will have another thing to swoon over.
多伦多道明银行金融集团首席经济学家,克雷格·亚历山大估计,所有这些措施对于购房者而言将等同于抵押贷款利率上升1%。他认为这将促使房产市场缓慢回归。如果他的观点正确,并且费拉逖的各种干预手段能够避免可能引发实际利率上升的附带伤害,那么如此一来,加拿大的崇拜者们又将有一个可以津津乐道的话题了。

写一篇150左右的英语论文,internet changes our life 最好有关于金融方面的事,谢谢帮忙

internet changes our life
Nowadays internet is here and there,and we can't leave it even for a example,we use internet to buy what we want more and more,because it is not only convient,but also cheaper than the 's more,internet is becaming more and more popular in big campanies,without internet,it is impossible for the campanies to comnicate easily and operate influently in such short time,internet brings us not only money,but also also changes the way of relising,interner offers us free pictures,music,games and so on,if a person does not know how to use the internet,I think he misses a colourful r,evey corn has two sides,since internet appears,people have felt the distance among them is bicoming larger and larger,and many children can't study well because they are addict to the games in the a word,internet changes our life very much,but we must use internet properly.
小子,学习偷懒可不好啊。切记!切记!

求一篇英语论文关于金融危机的

theory
On the financial crisis, the authority of the definition of comparison is by Goldsmith (1982) given that all or most of the financial indicators - short-term interest rates, assets (assets, securities, real estate, land) prices, the number of business bankruptcy and the closure of a number of financial institutions - the sharp, short and ultra-cycle deterioration. Its characteristics is based on the expected decline in asset prices and a large number of out of real estate or long-term financial assets into the currency. Financial crisis can be divided into currency crises, debt crises, banking crises, such as the type. In recent years more and more of the financial crisis showed a mixed form of crisis.
Blessing in disguise, Yan Fu Huo know? The escape came, unable to retain the go. Nothing in the world are the development of the wave-like, there is bound to have peaks and troughs, there are bound to have peaks and troughs. Rare in the face of the economic crisis, many companies have chosen to shrink the front, the defensive; a lot of people tighten up the pocketbook and spending. Enterprises do not only offensive defense, when you prepare defense means that when you start back. Live at home, hand in half a cent to spend, to save money is in, only more money in order to change the quality of life. Fear, confusion and helplessness to escape, defense and reduce costs so that you will only make matters worse situation. Only offensive, Endeavor, protest, moving trend is the best choice and to deal with.

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