货贷论文文献
货贷论文文献
摘要: 国际货运代理是国际贸易中必不可少的环节。由于货运代理含义及其法律地位规定的不明确,使得其在实践中产生了大量的争议。本文通过简单介绍关于国际货运代理法律性质的不同观点,来探讨如何从法律上识别国际货运代理人在业务活动中的法律地位。
关键词: 货运代理人;法律地位
一、国际货运代理人的概念
国际货运代理人是指为了客户的利益,依据客户的指示承揽货运进行运输的人。虽然国际货运代理人本人并不是承运人,但是在海运实践当中,由于其法律地位的模糊,常常对他们应当承担的法律责任存在很大的争议。本文将要讨论如何判断国际货运代理人的法律地位这一问题。
二、国际货运代理人法律性质问题
根据规模大小和经营范围的不同,通常将国际货运代理分为两种形式:一种是托运人的代理人;另一种是多式联运经营人。由此而延伸的关于国际货运代理人的法律性质,主要有“代理人”说和“无船承运人”说两种。持“代理人”说的人认为,国际货运代理是指接受委托人的委托,在委托人的授权范围内,以委托人的名义办理货物运输,代理关系是其中的核心关系,这也与《民法通则》中关于代理的规定相似。因此有关货运代理人的责任承担问题,应当依据《民法通则》的相关规定,其法律后果由被代理人承担。“无船承运人”说则认为,当下许多货运代理人一方面与托运人签订多式联运合同,另外一方面又与每个区段的`实际承运人分别订立运输合同,在以这种“无船承运人”的身份出现时,应当认定为其具有承运人的法律地位。
三、国际货运代理人法律地位判断标准
作为代理人或者是合同主体,货运代理人常常试图用代理人的身份来逃避自己的责任。这往往容易造成混乱的局面。理论与航运实践当中,主要依据以下四条标准来认定国际货运代理人或者代理企业的法律地位。
(一)根据当事人之间的约定
即根据双方签订的运输合同以及货代在合同或者相关文件中如何描述自己来判断。合同作为当事人意思自治的产物,只要承托双方在合同中对货运代理的法律地位做出了约定,就不会存在关于其法律性质、地位的争议问题。但如果货运合同中没有约定或者约定不明,根据合同解释原则以及航运实务中的通常做法,一般会做出有利于托运人的解释。近年来,随着货代企业实力的增长,国内法院也倾向于做出这种解释。关于在合同中的具体描述,如果货代描述自己为“作为代理人”、“代表”或者“为”并且这样的描述是加在本人签名之后的,那么认为此时仅仅是作为代理人的身份。
(二)根据运输单证的签发
根据FLATA标准规则的有关规定,货运代理人一旦签发了自己的运输单证,则视为其已以明示或者默示的方式作出了以承运人的身份承担责任的承诺。比如,以自己的名义签发提单、公布运价。NSAB标准条款中也有类似的规定“货运代理人在下列情况下应当被认为其是以承运人的身份从事活动:以自己的名义签发运输单证……”。
(三)根据报酬的取得方式
实务中,包干费和佣金是国际货运代理人获得报酬的两种主要形式。其中,佣金很好理解,是货代作为中间人说合介绍业务所获得的酬金。包干费,虽然国际物流领域没有这个叫法,但为了方便交易,货运代理人收取包干费用的情况早已不在少数,并且已经形成行业惯例。包干费,是由货主一次性支付给货运代理人的一笔费用。与海运费不同,包干费用还包括报关费、港口费等路上费用。一般情况下,收取包干费用这一事实,通常被认定为货代在其中具有承运人的法律地位。若收取的是佣金,通常则认定为代理人。在太仓兴达制罐公司与江苏中远公司的纠纷中,买卖双方签订了一个货物运输合同,价格条款中约定的支付方式为包干费支付,但是没有明确该交易中的货代是代理人还是承运人。法院最终认定货代是以代理人的身份履行了合同,既其并不因为包干费用而成为承运人。因为在法院看来,包干费用是代理人事先预收、事后代付的费用,他们已为此承担了一定的市场风险。
(四)法律的相关规定
根据2012年12月27日最高人民法院的相关规定,人民法院应当首先根据书面合同约定的权利义务,并结合货运代理企业取得报酬的名义和方式、开具发票的种类和收费项目、当事人之间的交易习惯以及合同实际履行的其他情况,认定海上货运代理合同关系是否成立。既2012年的规定规范了货运代理合同关系的认定问题。其中可以看到,合同中关于权利义务的约定是首先要考虑的因素。
四、总结
综合上述分析,我们可以发现,关于国际货运代理人法律地位的认定是一个很复杂的问题。尤其是在实务过程中,很大一部分合同是通过口头的方式缔约的,这将会导致货运代理企业的法律地位难以认定。在这里,我认为合同实际履行的其他情况比如以货运代理人实际所参与运输的行为来认定其法律地位就变得至关重要。在现代国际运输过程中,传统货代服务企业为了降低运输成本,储运一体化正在向综合物流服务企业转变。因此,国际货运代理人在对货物的仓储、运输过程中或在对运输工具的使用过程中,都很有可能是其承担承运人所应承担的责任。另外,货运代理企业报酬的取得方式、开具发票的类型以及双方的交易习惯这些判定标准都应当被综合考虑。
参考文献:
[1]郭萍.国际货运代理人含义及其法律地位探析[J].中国海商法年刊,2001.
