参考文献的类型及格式
文献，意思为有历史意义或研究价值的图书、期刊、典章。下面是我带来的参考文献的类型及格式（全），希望对你有帮助。
一、参考文献的类型
参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：
M——专著 C——论文集 N——报纸文章 J——期刊文章
D——学位论文 R——报告 S——标准 P——专利
A——文章
对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。
常用的电子文献及载体类型标识：
[DB/OL]——联机网上数据（database online）
[DB/MT]——磁带数据库（database on magnetic tape）
[M/CD]——光盘图书（monograph on CD？ROM）
[CP/DK]——磁盘软件（computer program on disk）
[J/OL]——网上期刊（serial online）
[EB/OL]——网上电子公告（electronic bulletin board online）
对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：
①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则,具体格式是: 姓,名字的首字母。 如: Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为：Cowley, .如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的`首字母放在前面,姓放在后面，如：Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为:Norris, F. & ;
②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature,English Weekly.
二、参考文献的格式及举例
1、期刊类
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[J]。刊名，出版年份，卷号（期号）：起止页码。
【举例】
[1]周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星。对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J]。电气电子教学学报，2003（6）：107—109。
[2]夏鲁惠。高等学校毕业设计（论文）教学情况调研报告[J]。高等理科教育，2004（1）：46—52。
[3]Heider, . The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999,（3）： 62 – 67。
2、专著类
【格式】[序号]作者。书名[M]。出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码。
【举例】
[4]刘国钧，王连成。图书馆史研究[M]。北京：高等教育出版社，1979：15—18，31。
[5]Gill， R. Mastering English Literature [M]。 London： Macmillan， 1985： 42—45。
3、报纸类
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[N]。报纸名，出版日期（版次）。
【举例】
[6]李大伦。经济全球化的重要性[N]。 光明日报，1998—12—27（3）。
[7]French， W。 Between Silences： A Voice from China[N]。 Atlantic Weekly， 1987—8—15（33）。
4、论文集
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[C]。出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码。
【举例】
[8]伍蠡甫。西方文论选[C]。上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12—17。
[9]Spivak,G. “Can the Subaltern Speak?”[A]. In & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, .
[10]Almarza, . Student foreign language teacher’s knowledge growth [A]. In and (eds.). Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996. .
5、学位论文
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[D]。出版地：保存者，出版年份：起始页码。
【举例】
[11]张筑生。微分半动力系统的不变集[D]。北京：北京大学数学系数学研究所，1983：1—7。
6、研究报告
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[R]。出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码。
【举例】
[12]冯西桥。核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R]。北京：清华大学核能技术设计研究院，1997：9—10。
7、专利
【格式】[序号]专利所有者。题名[P]。国别：专利号，发布日期。
【举例】
[13]万锦。中国大学学报论文文摘（1983–1993）。英文版[DB/CD]。北京：中国大百科全书出版社，1996。
8、标准
【格式】[序号]标准编号，标准名称[S]。
【举例】
[14]GB/T 16159—1996， 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S]。
9、条例
【格式】[序号]颁布单位。条例名称。发布日期
【举例】
[15]中华人民共和国科学技术委员会。科学技术期刊管理办法[Z]。1991—06—05
10、电子文献
【格式】[序号]主要责任者。电子文献题名。电子文献出处[电子文献及载体类型标识]。或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期。
【举例】
[16]王明亮。关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展[EB/OL]。http：//www。cajcd。edu。cn/pub/wml。txt/980810–2。html，1998–08–16/1998–10–04。
11、各种未定义类型的文献
【格式】[序号]主要责任者。文献题名[Z]。出版地：出版者，出版年。
三、注释
注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明。注释应置于本页页脚，前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。
我们可以具体的学习一下参考文献格式
[序号] 期刊作者．题名[J]．刊名．出版年，卷(期): 起止页码.
[序号] 专著作者．书名[M]．版次(第一版可略)．出版地：出版社，出版年∶起止页码.
