金融毕业论文文案学习英文

The development of modern financeFirst, the financial problem of the uncertainty(A) the uncertainty of the field in the application of asset pricing1. Portfolio Theory and Capital Asset Pricing ModelIn the framework of the financial analysis, introduction of the concept of uncertainty is a major role. First Kenes (1936) and Hicks (1939) proposed the concept of risk compensation that the financial products in the presence of uncertainty, should interest rates in different financial products in compensation for additional risks. Subsequently, Von Neumann (1947) applied the concept of expected utility of the proposed settlement in the decision-making under uncertainty in the method chosen, on this basis Markowiz (1952) developed a portfolio theory, he thought when investors choose portfolio concerned only with future cash flow of the mean and variance. He assumed that the expected utility of investors consistent with secondary distribution or multinomial distribution. Markowiz The main conclusions are subject to uncertainty, optimal decision-making is a diversified investment holding. Tobin (1958) that investor liquidity preferences for their own benefits and risks of different options for the balance. This further improved the framework of portfolio choice the field of asset pricing model is another well-known theory of capital pricing model (CAPM), Sharp (1994) and Lintner (1995) using the formula succinctly expressed the portfolio value and risk-free interest rate and the level of risk assets, the relationship between . Black (1972) introduced even in the non-risk assets zones remained the case, Sharp and the CAPM formula is still valid, just without the risk of interest rates are including the entire market on all assets of the portfolio rate of return instead of the 预期. Contemporary with the CAPM model of the asset pricing model also Ross (1977) arbitrage pricing model (APT) and Lucas (1978) the typical agent asset pricing by CAPM asset pricing model for asset pricing provides a simple method of calculation, and obtain some support from empirical studies (Fama and Macbeth, 1973), but in reality some of the anomalies is still a lack of effective explanatory power, Brennan (1989) that the CAPM is based on the expectations of all investors in the investment and risk are common in estimates and judgments, and all investors the same utility function based on the assumption that this assumption is inconsistent with the reality This is leading to some practical problems CAPM on the root causes of the lack of explanatory power. It is beyond doubt on these assumptions, to promote the introduction of the concept of asymmetric information and . Market efficiency hypothesisMarket efficiency hypothesis that in a perfectly competitive market, there is no asymmetric information and market frictions affect the future earnings of the average investment risk is different. 60s in the 20th century a large number of research workers on the market efficiency hypothesis was tested, Fama (1973) through empirical tests on the . stock market, that the efficient market hypothesis holds, but many researchers found that in the market, There are many market efficiency hypothesis or CAPM model can not explain the abnormal phenomenon. For example, Basu (1977) found that the average earnings assets, in addition to the β coefficient of the CAPM, but also with the price earnings ratio of assets (P / E ratio) is related to the same β coefficient, the higher the price earnings ratio stocks (growth stocks) better than the market price of the low price earnings ratio of stocks (value stocks); Benz (1981) found that the market price of the stock with the size of the listed company; Stattman (1980) found that stock prices and the ratio of book value (P / B ratio) is also an important factor affecting stock prices. Fama and French (1993) On the basis of the above three-factor model proposed that the impact of asset prices in the β factors, joined the P / E ratio and P / B ratio interpretation of these anomalies, the efficient market hypothesis seems powerless, someone had tried the "January effect" to the end of Shuishou interpreted as the impact of outflow, but in the United Kingdom, Australia, the annual revenue of the country is not in December, there are still "in January effect "can not be explained. Some scholars from a psychological perspective to explain these anomalies, such as, Dreman (1982) the stock price P / E ratio effect interpreted as the investor always overestimate growth stocks with high growth, leading to market high P / E ratio of stock market was overvalued, that it is a reason for low stock . Continuous time modelIn asset pricing theory is another important assumption: stock market is always in a continuous process, under this assumption, Merton (1969,1971) to develop instantaneous CAPM Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM), the same information symmetry, frictionless market, asset price changes in line with Ito process under these conditions, asset prices and investor preference for independent effectiveness. In subsequent studies Merton (1973) and Black (1973) The application of these continuous-time model has been successful in the option pricing formula, the formula was later confirmed that a large number of empirical studies and has been widely applied in practice.