[2]孟于群,陈震英.国际货运代理法律及案例评析[M].北京:对外经济贸易大学出版社,2000.
我需要篇外文,关于国际货代的,急需!~另外如果可以的话,给我弄两三个关于国际货代的参考文献,感激不尽
With costs in China rising, the shipping industry has been investing in Vietnam, and shippers may be ready to join them
Technology market leader Intel is due to turn on the switch at its $1 billion integrated circuit packaging and testing plant in Ho Chi Minh City later this year, but there is far more at stake for shipping lines, logistics companies and the rest of the trading world than the work on semiconductors.
Intel is inaugurating its plant in Vietnam at the start of what some believe may be the opening of a new era of trade in Asia. China’s decade-long role as the world’s factory floor is being challenged by rising labor costs and budding Chinese consumerism, pushing manufacturers to look for alternatives to models built on China’s low costs.
To many, Vietnam looks to be the strongest of those alternatives, with Intel’s move into Ho Chin Minh City serving as a potential signature event.
“In effect, we are seeing a very fast transformation of Vietnam’s light industrial base,” said Richard Martin, managing director of IMA Asia, an economic research and forecasting firm. “The big shift in the last two years is the rise of electronics.”
Exports of textiles and garments grew 18.3 percent in the first four months of this year compared to a year earlier, according to IMA Asia, and footwear rose 5.1 percent. Computer and electronics exports jumped 40.8 percent in the same period.
Electronics still make up a relatively small share of the Vietnam’s exports volume, but that gap in the growth rate amid pressure at China factories to raise wages has more companies looking seriously at the country’s potential for manufacturing and sourcing.
In fact, the Gold Rush to take advantage of Vietnam’s low labor costs is picking up again this year as more U.S. and European importers shift production of textiles, apparel and footwear to the rapidly growing country. The shift, which began in 2007 when Vietnam became a member of the World Trade Organization, hit a brick wall last year as new foreign investment all but dried up during the Great Recession, and the country’s torrid trade growth slowed.
Although Intel’s plant has been in the works for several years, it’s one tangible sign that foreign direct investment in manufacturing facilities, which grew at a compound annual rate of 11.6 percent from 2000 to 2008 before falling 73 percent last year, is on its way back. Foreign investment grew in the first quarter with restored interest in textiles and footwear and the long-awaited move up the value chain to electronics.
The country’s prime minister told the World Economic Forum in Ho Chi Minh City this month that Vietnam’s economy will grow 6.5 to 7 percent this year after expanding 5.3 percent in 2009.
The recession didn’t stop container lines from adding new direct services to the U.S. and terminal operators from opening four facilities, all of it built on business that was growing last year and, they believe, has the potential to grow far more.
In the 13 months since the Port of Ho Chi Minh City, where the Cai Mep and Thi Vai Rivers meet, was dredged to 35 feet, or deep enough to handle the midsize ships that ply the trans-Pacific, many of the world’s major container lines have started calling at two of the port’s four new container terminals with direct services to the U.S. The recession slowed the growth of the volumes carried by the direct services that have been launched by APL, “K” Line, Hanjin, Maersk Line, MOL, NYK and OOCL, and it is only now that their ships are sailing full.
“Vietnam was a mainstay for us in 2009 in what was otherwise a horrible year,” said Goh Teik Poh, president for South Asia at APL. “We saw 7 percent growth (in Vietnam) last year, slower than the 13 to 14 percent growth in 2008, but nevertheless good growth.”
APL started two direct services to the U.S. last year, one on its own and the other as part of the New World
Alliance. It also started new Vietnam calls by five intra-Asian services. “We intend to launch a couple more depending on timing.”