[序号] 论文集作者．题名〔C〕．编者．论文集名．出版地∶出版社，出版年∶起止页码.
[序号] 学位论文作者．题名〔D〕．保存地点：保存单位，年份.
[序号] 专利所有者.专利文献题名〔P〕．国别：专利号．发布日期.
[序号] 标准编号，标准名称〔S〕.出版地：出版者，出版年.
[序号] 报纸作者．题名〔N〕．报纸名，出版日期(版次).
[序号] 报告作者．题名〔R〕．报告地：报告会主办单位,年份.
[序号] 电子文献作者．题名〔电子文献及载体类型标识〕．文献出处，日期.
相信这些大家都很清楚怎么用，参考文献的书写也是不可忽略的一部分。其中有几个小点也许一直被同学所忽略，我这里要提醒一下大家。第一，文献中的英文名字不可进行缩写，一定要写正确的人名称呼。第二中文和英文参考文献书写并不相同。中文的作者一般是“姓+名”；而英文参考文献是采用“姓,名.”的方式。第三，如果引用的中文文献作者有多个，一般是采用前三位作者署名，第三位作者后面添加等字；英文文献则采用，“姓,名,and名姓”的方式进行书写，除第一位以外，都按照正常顺序写。第四，特别需要注意的是注意无意间的空格，尤其是在书写英文的参考文献当中。第五，参考文献要按照论文引用文献顺序依次书写，这样论文的整体比较严谨，也不会混乱。
1、参考文献按论文中引用参考文献出现的先后次序，用中括号的数字连续编号，依次书写作者、文献名、杂志或书名、卷号或期刊号、出版时间。
2、参考文献按照中国学术期刊（光盘版）（CAJ－CD）检索与评价数据规范（2005）标准执行。参考文献按在正文中出现的先后次序排列于文后。
3、“参考文献”四个字左顶格，黑体，四号，段前段后1行。参考文献的序号左顶格，用数字加方括号表示，与后面文字间空两格，如需要两行，第二行文字要位于编号的后边，与第一行文字对齐。
4、参考文献内容采用宋体，五号，行间距20磅，序号与正文中的指示序号格式一致，每一条参考文献条目的最后均以“。”结束。
扩展资料：
1、参考文献类型：专著、论文集、报纸文章、期刊文章、学位论文、报告、标准、专利。
2、文献类型标识：M、C、N、J、D、R、S、P。
3、对于数据库、计算机程序和电子公告等电子文献类型的参考文献，以下列双字母作为标识：电子文献类型标识DB、CP、EB。
电子文献载体类型和其标识：磁带MT、磁盘DK、光盘CD、联机网络OL。
如果参考整本书，属于论文集[C]；如果参考这本书中的某一篇文章，属于论文集中的析出文献[A]
参考文献的类型及其标识
在日复一日的学习、工作生活中，大家肯定对论文都不陌生吧，论文是进行各个学术领域研究和描述学术研究成果的一种说理文章。你知道论文怎样写才规范吗？以下是我为大家整理的参考文献的类型及其标识，欢迎大家分享。
参考文献的.类型及其标识1
1、根据GB3469规定，以单字母方式标识以下各种参考文献类型：
参考文献类型
专著
论文集
报纸文章
期刊文章
学位论文
报告
标准
专利
1、文献类型标识
M、C、N、J、D、R、S、P
2、对于专著、论文集中的析出文献，其文献类型标识建议采用单字母“A”；对于其他未说明的文献类型，建议采用单字母“Z”。
3、对于数据库、计算机程序及电子公告等电子文献类型的参考文献，建议以下列双字母作为标识：
电子参考文献类型数据库计算机程序电子公告
电子文献类型标识DB、CP、EB
电子文献载体类型及其标识：磁带(magnetic tape)——MT，磁盘(disk)——DK，光盘(CD-ROM)——CD，联机网络(on line)——OL，
参考文献的类型及其标识2
1、常用文献类型用单字母标识，具体如下：
（1）期刊[J]（journal）
（2）专著[M]（monograph）
（3）论文集[C]（collectedpapers）
（4）学位论文[D]（dissertation）
（5）专利[P]（patent）
（6）技术标准[S]（standardization）
（7）报纸[N]（newspaperarticle）
（8）科技报告[R]（report）
2、电子文献载体类型用双字母标识，具体如下：
（1）磁带[MT]（magnetictape）
