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  语言是思维的表达方式,不同的语言特征往往反映着不同地域、民族的思维习惯差异。下文是我为大家整理的关于英汉语言对比方面论文的 范文 ,欢迎大家阅读参考!

  关于英汉语言对比方面论文篇1
  浅探英汉委婉语对比

  摘 要: 本文应用范畴和构造手段对英汉委婉语进行了对比,通过对比英汉两种语言中的委婉语可以了解委婉语不仅是一种语言现象,更是一种社会 文化 现象。研究英汉委婉语的异同,有助于我们了解英语国家的社会风俗与文化。

  关键词: 英汉委婉语 应用范畴 构造手段

  一、引言

  委婉语euphemism源自希腊语,由词头“eu”(good)和词干“phemism”(speech)构成,意为吉利之语(words of good omen)或优雅的说法(good speech)。委婉语是人类语言使用过程中的一种普遍现象。

  通过对比英汉两种语言中的委婉语,我们可以了解委婉语不仅是一种语言现象,更是社会文化现象。委婉语的产生和发展是不同社会心理和语言因素共同作用的结果。委婉语反映了不同社会的发展、价值观、道德观和社会文化。

  二、英汉委婉语应用范畴的对比

  1.关于疾病的委婉语

  生病是人们忌讳说的,因而东西方人常常用委婉语表达。在现代英语中,多用trouble婉指病,如heart trouble,lung trouble等。cancer的委婉语为“the Big C”或“long illness”,“terminally ill”。性病在英语里被称为“social disease”,“the French disease”,“certain disease”,“communicable disease”。汉语里人们把这种病称为“花柳病”、“富贵病”、“那种病”。汉语中,我们把“生病”称作“身体不好”、“身体欠安”,说“癌症”为“不治之症”。

  而在身体缺陷方面,英语中婉称crippled(残疾)为physically handicapped(有生理缺陷的)或者用disabled,the inconvenienced表示crippled(瘸子),用imperfect hearing(听觉不完美)代替the deaf(聋子),用visually retarded(视力有障碍的)代替the blind(瞎子、盲人)。在汉语中,四肢残疾称“手脚不灵便、走路不便”,偏瘫称“半身不遂”等,秃顶婉称“谢顶”,耳朵聋称“耳背、耳朵不灵”。其他的还有“挨了一下子”、“划了个口子”等代称“受伤”。

  2.关于性的委婉语

  从古至今,各民族对性爱及与其相关的一些说法均持谨慎态度。随着人类的进步,也出现了一些开放性的说法,但其主流仍然采用回避、模糊、委婉的说法。英语中谈及性行为的委婉语有make love,to have sex with,to go to bed with etc.汉民族历来对性行为持封闭态度,谈及性行为时总是遮遮掩掩,含混模糊。汉语中表达性爱的委婉语有:同房、夫妻生活、房事、云雨之事、那种事等。在谈到性行为不检点时,英语中有free love,trial marriage,love companion,mixed singles等模糊与中性化的委婉语。汉语中则采用较严厉的贬义词抨击不检点的性行为。如男盗女娼、三者插足、寻花问柳、水性杨花等。对于妓女这一令人鄙弃的角色,西方社会给予了许多雅号,如,street walker,street girl,a woman of the town,pavement princess。谈到怀孕时,英汉两种语言均用委婉语,如英语很少直接说pregnancy(怀孕),而说be in the family way,in an interesting condition,in a delicate condition,knitting little bootees etc.汉语则说,有喜了、要当妈妈了、身怀六甲等。

  3.关于死亡的委婉语

  古今中外,无论东西方,“死亡”都是一个避讳莫深的话题。人们在语言交际中尽量回避“死亡”二字而尽可能用委婉语代替。虽然英汉语中都有很多表示“死亡”的委婉语,但其中的差异具体表现在:

  (1)英汉表达死的委婉语在体现社会地位上大相径庭。中国经历了几千年的封建社会,封建制度对中国文化影响颇深。天子死称“崩”,诸侯死称“薨”,大夫死曰“卒”,士死曰“不禄”。西方人笃信__,认为人都是上帝创造的,故生来人人平等。英语中有一条古老的格言:Popes,Kings,beggars,and thieves alike must die.头衔和地位并不能免人一死。在死神面前,卑贱者和高贵者一律平等。

  (2)由不同的宗教文化带来的表达差异。英语中die的很多委婉语来自《圣经》,如to go to a better place/world(到一个更美好的地方、世界),to go to Heaven/Paradise(进入天国)。汉语中,入佛门的则说“迁化、圆寂、舍生”等;对信仰道教的则说“蝉脱、羽化、别驾、遁化”等。

  (3)因价值观念的不同,英汉委婉语也不同。汉语中表“死亡”的委婉语还有褒贬之分,如壮烈牺牲、慷慨就义、为国捐躯等。英语国家的民族英雄常常受人敬仰,在英语里找到一些表示为国家或事业而捐躯的委婉词语,如bite the dust/the ground,fire one’s last shot,give one’s life,kiss the dust lay down one’s life。

  4.有关“低微职业”的委婉语

  在英汉这两种语言里,职业也是一个敏感的话题,因为它直接反映了一个人的社会和经济地位。为提高某些职业的社会地位,人们往往使用委婉语加以美化。这种现象在现代英语中俯拾皆是:把maid(女仆)或housekeeper(女管家)称为domestic help(家务助手)、day-help(白天帮工)或live-in help(住家帮手);一般服务员也升级为service manager(服务管理人员);butcher(屠夫)也改称为meat technologist(肉类技术专家);garbage collector(垃圾收集工)也称sanitation engineer(环境卫生工程师)。