(B) the uncertainty of financial management in the company ofFinancial analysis is another important area of financial management, major research firms in the investment decision-making in the proportion of the debt and equity options, the company's dividend policy and other issues. Results of the first studies in this area by the Modigliani and Miller (1958) made their study shows that full market (no market frictions and asymmetric information exists) the value of the company has nothing to do with the company's debt ratio (MM theorem). A similar study concludes that the value of the company's profit distribution policy has nothing to do. Obviously, these research findings and practical in reality. MM theorem based on the conclusions in the distribution of profits, due to the cash outflow will be sent found Jinhong Li, the Company repurchased shares will be more willing to choose policies, rather than the dividend policy, in reality, many companies prefer to dividends rather than Share buy-back, this phenomenon is Black (1976) referred to as "Company dividend puzzle (Dividend Puzzle)", which Miller (1977) can give the explanation, MM theorem conclusion is that the reason and the reality of different tax and the so-called bankruptcy costs on the financial structure is the result of certain liabilities of the company can achieve the role of tax relief, another company because of the existence of high debt ratio risk of bankruptcy, so the debt ratio to the value of existing shares affected, Miller and Other scholars make on these financial problems are not very satisfactory interpretation of the whole until later after the introduction of asymmetric information, it seems Caidui explain these issues to achieve a mentioned above, some of the phenomena of reality is difficult to simply use the uncertainty (risk) to get a satisfactory explanation, it is in the research of these issues raises the question of asymmetric information on financial concerns, plus last 60 years in the 20th century to game theory, represented a breakthrough in the information economy research methods, leading many scholars to the financial problems of asymmetric information in the study achieved a lot, especially the use of asymmetric information can explain a lot of perfectly the financial structure issues. Following is an overview of this still results in two parts, first in the results of financial decision-making, followed by the asset pricing results.(A) asymmetric information in corporate financial management application

经济学人：加拿大的住宅市场Finance and Economics; 财经；Canada's housing market; 加拿大的住宅市场；Time for a bigger needle; 该出手时就出手；The latest attempt to prick a bubble;戳破泡沫的最新举措；经济学人：Canada's reputation for financial regulation is starry. Its banksgot through the crisis unscathed. According to Moody's, a ratings agency, Royal Bank of Canadasits alongside HSBC and JPMorgan Chase in the top tier of global banks. And Canadianpolicymakers are old hands at pulling “macroprudential” levers of the sort now in vogue amongrich-world central banks.加拿大的金融监管一向广受赞誉。它的银行业在这场危机中做到了独善其身。根据评级机构穆迪的报告，加拿大皇家银行与汇丰银行以及摩根大通同列，跻身全球银行界的第一梯队。同时，加拿大的政策制定者也是运用宏观审慎政策的老手，这一政策如今也常被其他富国的央行使用。But questions still nag. Some say that Canada's banks are flattered by a huge indemnity offeredby Canada Mortgage and Housing Corp (CMHC), a public institution that insures mortgages witha loan-to-value ratio of more than 80%. CHMC's book grew to 567 billion Canadian Dollar(557 billion Dollar) in 2011, up from 345 billion Canadian Dollar four years earlier. And Canada'shousing market looks very frothy on some measures: The Economist's analysis of price-to-rentratios suggests that Canadian properties were about 75% above their long-run “fair value” in thefirst quarter of 2012 (see chart). Although less than of CHMC's mortgages are in arrears, such exuberance is a worry. The central bank recently labelled housing as “the most importantdomestic risk to financial stability in Canada”.但是，仍有问题缠身。部分人士认为，加拿大的银行被加拿大抵押和住房公司（CMHC）提供的巨额补偿金美化了，CMHC是一家为贷款估值比率超过80%的抵押贷款提供保险的公共机构。在2011年，CHMC的抵押贷款额从四年前的3450亿增长到了5670亿加元（合5570亿美元）。并且，从一些指标来看，加拿大的房地产充斥着泡沫：《经济学人》以房价租金比所做的分析显示，在2012年第一季度，加拿大的物业价格高出它们的长期公允价值75%。纵然仅有低于的CHMC抵押贷款存在拖欠的情况，但这样的繁荣仍让人忧虑。最近，央行也冠以楼市 “危及加拿大金融稳定性的最大国内隐患”。Repeated efforts by policymakers to take the heat out of housing have not had a noticeableeffect. So on June 21st Jim Flaherty, the finance minister, had another go, his fourth in fouryears. Some of the new measures were cosmetic. Buyers of homes worth more than 1m Dollarhave been able to get mortgage-default insurance from CMHC with a downpayment of only 5%. In practice, it is hard to find buyers in this bracket who do not have lots of equity in their homes. But after July 9th mortgages for homes of this value will not be eligible for CMHC coverage.政策制定者们给楼市降温的不断尝试并无明显成效。于是，在6月21日，加拿大财长吉姆·费拉逖，在四年来第四次出台了一些新举措。新措施中的一些不过是表面功夫。价值过百万美元住宅的买主能得到由CMHC担保的债务违约保险以及首付仅付5%的优惠待遇。而事实上，很少有这类购房者在购房时不以大量自有资金支付价款的。不过，在6月9日之后，这类住宅将不再适用于CMHC的保险范围。Other measures have more teeth. The maximum amortisation period for a mortgage will now be25 years, down from 30. That should hurt demand: last year about 40% of new mortgages werefor terms longer than that. Refinancing a home will be allowed only up to 80% of its value, downfrom 85%. Homebuyers will have to demonstrate their housing costs are no more than 39% oftheir gross household income. On top of Mr Flaherty's measures, the Office of theSuperintendent of Financial Institutions, Canada's banking regulator, slapped a loan-to-value limitof 65% on borrowing against home equity.其他那些则更为有力。抵押贷款最长还贷期限如今将从30年降低至25年。这势必将减少需求：去年约有40%的新贷款的期限是超过25年的。允许的房屋再融资的上限从房屋价值的85%降至只有80%。购房者还须证明他们的住房支出不超过家庭总收入的39%。费拉逖的举措中，紧随其后的是，加拿大的银行监管部门，联邦金融机构监督办公室，将贷款和自有资金间的贷款估值比率的限制猛降至65%。Craig Alexander, the chief economist for TD Financial Group, estimates all this will be theequivalent of about a 1% rise in mortgage rates for most homebuyers. He believes that willproduce a slow unwinding of the housing market. If he is right, and Mr Flaherty's variousinterventions avoid the collateral damage that would be caused by an actual interest-rate rise, Canada's admirers will have another thing to swoon over.多伦多道明银行金融集团首席经济学家，克雷格·亚历山大估计，所有这些措施对于购房者而言将等同于抵押贷款利率上升1%。他认为这将促使房产市场缓慢回归。如果他的观点正确，并且费拉逖的各种干预手段能够避免可能引发实际利率上升的附带伤害，那么如此一来，加拿大的崇拜者们又将有一个可以津津乐道的话题了。