（2）磁盘[DK]（disk）
（3）光盘[CD]（CD-ROM）
（4）联机网络[OL]（online）
电子文献载体类型的参考文献类型标识方法为：[文献类型标识/载体类型标识]。例如：
（1）联机网上数据库[DB/OL]（database on line）
（2）磁带数据库[DB/MT]（database on magnetic tape）
（3）光盘图书[M/CD]（monograph on CD ROM）
（4）磁盘软件[CP/DK]（computer progra mondisk）
（5）网上期刊[J/OL]（serial on line）
（6）网上电子公告[EB/OL]（electronic bulletin boardon line）
3、专著、论文集中的析出文献[A]；
其他未说明的文献类型[Z]。
格式
1、期刊：著者．题名[J]．刊名．出版年，卷（期）∶起止页码
2、专著：著者．书名[M]．版本（第一版不录）．出版地∶出版者，出版年∶起止页码
3、论文集：著者．题名．编者．论文集名[C]．出版地∶出版者，出版年∶起止页码
4、学位论文：著者．题名[D]．保存地点．保存单位．年份
5、专利：题名[P]．国别．专利文献种类．专利号．出版日期
6、技术标准：编号．标准名称[S]
7、报纸：著者．题名[N]．报纸名．出版日期（版次）
8、科技报告：著者．题名[R]．保存地点．年份
9、电子文献：著者．题名[电子文献类型标识/载体类型标识]．文献出处（出版者或可获得网址），发表或更新日期/引用日期（任选）
10、专著、论文集中的析出文献：论文著者．论文题名[A]．论文集编者（任选）、论文集题名[C]．出版地：出版者，出版年∶起止页码
11、其他未说明的文献类型：著者．题名[Z]．出版地∶出版者，出版年∶起止页码
举例
不论何种文献类型，须用阿拉伯数码外加方括弧标注其在文中的位置，其序号与所在文中序号一致。
1.期刊论文
[1]周庆荣，张泽廷，朱美文，等．固体溶质在含夹带剂超临界流体中的溶解度[J]．化工学报，1995(3)：317-323
[2] Dobbs J M, Wong J M. Modification of Supercritical Fluid Phasebehavior Using Polor Coselvent [J]. Ind Eng Chem Res, 1987, 26: 56
[3]刘仲能，金文清．合成医药中间体4-甲基咪唑的研究[J]．精细化工，2002(2)：103-105
[4] Mesquita A C, Mori M N, Vieira J M, etal. Vinyl Acetate Polymerization by Ionizing Radiation [J]. Radiation Physics and Chemistry, 2002, 63: 465
2.专著
[1]蒋挺大．亮聚糖[M]．北京：化学工业出版社，2001：127
[2] Kortun G. Reflectance Spectroscopy [M]. New York: Spring-Verlag, 1969
[3] Rees, Helen. Echoes of History: Naxi Music in Modern China(历史的回声： 当代中国的纳西音乐)[M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000
3.论文集
[1]郭宏，王熊，刘宗林．膜分离技术在大豆分离蛋白生产中综合利用的研究[C]．余立新．第三届全国膜和膜过程学术报告会议论文集．北京：高等教育出版社，1999∶421-425
[2] Eiben A E, vander Hauw J K. Solving 3-SAT with Adaptive Genetic Algorithms [C]. Proc 4th IEEE Conf Evolutionary Computation．Piscataway: IEEE Press, 1997: 81-86
4.学位论文