  现代汉语也有类似的职业委婉语,“理发师“成了“发型设计师”,理发店也随之改成了发型设计中心,“佣人”成了“家政人员”,“厨子”婉称为“大厨”、“大师傅”,用“服务员”代替“跟班、听差、跑堂”,“司机”代替“车夫”等。这些职业委婉语的使用一方面反映出人们文明程度的提高和追求高雅的心理趋势,另一方面体现出现代人的尊重意识和平等观念。   5.关于年龄上的委婉语

  英语中有关老的委婉语很多,这与其文化密切相关。美国文化以个人主义为中心,讲究独立与隐私,子女成人后即与父母分居,老人生活孤单寂寞,于是老成了生活中的一大忌。因此,英语中有许多关于老的委婉语。如:senior citizen,advantage in the age,the mature,seasoned man等。

  同时人们把晚年称为golden years(黄金年华),养老院并非理想去处,也被婉称为a home for adults(成人之家)、a rest home(休养所)等。然而在中国,情况却正好相反,因为中国历来有尊老敬老的传统观念和价值观。在中国,“老”字带敬意,是资历和地位的象征。人们有时还倚老卖老,以老为荣。

  如什么“老板、老大、老总、老师、老师傅”等。汉语中类似“年老”的委婉语也很多,如:古稀之年、高龄、高寿、桑榆、夕阳红等。同时,中国人还常把老字放在姓氏的前面或者后面,来称呼那些德高望重的老年人,以表尊重,如:老赵、王老。这体现了中国重视老人的价值观,而这些在英美文化中是不可思议的。可见,在不同的文化背景中,人们对同一事物的态度可能截然相反。

  三、英汉委婉语构造手段的对比

  由于英汉民族的语言不同,两种语言在文化、语言形式和 思维方式 等方面存在较大的差异。英汉委婉语的差别正是由于两种语言的语言特点差异所造成的,主要体现在英汉委婉语各自的词汇形态特点、语义特点和语法特点等方面。英语是一种拼音文字,通过语音及语法手段构成委婉语,或拼写形式的变异,达到委婉的目的,汉语却侧重于词汇手段。

  英语委婉语的构成方式:

  (1)缩略(Abbreviation):ladies代替ladies’ room,婉指女厕所。

  (2)尾脱落(Apocopation):lav代替lavatory(厕所)。

  (3)首字母缩略(Initiating):B.O.代替body odor(狐臭)。

  (4)逆生(Backforming):ecnop 代替ponce,婉指“拉皮条的人”。

  (5)音节或字母重复(Reduplication)pee-pee=piss(小便)。

  (6)音节扭曲(Phonetic Distortion)Cripes=Christ(基督)、God(上帝)。

  (7)混合词(Blend word):gezunda=This object“goes under”the bed.(那东西放在床底下,即“夜壶”)。

  (8)小词(Diminutive):heinie=hind end(后端,即“臀部”)。

  汉语委婉语独特的构成方式:

  (1)拆字法。如:张俊氏道:“胡子老官,这事你作法便了,做成了,少不得言身寸。”(“谢”拆开后即“言”、“身”、“寸”)。(《儒林外史》第32回)

  (2) 歇后语 法。人们在做一些消极评论时,常会借助一些歇后语来缓冲过于直白的语气,以达到委婉的目的。比如骂人时说:茶壶里的水(滚开)。

  (3)换字法。例如,北方话口语中常说“扯蛋”,书面语转写时,换成“扯淡”。

  (4)符号替换法。例如:“×你妈!你怎么不说话,哑巴吗?”

  (5)反义法。所谓反义就是指与禁忌语的意义相反。如广州人把“气死我”说成“激生我”;把“笑死我”说成“笑生我”。显然,生与死是 反义词 ,这里用“生”避开了“死”。

  三、结语

  笔者对英语和汉语中的委婉语从应用范畴与构造手段两方面进行了比较,试图找到两种语言中的差异和相似之处。委婉语不仅仅是修辞现象、语言学现象,更蕴含浓厚文化内涵、民族特征。在各个国家的日常交往及工作中,委婉语的运用极为广泛,它可以润滑和协调人际关系,使交际活动顺利进行。充分认识其构造手段、形式特点、发展规律将有助于我们了解英语国家的社会风俗与文化,从而增强跨文化交际的能力。

  参考文献:

  [1]邓志昌,刘润清.语言与文化[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1989.

  [2]束定芳,徐金元.委婉语研究:回顾与前瞻[J].外国语,1995(5).

  [3]王希杰.汉语修辞学[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.

  [4]刘瑞琴.英汉委婉语对比与翻译[M].银川:宁夏人民出版社,2010.
  关于英汉语言对比方面论文篇2
  浅谈英汉词缀对比研究

  【摘 要】英语和汉语是两种不同的语言,两者在构词法上有着巨大的差别。分析了这两种语言的词缀,通过前缀和后缀的词缀对比,会给英语教学以及英汉互译提供一些启发。

  【关键词】词缀;前缀;后缀;对比

  1 词缀的定义

  词缀法是把词缀附加在词根上构造新词的 方法 (陈,1991),也叫做派生法。总的来说,前缀起着语义功能,而后缀有语法功能。在英语中,它是一种重要的构词法,自从第二次世界大战以来,它在新的 英语单词 中占17.5%。在汉语中,由词缀法构成的词非常少,然而词缀化是汉语本身发展的自然趋势(吴,2001)。

  2 英汉前缀对比

  英汉前缀的不同反映在英语比汉语有更多的前缀。英语前缀是构词主要的成分,仅次于词根。整体来说,英语派生过程比汉语更复杂、更多样化。

  2.1 英语前缀的分类

  英语前缀大多只是改变词义而不改变词性,所以英语单词是在意义的基础上分类的,英语前缀可以分为九类,列举如下:

  2.2 汉语前缀的分类

  汉语的前缀表示语法意义,其首要功能是改变词性,这种功能相当于英语的后缀,这是两种语言最大的区别。汉语的前缀可以分为两类,一类只是为了构词,如“老”,老婆、老大、老虎;“阿”,阿爹、阿婆。另外一类不全是语法的性质,可能会改变词性,汉语前缀根据意义可以划分为以下类型。

  汉语前缀和其相对应的英语形式:

  1)否定前缀

  不人道 inhuman 非正式 informal

  不科学 unscientific 非导体 nonconductor

  无形 invisible 无条件 unconditional

  2)态度前缀

  反建议 counterproposal 亲美 pro-American

  反常 abnormal 伪政府 pseudo-government

  反社会 anti-social

  3)程度或大小前缀

  超自然 supernatural 泛非 pan-African

  超音速 hypersonic 次大陆 subcontinent

  准学者 quasi-scholar

  4)数字前缀

  半封建 semi-feudal 单边 unilateral

  半人半神 demigod 单晶体 monocrystal

  双音节 disyllabic 多中心 polycentric

  双语 bilingual 多级 multipolar

  2.3 英汉前缀的对比分析

  通过上面的分析,可以推测出两种语言的大多数前缀都有对应关系。总体来说,英语前缀在不改变词性的基础上,对词根起着语义功能,而汉语前缀具有语法的功能,更倾向于语义分类。

  然而,在两种语言中,由相对应的前缀构成的派生词并不是一一对应的关系。也就是说,一种语言中的派生词在另一种语言中有着相同意义也可能不是派生词。例如,“不毛”在汉语中是个派生词,由前缀“不”和名次“毛”组成。在英语中相对应的词是“barren”,是个单词素的词。同样,英语中派生名词“non-smoker”是由一个前缀“non-”和一个名词“smoker”组合起来的,在汉语中是个名词词组“不吸烟的人”。

  许多前缀具有多种意义,这种现象是非常普遍的,即一种语言的前缀在另一种语言中具有几种意义,反之亦然。英语前缀“a-”有三种意思:a. 强调原来的意思,如await; b. 改变词性和意思,如awash; c. 非、不, atypical。在汉语中,前缀“不”可以用英语中不同的前缀来表示,如un-, il-, ir-, a-等。

  3 英汉后缀对比

  与英语相比,汉语中表示人的后缀比指示状态和动作等的后缀多。两种语言的后缀都是加在词根之后。

  3.1 英语后缀的四种范畴

  英语后缀是对原来的词的一种修饰,它改变了词原有的词性。英语后缀有四种类型:名词后缀、形容词后缀、副词后缀和动词后缀。当词根加上这些后缀后,分别形成名词、形容词、副词和动词。

  3.2 汉语后缀的分类

  与英语后缀不同,汉语后缀主要构成名词。加上后缀的词根几乎限于名词、动词和形容词,尤其是名词。下文选择了若干汉语后缀和所对应的英语后缀。

  1)名词后缀

  ①表示代理人和职业的后缀

  专家 specialist 教员 teacher

  银行家 banker 打字员 typist

  发明家 inventor 技术员 technician

  读者 reader 讲师 lecturer

  逃亡者 escapee 工程师 engineer

  马克思主义者 Marxist 魔术 师 magician

  助手 assistant 积极分子 activist

  ②表示属性、状态和学说意义的后缀

  灵活性 flexibility 创造性 creativity

  正确性 correctness 湿度 humidity

  长度 length 唯心论 idealism

  相对论 relativity 社会主义 socialism

  达尔文主义 Darwinism 电子学 electronics

  ③表示亲昵或轻蔑意味的后缀

  胖子 fatty 酒鬼 drunkard

  赌棍 gamester 电影迷 filmnik   2)动词后缀

  人格化 personify 简化 simplify

  深化 deepen 现代化 modernize

  革命化 revolutionize

  3)形容词后缀

  男孩子气 manly 孩子气 childish

  阔气 luxurious 傲气 cocky

  井然 orderly 默然 speechless

  4)副词后缀

  油然 spontaneously 惨然 miserably

  特地 specially 继而 afterwards

  率尔 rashly

  3.3 英汉后缀对比分析

  如上所述,汉语在构成名词方面有丰富的后缀,尤其是指示人的名词。据估计汉语表示人的后缀在词缀中达到32%,在英语中只有13%。两种语言的后缀很明显的不同在于汉语后缀大多带有些许感情色彩,尤其是轻蔑意义;而英语后缀很少带有这种贬义的感情色彩。

  汉语中一定量的后缀在英语中没有相对应的后缀,因此,在英语中由自由词来表达这些后缀的意思,例如桌子(desk)、杯子(cup)、石头(stone)、尾巴(tail)、泥巴(mud)。同样,当表示女性的后缀附加于对应的动词之上,整个词就代表了女性。然而,在汉语中单个词就代表了相同的意义,比如女演员(actor-actress) and母老虎 (tiger-tigress)。

  后缀中有一种有趣的现象,加上后缀的英语派生词与加上前缀的汉语派生词相对应,比如,“lawless” 和 “fearless”分别译成“非法”和“无畏”。英语中带有指小意义名词后缀在汉语中经常译成前面加“小”的名词,如小鸭(duckling)、小猫(kitten)。有时,同时使用前缀“小”和后缀“儿”,如小罐儿(cannikin)。

  4 结语

  总之,科技全球化给英语和汉语提供了更多的接触机会,在此过程中相互学习、相互比较。英汉词缀既有相似处也有不同点,将两者相比不仅有益于 英语学习 者深刻认识两种语言,而且有益于他们丰富英汉词汇。

  【参考文献】

  [1]陈治安.英汉词缀法构词比较[J].四川外语学院学报,1991(1).

  [2]韩汉雄.英汉词缀比较及 其它 [J].杭州师范学院学报,1994(7).

  [3]胡壮麟.语言学教程[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2006.