Carriers clamoring to start the first direct services from Vietnam to Europe will be able to do so next March when Japan’s office of Official Development Assistance, the aid agency that is part of the country’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, completes dredging the channel to the lower harbor down to 45 feet and two more container terminals open with access to the deeper channel.
By then, Vietnam’s container trade, which started to revive in the first quarter of this year, should return to double-digit growth rates. The only constraint on growth will be the still-lagging state of Vietnam’s inland road network and the relatively small sizes of the new terminals that the Vietnamese government has approved.
Yet even last year, when the recession cut global trade volume 10 percent, Vietnam’s overall trade volume increased 2 percent, although that was down from the average 20 percent annual growth it enjoyed during from 2005 to 2008.
Total U.S. containerized trade with Vietnam grew 6.5 percent last year, according to PIERS Global Intelligence Solutions, a sister company of The Journal of Commerce. U.S. imports from Vietnam fell 2.8 percent, while exports to Vietnam rose 31.8 percent
Vietnam last year surpassed Hong Kong as the No. 2 exporter of women’s and infant wear to the United States, behind China, according to PIERS, and containerized trade volume in that business nearly doubled between 2005 to 2009, to 48,609 TEUs, a compound annual growth rate of 17.4 percent. Those exports grew 0.4 percent in the first quarter while shipments from Hong Kong, Indonesia and Cambodia fell.
Vietnam is behind China and Hong Kong in footwear, but compound annual growth of 10 percent over the last five years pushed the country’s share of those exports to the United States from 4 percent to 7 percent.
With demand recovering quickly, Vietnam’s overall trade volume is expected to resume its double-digit growth this year and continue at that rate in the years to come. PIERS forecasts U.S. imports from Vietnam will jump 41.6 percent this year, and exports, 16.3 percent.
That will be another accelerator of growth for Vietnam,” said Martin Gaard Christiansen, CEO for APM Terminals’ Asia-Pacific region. “Instead of all European goods being transshipped, now you’ll be able to load them directly for Europe. We’ve seen a high demand from carriers to bring in direct strings for the Pacific trade. But next year, they will be able to bring in Europe-bound vessels.”
European imports from Vietnam are transported on feeder ships to Singapore or Hong Kong and transshipped onto Asia-Europe loops that use vessels with a capacity of 10,000 to 12,000 TEUs. Those have a draft that’s too deep for the current terminals at Ho Chi Minh’s City’s port.
APM Terminals and two local partners are building the Cai Mep International Terminal, which will open in January. The terminal will be able to handle Asia-Europe trade when the dredging to a 45-foot draft is completed in March. Its 656-foot-long berth will have a capacity of 600,000 TEUs, but that will be expanded to 1.1 million TEUs in 2011 after Phase 2 construction is completed.
“In March, every single shipping line that has a service to Europe will want to come in,” said Malcolm Gregory, head of commercial operations at the Cai Mep International Terminal. “The next problem is that only one facility will be open — ours — and we won’t be able to handle them all. That’s a nice position to be in.”
A second deep-water terminal, the Saigon SSA International Terminal, also will open next year with access to the 45-foot channel, but not until year-end.
If the opening of the new terminals that can handle direct Asia-Europe services does rev up European demand for Vietnamese products, there could be a slowing in the growth of Vietnam’s exports to the U.S. as European importers corner more of the supply. “I expect that we’ll see a slowdown in exports to the U.S.,” said Julia Hughes, executive director of the United States Association of Importers of Textiles and Apparel. “There’s not unlimited capacity for textile and apparel production. Usually, if there is a surge in one market, like Europe, there is a balancing act between the U.S. and EU business.”
Over the 12 months through March, U.S. apparel imports from Vietnam were up almost 7 percent by volume. Non-apparel imports, which include yarns, fabrics and furnishings rose 96 percent in the same period. “That’s where the big growth has been, off a smaller base,” Hughes said. “In the past year, no one was growing except Vietnam.”
The rapid pace of maritime development is reminiscent of what happened when China’s trade took off 10 years ago. But Vietnam’s terminals, even those under construction, are far smaller than those that have been built in China.
“When you look at the number of facilities, it sounds like a lot, but when you look at the number of berth windows, it’s not so much,” Christiansen said.
Another constraint on growth is Vietnam’s poorly developed road system. The country has a total road network of 137,944 miles, but only 19 percent of that is paved. Roads are so poor that a lot of the cargo is transported by barge from the factories around Ho Chi Minh City 50 miles down the river to the new terminals.