  [4]吴东英. 再论英语借词对现代汉语词法的影响[J].当代语言学,2001 (3).

  [5]萧立明.英汉比较研究与翻译[M].上海:上海外语 教育 出版社,2010.

  [6]张晗.英汉构词法对比[J].厦门大学外文学院,2010(3).

英语毕业论文--写一篇有关电影评论的文章

The Analysis of the Professional Leon(此文是这个杀手不太冷的影评) The Meaning of Life—Hope The Professional Leon which is directed by Luc Besson is an attractive and affecting movie. It is a story about a professional killer and a 14-year-old girl. In my opinion, this film reflects the influence of hope in people’s lives. Life is a magic thing. It is like a thick forest and when we walk through it, we need hope to lead us. Hope can change one’s mind. Hope can change one’s first reason is the change between the settings from the beginning to the end. The film began with the oppressive cityscapes: roads, streets, alleys and then the screen turned dark. They are the characteristics of Film Noir. Besides, the protagonist Leon appeared from a black shot which is a special close-up. In addition, the following shot are fighting in some rooms. The whole beginning leads to a mood of cold and oppression. However, at the end of the film is a scene of orphanage. The sunshine illuminated the trees and the grass. The scene is bright and warm. Then the shot got far and far. This showed that life was going on and the sunshine brought us hope to live. The world turned peace again, and the mood turned soft and cozy. Therefore, the change of the beginning and the end showed the dark had gone and everyone got their hope. In this film, there is a symbol of hope-Leon’s evergreen. It ran through the whole film. The protagonist Leon, at fist, was a typical killer who was skillful and cold. The evergreen for him is the hope of life. It meant Leon’s valuable memory-the girl he loved. Everyday he cleaned the leaves of the evergreen carefully. He thought the evergreen was quiet and happy, so he took care of it as his most valuable thing. Actually, he lived in his memory and what he must protect is the hope-evergreen. For Leon, there was no meaning of the reality until he met the girl –Mathilda. When the girl implored Leon to open the door, he hesitated. Yes, of course. It was because everything would change since he opened the door. Actually, Leon was a simple, kind and attentive man who was not good at express himself. We can know that from watching old movie and ironing clothes. After accepting the girl, Leon chose the responsibility in his heart. His life changed because his hope changed. His living purpose was to protect the girl and revenge on Stan. Furthermore, his good-side was stimulated by the girl’s love. They were interdependent as a special relationship. I fact, Leon was not a killer any more since he met Mathilda. He was a real man. Another hope is reflected by Mathilda’s attitude of life. Mathilda’s family was inharmonious. She couldn’t feel love in this family, so she became unyielding and mature at an early age. She hated her relatives except her little brother. If she didn’t met Leon, her life would be out of imagination. When Leon opened the door, a light shone on Mathilda. This light of life is a symbol of change. Since she lived with Leon, she felt care from Leon, and she fell in love with him. She wanted to be with him forever. The hope of her life is Leon. She took care of their“home”and took care of him. When Leon ordered her go, she was in agony. She knew that she wouldn’t see him again. She was afraid that the hope of life would disappear. At last, she planted the evergreen near the orphanage, and the evergreen became her hope. She got a new view of this world, and she would cherish the memory of Leon who saved her life and soul. This story is a fairy tale of killer. The killer managed to protect his hope as the expanse of his life, whereas he died in comfort. Maybe, there is another dark world concealed near us. However, it is because the shine of hope has not illuminated it. And the meaning of life is the process of seeking hope.

英语小论文

题目:如果你拍的DV,你会选择为你的场景拍摄?请写出和轮廓(文件或短故事片)十分钟。
For different people, the creative process and method of the animation may be different, but the basic rule is the same. The production process of traditional animation can be divided into the overall planning, design, creation and production of four stages, each stage has a number of steps:
1, the overall design stage
1) the script. The first step in any video production is the script creation, but the animated feature film scripts and plays live performance is quite different. General dialogue in the film, the actor's performance is very important, and in the animated film should be avoided as far as possible the complex dialogue. Here is the most heavily used visual motion picture, best animation is achieved through antics, which has no dialogue, but by the visual creation excite the imagination.
2) the story board. According to the script, the director shall draw a story similar comic sketch (drawing a shooting script), the script describes the action show. The story board with a plurality of segments, each segment by a series of scene, a scene is generally limited in a certain place and a group of characters, and the scene can be divided into a series of pictures of the lens is regarded as the unit, constructed the overall structure of the s points in the drawing storyboards lens at the same time, as the content, time, action art photographyinstructions, pictures and so have the appropriate instructions. Generally 30 minutes of animation script, if set shotabout 400, the picture plays - the story board will draw about 800 pictures.
3) the table. The table is the schedule planning director for the film, to guide the animation collective all staff unity and coordination work.
2, design stage
1) design. The design is based on the story board, determine the background, foreground and props in the formand shape, complete the animation design, scene environment and background. To design the shape of characters or other characters, and draw the standard page in different angle each other's, for reference of other animators.
2) sound. In the animation, because actions must match with the music, the sound recordings have the animation before. After the recording is finished, the editorial staff but also to record sound accurately decomposed into a picture of each location, namely a few seconds (or a few pictures) began to speak, speak for how long. Finally, all sound process (or track) decomposition to the location of each picture and sound corresponding to a table, for animation officers.
3, the specific creation stage
1) the original creation. The original creation is the key picture drawn by the animators animation. Often a designeris responsible only for a fixed character or other character.
2) the middle illustration production. Two important illustration is the middle position or opinion of the picture frame diagram, a picture is generally between two of the original painting. Assistant animators to a middle of painting,painting and other art personnel connection and then draw the character motion interpolation. In the continuous action additional interpolation between the original painting, action to comply with the specified time, so that it canbehave close to the natural action.
3) Yu Ching and line drawing. Animation design the first few stages are completed in a pencil sketches. After the completion of the draft plan, the use of electrostatic copier special will sketch known print to acetate and. Then thehand to known printed on film picture description ink lines.
4) coloring. Because the cartoons are usually in color. This step is coloring to scan line after the film (or color).
4, film production stage
1) check. Inspection is the first step in shooting stage. Prior to the shooting, after that, a picture of each and every shot of the all color, animation designers need to make a thorough inspection of each action in each scene.
2) shot. The cartoon film shooting, special use there are several layers of glass layer, at the top of a ng is set in the bottom layer, each layer placed different roles or prospects. You can move the layergenerated animation film, also can use move, zoom, rotate, change and fade in camera stunts such as the function,generate a variety of animation effects.
3) editor. Editing is a post production of a film. The editing process mainly complete the connection, sorting, clipanimation of each fragment.
4) recording. Finished editing, editors and directors began to select the sound effect with animation action. Afterselected on all sound effects and well synchronized with the action, editor and director of music copied the voice, dialogue, music, sound is mixed to a channel, the last recorded on film or tape.