Vietnam’s government is pouring money into its road network, but getting goods on the road may not be the biggest barrier, trade experts say. The country has notorious red tape.
“There are still barriers to doing business in Vietnam because of the way it’s structured and the way it handles business,” said Evan Armstrong, president of Armstrong & Associates, a research and consulting firm in Staughton, Wis. “If you do business in Vietnam, you’re doing business with the government. It’s not like doing business with the United States.”
APM Terminals’ Christiansen said his company had no problems getting permits to build the Cai Mep International Terminal, but Armstrong said setting up a reliable supply chain in Vietnam requires a different structure. “Companies that are looking to do business there should make sure they have a good logistics provider with local expertise that can help you manage your supply chain,” he said.
高分求第三方物流论文
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第三方物流(3PLs)是个相对比较新的物流术语。在传统物流企业向现代物流企业转型的时候,在物流服务从初级形态向高级形态进化的时候,第三方物流的概念将扮演重要的角色。因此,对第三方物流这一术语之内涵特别是对其实际运作的正确的把握是至关重要的。 一、从实际运作看第三方物流(3PLs)理论来自于实践。尤其是当一个新的理论或概念产生于几乎完全不同的制度环境和经济环境条件下的时候,要真正理解它并用于指导实践,最好的办法就是看其理论的基础来源,即看原先的实际运作。我们不仅要知道它们现在是怎么做的,更要知道它们当初为什么要这么做。 从发达国家第三方物流的实际运作情况来看,企业的动机和合作的方式是各种各样的,而且第三方物流的运作几乎涉及企业经营活动的所有环节。 1、美国汽车工业的情况。美国的通用汽车公司在1996年前后,发现其存货和配送成本不断上升,装配厂里到处都是不足整车的货运卡车出出进进。分析原因发现,当时有分布在14个州的400多个供应商通过电话指令向通用公司的30个装配厂供应物料。于是,通用公司求助于第三方物流服务公司Penske为自己设计一个解决方案。目标有三:降低成本,改善物料回运管理和相关的信息处理方法,减少承运人的数量。第三方物流服务公司首先对通用公司的物料回运和配送过程进行了诊断,然后提出在克里夫兰设立一个可进行换装作业的战略配送中心,由该中心负责回运物料和零部件配送的组织管理。战略配送中心全部由第三方物流公司的人来操作和管理。第三方物流公司还为通用公司配置了全天候的专职运输车队,设立 EDI专线系统,安排供应商的送货时间,设计物料回运路线,并对总装厂实施JIT配送。 同样是汽车工业巨头的福特公司在1999年3月份决定把它在北美的整车配送业务外包给了UPS公司的一个分支机构――UPS全球物流服务公司。但该第三方物流服务公司并不自己运输车辆,而是代表福特公司管理整车的配送工作。该公司要重建福特公司的配送网络、要引入新的管理方法、要消除配送瓶颈、减少等候时间、还要提供配送信息管理系统以实现每一辆整车配送全程的有效监控。福特公司的目标是把整车配送的时间从现在的14――15天缩短到9――10天,让客户更满意。同时减少存货水平,提高设施利用率,降低成本,提高市场竞争力。合同规定双方合作的过渡期是18 个月。第一阶段主要是在美国西部和西南地区。然后再逐步扩大到全美,加拿大和墨西哥。 2、其他行业的情况。不同行业的第三方物流运作各有自己的特点。 有聘请专业物流服务公司来运作管理现有物流资产的。如尤尼西斯系统公司在发现自己的配送中心的能力过剩,同时希望建立基于活动的成本核算(ABC)体系时,就聘请电子产品和办公设备物流专家Burnham物流公司来管理运作其最大的全球配送中心。