Traditional animation, especially the large cartoon creation, is a collective labor, collective creative personnel is the key factor to affect the efficiency of animation creation. Many people need a full-length animated film production, a director, producer, animation design and animation to assist the production staff. Animation to assist the production staff is devoted to the middle to add picture work, namely animation designers draw two extreme picture of an action,animation to assist the personnel draw pictures of them. Picture technicians to draw sketches to collate, tracing thepersonnel responsible for the tracing of after finishing the figures in the painting, coloring personnel to graph coloring tracing after. The full-length animation cycle longer, also need full-time workers palette, to ensure that in the animated cartoon character before and after a colour. In addition
对于不同的人,动画的创作过程和方法可能有所不同,但其基本规律是一致的。传统动画的制作过程可以分为总体规划、设计制作、具体创作和拍摄制作四个阶段,每一阶段又有若干个步骤:
1、总体设计阶段
1)剧本。任何影片生产的第一步都是创作剧本,但动画片的剧本与真人表演的故事片剧本有很大不同。一般影片中的对话,对演员的表演是很重要的,而在动画影片中则应尽可能避免复杂的对话。在这里最重的是用画面表现视觉动作,最好的动画是通过滑稽的动作取得的,其中没有对话,而是由视觉创作激发人们的想象。
2)故事板。根据剧本,导演要绘制出类似连环画的故事草图(分镜头绘图剧本),将剧本描述的动作表现出来。故事板有若干片段组成,每一片段由系列场景组成,一个场景一般被限定在某一地点和一组人物内,而场景又可以分为一系列被视为图片单位的镜头,由此构造出一部动画片的整体结构。故事板在绘制各个分镜头的同时,作为其内容的动作、道白的时间、摄影指示、画面连接等都要有相应的说明。一般30分钟的动画剧本,若设置400个左右的分镜头,将要绘制约800幅图画的图画剧本--故事板。
3)摄制表。摄制表是导演编制的整个影片制作的进度规划表,以指导动画创作集体各方人员统一协调地工作。
2、设计制作阶段
1)设计。设计工作是在故事板的基础上,确定背景、前景及道具的形式和形状,完成场景环境和背景图的设计、制作。对人物或其他角色进行造型设计,并绘制出每个造型的几个不同角度的标准页,以供其他动画人员参考。
2)音响。在动画制作时,因为动作必须与音乐匹配,所以音响录音不得不在动画制作之前进行。录音完成后,编辑人员还要把记录的声音精确地分解到每一幅画面位置上,即第几秒(或第几幅画面)开始说话,说话持续多久等。最后要把全部音响历程(或称音轨)分解到每一幅画面位置与声音对应的条表,供动画人员参考。
3、具体创作阶段
1)原画创作。原画创作是由动画设计师绘制出动画的一些关键画面。通常是一个设计师只负责一个固定的人物或其他角色。
2)中间插画制作。中间插画是指两个重要位置或框架图之见的图画,一般就是两张原画之间的一幅画。助理动画师制作一幅中间画,其余美术人员再内插绘制角色动作的连接画。在各原画之间追加的内插的连续动作的画,要符合指定的动作时间,使之能表现得接近自然动作。
3)誉清和描线。前几个阶段所完成的动画设计均是铅笔绘制的草图。草图完成后,使用特制的静电复印机将草图誉印到醋酸胶片上然后。再用手工给誉印在胶片上的画面的线条进行描墨。
4)着色。由于动画片通常都是彩色的。这一步是对描线后的胶片进行着色(或称上色)。
4、拍摄制作阶段
1)检查。检查是拍摄阶段的第一步。在每一个镜头的每一幅画面全部着色完成之后,拍摄之前,动画设计师需要对每一场景中的各个动作进行详细的检查。
2)拍摄。动画片的拍摄,使用中间有几层玻璃层、顶部有一部摄象机的专用摄制台。拍摄时将背景放在最下一层,中间各层放置不同的角色或前景等。拍摄中可以移动各层产生动画效果,还可以利用摄象机的移动、变焦、旋转等变化和淡入等特技上的功能,生成多种动画特技效果。
3)编辑。编辑是后期制作的一部片。编辑过程主要完成动画各片段的连接、排序、剪辑等。
4)录音。编辑完成之后,编辑人员和导演开始选择音响效果配合动画的动作。在所有音响效果选定并能很好地与动作同步之后,编辑和导演一起对音乐进行复制。再把声音、对话、音乐、音响都混合到一个声道上,最后记录在胶片或录象带上。
传统的动画制作,尤其是大型动画片的创作,是一项集体性劳动,创作人员的集体合作是影响动画创作效率的关键因素。一部长篇动画片的生产需要许多人员,有导演、制片、动画设计人员和动画辅助制作人员。动画辅助制作人员是专门进行中间画面添加工作的,即动画设计人员画出一个动作的两个极端画面,动画辅助人员则画出它们中间的画面。画面整理人员把画出的草图进行整理,描线人员负责对整理后画面上的人物进行描线,着色人员把描线后的图着色。由于长篇动画制作周期较长,还需专职调色人员调色,以保证动画片中某一角色所着色前后一致。此外还特技人员、编辑人员、摄影人员及生产人员和行政人员。
4、二维电脑动画制作
一般来说,按电脑软件在动画制作中的作用分类,电脑动画有电脑辅助动画和造型动画两种。电脑辅助动画属二维动画,其主要用途是辅助动画师制作传统动画,而造型动画则属于三维动画。二维电脑动画制作,同样要经过传统动画制作的四个步骤。不过电脑的使用,大大简化了工作程序,方便快捷,提高了效率。这主要表现在以下几方面。
·关键帧(原画)的产生
关键帧以及背景画面,可以用摄象机、扫描仪、数字化仪实现数字化输入,(中央电视台动画技术部)是用扫描仪输入铅笔原画,再用电脑生产流水线后期制作)也可以用相应软件直接绘制。动画软件都会提供各种工具、方便你的绘图。这大大改进了传统动画画面的制作过程,可以随时存储、检索、修改和删除任意画面。传统动画制作中的角色设计及原画创作等几个步骤,一步就完成了。
·中间画面的生成
利用电脑对两幅关键帧进行插值计算,自动生成中间画面,这是电脑辅助动画的主要优点之一。这不仅精确、流畅,而且将动画制作人员从烦琐的劳动中解放出来。
·分层制作合成
传统动画的一帧画面,是由多层透明胶片上的图画叠加合成的,这是保证质量、提高效率的一种方法,但制作中需要精确对位,而且受透光率的影响,透明胶片最多不超过4张。在动画软件中,也同样使用了分层的方法,但对位非常简单,层数从理论上说没有限制,对层的各种控制,像移动、旋转等,也非常容易。
·着色
动画着色是非常重要的一个环节。电脑动画辅助着色可以解除乏味、昂贵的手工着色。用电脑描线着色界线准确、不需晾干、不会窜色、改变方便,而且不因层数多少而影响颜色,速度快,更不需要为前后色彩的变化而头疼。动画软件一般都会提供许多绘画颜料效果,如喷笔、调色板等,这也是很接近传统的绘画技术。
·预演
在生成和制作特技效果之前,可以直接在电脑屏幕上演示一下草图或原画,检查动画过程中的动画和时限以便及时发现问题并进行问题并进行修改。
·库图的使用
电脑动画中的各种角色造型以及它们的动画过程,都可以存在图库中反复使用,而且修改也十分方便。在动画中套用动画,就可以使用图库来完成。
1.入手剧本·导演·分镜头台本
如果说,剧本是动画片的灵魂所在,那导演的分镜头台本,就像是动画片的骨架,故事中人物的大概动作和表情都会在分镜头台本中体现出来。
当记者走进王世加导演的办公室时,王导正按照动画电影《勇士》的剧本构思分镜头台本。台本看上去并不精细,甚至有些潦潦草草,很像是四格漫画。王导的画笔在画格内草草几笔,一个穿着蒙古服饰的男子手指天空的造型就出现了,而在画格旁边,王导则会做出一些批注。王导解释说,台本的具体化是下一个步骤,自己只负责把文字的东西用大致的图像表达出来就行了;做上批注则是为了让进行原画创作的同事能够更好的理解导演的意图。
2、攻坚原画·画师·动画制作
原画创作是展现动画片效果和风格的一个重要环节,大家看到动画片,第一印象就是人物形象美不美,五官轮廓是否分明,而这些都是来自原画工作人员一笔一画的精雕细琢。
据了解,一部普通的85分钟长的动画片至少要花上1000万元,而其中主要的花费就是原画的人工创作耗费。
原画创作者一天工作8小时,如果要赶工,也有工作10多个小时的,一部大片通常会有50到100人同时开工。正在制作的动画大片《勇士》,从今年3月开始筹备,预计明年年底制作完成。按照1000万元的投资计算,导演和编剧费用大概200万元,除去后期制作费200多万元,原画创作者所得的费用就将近600万元。
美影厂内的原画工作室是人口“众多”的地方,而张振辉就是其中的一分子,在他的办公桌前,贴着很多他以前参加创作过的动画片,如《铁臂阿童木》、《神探柯南》等。张振辉的办公桌也比较特别,除了上下左右都是大大小小的图纸、铅笔之外,在桌子正面还有一块下面有日光灯的玻璃板。绘画的时候,张振辉会将两张画纸重叠在一起,铺在玻璃板上。下面一张是已经完成的背景图,上面一张就是需要张振辉精雕细琢的人物形象。
人物的原画是最浩大的工程,花费的时间也非常多。张振辉在画的时候,既要照顾到导演的分镜头台本,也要按片方提供的人物造型来进行绘画。一个两人对话的场景,就细微到无可挑剔:眼睛睁得大不大,大到什么程度,两只眼睛是否一大一小,嘴角歪不歪,歪到什么程度,眉头是否皱着,头发是什么样的……都必须反复比对。这还只是画一些静态的表情,要是遇上动作戏,那就更复杂了。比如一个脚蹬自行车的动作,那抬起来、放下去的动态就必须分解成5幅原画,在通过导演验收之后,还需要再把5幅原画分解成10幅原画,只有把动作分解得越多,拍出的效果才会越好,动作也更流畅。
3、制作线拍·电脑播放·审查
对于动画来说,“动”显然是它的特色,要让单幅的原画动起来,就必须通过线拍这一工序。这也是导演看片的地方,在线拍出来的效果上发现不满意的地方也可以立刻修改。线拍机就像一个大型的显微镜,正中是一根一米多高直立着的尺子,接近顶端的地方装有摄像头,在靠近底部的地方一左一右有两盏灯。将完工的原画稿放在镜头下面,一页一页地拍摄下来,再用连接着摄像头的电脑将刚才一页一页的画稿,连续不间断地放出来,那就成了大家比较熟悉的动画。
由于一些“动作戏”设计的动作会很复杂,有时候5秒钟的戏就需要80多张画稿。线拍是导演必须监控的一个步骤,对人物的表情,或者动作有什么意见,导演都会在看线拍的时候提出来修改。
4、后期上色·特效处理·成片
一部动画片的诞生,前面三步花费的时间最多,在线拍通过导演审查之后,会有一套最后的稿件制作出来,从画面上看,这些稿件什么都是齐全的,就只剩下上色和光效了。
目前上色和光效处理不是很麻烦,一切交给电脑就好了。电脑会根据一套服装的色彩分布,很快的把所有同款服装的色彩搞定。光效特效也和电影、电视的制作一样,在这期间也会加入一些导演的意思,不过也不会是伤筋动骨的大修改了,只是一些色调上的处理或者特效上的把握而已
-fly丶520