而原配送中心的人和设施却都保留下来。不到一年,企业的运营成本就降低了20%。 有聘请第三方物流服务公司提升售后服务水平的。如美国的太阳微系统公司在北美市场上面临客户对维修用配件的配送时间从2天逐步缩短到一小时,甚至要求即时的现场作业时,就与制药业物流专家USCO物流服务公司建立战略联盟关系,把运输、仓储、配件调度以及维修作业本身都交给USCO公司管理。不仅使1小时配送的服务准时率大96.3%,而且取消了几个地区性仓库。 有聘请第三方物流服务公司提升货场管理水平的。如Zenith电器公司打算改变传统的手工货场管理模式的时候,就聘请有仓储物流专家之称的GATX物流公司为其提供一套货场管理系统软件(YMS)。对收发货过程进行电子跟踪,对空载和实载拖车进行电子化调度,对货场的布局和拖车的位置给出计算机图象,并向Zenith公司提供实时的报告。 有聘请第三方物流服务公司组织物料回运的。如加拿大的Derre农机公司在发现总装厂里的物料和零部件越集越多而影响产品装配的时候,认为自己的核心业务是装配零部件而不是接收零部件。为了不增加基础设施和人力资源的投资,决定聘请Caliber物流公司来组织和管理其物料的回运。于是,第三方物流服务公司在离总装厂5公里处新设一仓库作为配送中心,为Derre公司控制存货水平、管理承运人、安排供应商的送货时间、对送货路线进行优化、对货运集装箱进行跟踪管理,前置清关等。 有同时请几个专业物流服务公司共同来帮助组织和运作全球市场分销的。如美国的农用和建筑设备制造商Case公司为了进一步扩大其在全球市场上的增长,就先聘请咨询公司来对企业当前的运营情况进行分析和诊断,发现“物流是关键的市场竞争力所在”,必须大大缩短客户的订货周期和设法消除近20亿美元的成品和备件的库存。于是就决定把所有的物流运作外包给3家第三方物流服务公司。著名的国际货代Fritz公司负责信息系统的开发和货代业务,并作为供应链一体化的牵头单位。著名的卡车运输承运人Schneider物流公司负责陆上运输。第三方仓储专家GATX物流公司则负责仓库的管理和存货的调度。 还有请专业物流服务公司来管理物流单证和负责费用结算的。如LOF玻璃制造公司在聘请一家第三方物流服务公司来组织管理供应商送货车辆的回程配载的同时,还聘请一家以物流信息管理著称的Cass物流公司负责所有货运单证的管理和费用支付的安排。等等。 由此可见,虽然不同的企业与专业第三方物流服务公司合作的具体目标和方式方法不一样,但其中都蕴含了一条不变的主线――企业间是高度互动协作的。之所以使用“高度互动协作”这一术语而不是简单的使用“协作”,从企业物流运作外包的本质上来看,第三方物流服务协作可以有不同的层次,但“第三方物流”这个术语实际上已经特指企业外购物流服务的高级形态。另一方面是因为第三方物流协作已经不是通常意义上的分工协作,而是合作双方在信息共享的条件下,为了共同的战略目标,共同制定物流解决方案,并根据市场需求的变化动态执行的过程。物流企业的运作实际上已经与客户的经营管理活动融为一体了。 信息共享和共同制定物流解决方案是企业高度互动协作的重要标志,也是第三方物流运作高级形态的显著特征。 在物流运作方面,企业把它的内部功能外化,并建立起高度协同的运作体系是市场经济体系发育成熟的必然结果。 二、企业外购物流决策因素企业自营物流还是外购物流主要取决于两个因素:一是关键物流活动对企业成功的影响;二是企业管理物流运作的能力。 那些对客户服务水平要求高,在企业运营总成本中物流成本占大头,以及自身物流管理能力比较强的企业往往倾向于自营物流。换句话说,如果企业确实要开发供应链管理的功能作为自己的核心竞争力,它就不应当外购物流服务。如沃尔玛公司。 那些物流活动并非其核心业务和自身不具备高水平物流管理能力的企业往往倾向于外购物流。换句话说,如果企业在仓储和运输方面经验不足,而且仓储和运输活动本身对企业总体的市场竞争地位并不是关键变量的情况下,企业就会外购物流服务。如Dell公司。 显然,对于那些物流运作是企业市场竞争的关键因素而企业自身物流管理能力又不足的企业,最好的办法就是外购物流服务。如美国通用食品公司是有名的麦片和甜食制造商。年营业额为60亿美元,但每年在产品的包装和运输方面就要花费30亿美元。仅食品的货运成本就达4亿美元,占其麦片产品上架成本的60%。经分析发现卡车的不足整车发运和回程空驶是造成其物流成本居高不下的主要原因。为了降低运输成本,公司聘请一家专做包装食品物流的第三方物流公司――NC网上物流营销公司来帮助对卡车的运力进行在线组合。双方还共同开发了一个专用的货运管理软件。在后台,NC公司通过专线与通用食品公司的ERP系统联接。在前台,通用食品公司的货运信息与在400多万条线路上运营的200多个承运人的货运计划进行配载。不到一年,仅仅是与网上交易市场的一个合作伙伴分享卡车的运力,就节约运费达70万美元。而这个伙伴就是为通用食品公司做麦片包装盒的纸制品公司。
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