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Ball culture has the role of lifelong benefit. Tennis can exercise at 3 ~ 90-year-old men and women between the activities are not subject to

The effects of age and sex. Youth can show their best physique, the strength of strong and rapid

Run; children in the pleasure of playing tennis; age middle-aged and elderly, they can be in accordance with its own body ball Category

Physical, psychological, physiological conditions, the appropriate exercise intensity. Because of the amount of exercise and sports tennis exercise intensity

Can control and interesting can be a fast or slow, may Zhang Chi, the participants with enthusiasm and fit their own

The intensity of exercise at unconsciously End run a few miles distance equivalent to the exercise time. Attained the goals of promoting health,

Enhance physical, strong physical and psychological purposes. Tennis Nets against every other sport, does not belong to physical collision sport, can reduce the

Unnecessary harm. So tennis is sport for all sports projects in one of the longest life expectancy.

6, tennis culture is a culture of honesty and trust of the people of outstanding quality. Events in amateur tennis competition are no

Appear under the trust system competition, athletes must be honest, put good as out of bounds or into the Definition of a good

The performance of the ball are dishonest. The embodiment of integrity quality tennis activities throughout the entire process, while the tennis live

Actin is also a person can best embody the integrity of the quality of sports. 7, tennis is to develop the essence of unity and cooperation

God. Tennis game is very particular about the spirit of unity and cooperation sport. Between coaches and players, team and

Between teammates, doubles partner must have a tacit understanding between the co-ordination. Understanding on which each player has come from

The spirit of teamwork. Especially in the doubles competition, the competition want to achieve at配合默契, we must always respect

And encourage the partners, especially at mistakes after丢分must be responsible. This spirit of collaboration will greatly add

Strong collective cohesion and combat effectiveness, its efficacy in the students into the community will naturally reflect the full

COME. Such as Zheng Jie and Yan Zi won the Australian Open women's doubles winner, apart from good technical and tactical things, and they get along with 16 years of United

Live in harmony,配合默契are inseparable. 8, tennis can help to cultivate a more confident state of mind. Confidence and

Own are two completely different concepts. Conceit is an unrealistic ideas, and confidence is built on the recognition

True learning, modesty and prudence, not afraid of difficulties in making progress on the foundation. Psychological state in tennis competition has re -

To factors similar to those in the technology race between the players, the mentality is even more important. Tennis can train a person's heart

Rationale, exercise is not due to himself or the opponent, and other reasons, the impact of the psychological state of the normal play. 9, tennis Win

Actin is a civilized, polite, elegant Tennis cultural etiquette. This culture comes from more than 100 years of traditional

Practices, managers manage and tennis crowd's wishes. Tennis etiquette is even more important. Players and the players, the Education

Training, the audience always treated with courtesy; viewers watch tennis game half-way and should not Walk voice; modern

Tennis has retained the culture of this ancient culture of tennis, courtesy and elegance, and has also been strengthened in modern tennis

Popular culture. Sports Tennis, a civilized manner conservation there is a courtesy of the athletes have in any manner

Parties are welcome by everyone. 10, tennis can fully exercise their individuality, mental and physical relaxation exercise project

One. White-collar workers have the pressure of work, students have homework on the pressure, young men and women have love problems, Medium

Years of marriage on people's troubles, the elderly have chronic diseases are the pressure, how to relieve the pressure, has become beset modern

A major problem. Studies have shown that appropriate exercise can improve physical fitness and enhance the immune system for enhanced

Used. Therefore, the selection of their fit with exercise and adequate rest, are to ease the pressure, the most immune

Best means. At tennis, there is a need to eliminate all concentrate on ideas and personal considerations, to run fast ball, and vigorously smash

Such activities could put one-day fatigue, distress, such as artificial too clean, so that complete physical and mental relaxation, especially

At hit a good shot, hit a ball should not have errors, you can fully咆吼, jumping, throwing

Beat and so on, the release of your personality temperament. 11, to play tennis to fitness, good health is to lay a good foundation tennis. Ren

He has a PE project with the project-related chain study human anatomy, sports psychology, nutrition and other disciplines

Contact each other and promote each other. Tennis is no exception. Whether adults, children, learn to play tennis to be sincere,

Are able to exercise and for the study. Tennis sports can enhance blood circulation system improvements, excess consumption of hot

Volume, improve heart and lung function, can increase the body's immune ability to enhance disease resistance capacity and speed recovery after

Degrees, to promote health, enhance physical fitness, and strengthen the physical and psychological purposes. This is a game of tennis can be a starting point for fitness,

Once the tennis skills of the people you have fighting skills of the master, through the tennis match was happy to see their own by

Win, and enjoy sports on this after further enhance their skill level, only just a little regulated actin

For it is not enough. This requires a good physical basis.

1、是一项逐渐兴起的健身运动。网球是世界上最流行的运动项目之一。网球一

向被扣以“贵族运动”、“高雅运动”以及文明运动的美誉。观看重要的国际网

球比赛,是许多人休闲、度假的主要内容。独特的网球文化使得网球运动成为现

代社会中人的崇尚的生活方式之一。人们逐渐参与网球文化活动。2、强身健

体,增强体魄。网球是一种有氧户内外运动之一,由于成天忙于工作、学习和生

活,大多数的时间在室内中度过,需要到室外进行一些户外运动,网球就是最好

的选择之一。3、网球可以提高人们的综合素质。网球影响着人们的思想和行

为。任何一种文化都是一种价值取向,规定着人们所追求的目标,通过网球运动

中的技能、心理、准则、礼仪等将网球文化所要求的思想模式、道德规范、行为

准则有机地融为一体,以提高其综合素质。4、网球运动是一种最为时尚的运动

之一。网球运动很适合都市人群。一般人看来,网球是一项绅士运动,打网球者

经常给人们一种温文尔雅的感觉。对赶在时代最前沿,具有超生活理念的机关干

部、白领阶层和高校大学生们把打网球当作一种时髦。所以随着生活水平的提

高,人们的健康意识的加强,越来越多的人们参与到网球时尚运动中来。5、网

球文化具有终身受益的作用。网球运动能在3~90岁男女之间进行的活动,是不受

年龄和性别的影响。年轻人可以显示他们优良的身体素质、强劲的力量和快速的

奔跑;少年儿童在愉悦中打网球;中年人及古稀老人,可以根据自身的身球分类

体、心理、生理条件,进行适宜的运动强度。由于网球运动的运动量和运动强度

可调控性和趣味性,可快可慢、可张可驰,使得参与者以饱满的热情和适合自己

的强度在不知不觉中运动完相当于跑完几里路程的运动时间。达到了增进健康、

增进体质、强壮身心的目的。网球运动隔网对垒,不属于肢体碰撞运动,能减少

不必要的伤害。所以网球也是所有体育运动项目中运动寿命最长的项目之一。

6、网球文化是培养人的诚实守信的优秀品质。业余活动中的网球比赛大多是无

裁判下的信任制比赛,运动员一定要做到诚实,把好球说成出界或把出界说成好

球都是不诚实的表现。诚信品质的体现贯穿在整个网球活动的全过程,而网球活

动也是最能体现一个人诚信品质的体育活动之一。7、网球是培养团结协作的精

神。网球比赛是非常讲究团结协作精神的运动项目。教练与球员之间,团体赛与

队友之间,双打搭档之间都要有默契的配合。而这种默契就来自每个球员所具有

的团队协作精神。特别是在双打比赛中,想在比赛做到配合默契,就要始终尊重

和鼓励伙伴,特别在失误丢分后,一定要勇于承担责任。这种协作精神将大大加

强集体的凝聚力和战斗力,它的功效在学生进入社会后自然会淋漓尽致的体现出

来。如郑洁和晏紫获得澳网女双冠军,除了技战术好外,与她们相处16年的团结

和睦相处,配合默契是分不开的。8、网球能培养更加自信的心理状态。自信和

自负是两种完全不同的概念。自负是一种不切实际的想法,而自信则是建立在认

真学习,谦虚谨慎、不怕困难的基础上奋发向上。心理状态在网球比赛中具有重

要的因素,在技术相近的选手之间比赛,心态更显重要。网球能训练一个人的心

理,锻炼出不因自己或对手及其它原因而影响心理状态的正常发挥。9、网球运

动是一种文明、礼貌、高雅的网球文化礼仪。这种文化来源于100多年来传统的

习俗、管理者的管理和网球人群的意愿。网球礼仪就更显重要。球员与球员、教

练、观众之间始终以礼相待;观众观赏网球比赛中途不能走动和发出声音;现代

网球文化既保留了这种古代网球的文化、礼貌和高雅性,又增强了现代网球运动

文化的大众性。网球运动中,一个举止文明有礼节有涵养的运动员不管在任何地

方都是受到大家的欢迎。10、网球运动可以充分施展个性,身心放松的运动项目

之一。上班族有工作上的压力,学生有课业上的压力,青年男女有恋爱问题,中

年人婚姻上的烦恼,老年人则有慢性病的压力,如何缓解压力,成了困扰现代人

的一个主要问题。研究表明,适当的运动可以增进体能并增强免疫系统强化的作

用。因此,选择适合自己的运动并配以充足的休息,是疏解压力、调节免疫的最

佳手段。在网球运动中,需全神贯注排除一切杂念,快速的奔跑击球、大力扣杀

等活动可以把一天的疲劳、困扰等挥洒得干干净净,使身心完全地放松,特别是

在击出了一个好球,击出了一个不该失误的球时,你可以充分的咆吼、跳跃、丢

拍子等,释放你的个性气质。11、打网球能健身,好身体是打好网球的基础。任

何一项体育项目都有与该项目相关链的人体结构学、运动心理学、营养学等学科

的相互联系、相互促进。网球运动也不例外。无论大人、小孩、被衷学打网球,

都是为了能锻炼身体而学的。网球运动能增强血液循环系统的改善,消耗多余热

量,心肺功能得到提高,可以增加人体免疫能力,提高抗病能力和病后康复速

度,达到增进健康、增进体质、强化身心的目的。这是打网球能健身的出发点,

一旦对网球的人技战技能有一下的掌握,通过网球比赛获得快乐,看到自己的获

胜,并喜欢上这项运动后,起进一步提高自己的技术水平,仅只是一点规范的动

作是不够的。这就需要一个好的身体素质为基础。

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