[1]陈金梅．氟石膏生产早强快硬水泥的试验研究[D]．西安：西安建筑科学大学，2000
[2] Chrisstoffels L A J. Carrier-facilitated Transport as a Mechanistic Tool in Supramolecular Chemistry [D]. The Netherland: Twente University. 1988
5.专利
[1] Hasegawa, Toshiyuki, Yoshida, etal. Paper Coating Composition [P]. EP 0634524. 1995-01-18
[2]仲前昌夫，佐藤寿昭．感光性树脂[P]．日本，特开平09-26667．1997-01-28
[3] Yamaguchi K, Hayashi A. Plant Growth Promoter and Productionthereof [P]. Jpn, Jp1290606. 1999-11-22
[4]厦门大学．二烷氨基乙醇羧酸酯的制备方法[P]．中国发明专利，CN1073429．1993-06-23
6.技术标准
[1] ISO 1210-1982，塑料——小试样接触火焰法测定塑料燃烧性[S]
[2] GB 2410-80，透明塑料透光率及雾度实验方法[S]
7.报纸
[1]陈志平．减灾设计研究新动态[N]．科技日报，1997-12-12(5)
8.报告
[1]中国机械工程学会．密相气力输送技术[R]．北京：1996
9.电子文献
[1]万锦柔．中国大学学报论文文摘（1983-1993）[DB/CD]．北京：中国百科全书出版社，1996
10.专著、论文集中的析出文献
[1]刘桂腾．单鼓音乐研究[A]．田联韬．民族音乐论文集[C]．北京：中央音乐学院学报社，1990∶176-77
如果参考整本书，属于论文集[C]；如果参考这本书中的某一篇文章，属于论文集中的析出文献[A]
在参考文献中，M—专著 C—论文集 N——报纸文章 J—期刊文章 D——学位论文 R—研究报告S——技术标准 P—专利 按你所说的这本书由不同的人写的同方向的文章收录而来 有可能是某专题的论文集，属于C类别的文献。
参考文献类型：专著[M]，论文集[C]，报纸文章[N]，期刊文章[J]，学位论文[D]，报告[R]，标准[S]，专利[P]，论文集中的析出文献[A]；
电子文献类型：数据库[DB]，计算机[CP]，电子公告[EB]；
电子文献的载体类型：互联网[OL]，光盘[CD]，磁带[MT]，磁盘[DK]。
文后参考文献的著录规则为GB/T 7714-2005《文后参考文献著录规则》，适用于“著者和编辑编录的文后参考文献，而不能作为图书馆员、文献目录编制者以及索引编辑者使用的文献著录规则”。
参考文献按照其在正文中出现的先后以阿拉伯数字连续编码，序号置于方括号内。一种文献被反复引用者，在正文中用同一序号标示。一般来说，引用一次的文献的页码（或页码范围）在文后参考文献中列出。
格式为著作的“出版年”或期刊的“年，卷（期）”等+“：页码（或页码范围）.”。多次引用的文献，每处的页码或页码范围（有的刊物也将能指示引用文献位置的信息视为页码）分别列于每处参考文献的序号标注处，置于方括号后（仅列数字，不加“p”或“页”等前后文字、字符；页码范围中间的连线为半字线）并作上标。
论文参考文献中J、M、D等是什么意思 ？
国家期刊出版格式要求在中图分类号的`下面应标出文献标识码，规定如下：作者可从下列A、B、C、D、E中选用一种标识码来揭示文章的性质：A理论与应用研究学术论文(包括综述报告);B实用性成果报告(科学技术)、理论学习与社会实践总结(科技);C业务指导与技术管理的文章(包括特约评论);D一般性通讯、报导、专访等;E文件、资料、人物、书刊、知识介绍等。
注：英文的文献标识码应与中文对应。[参考文献类型标识码]M专著Monograph;C-论文集Collection;N报纸文章News;J期刊文章Journal;D学位论文Degree;R报告Report;S标准Standard;P专利Patent;A专著、论文集中的析出文献Article;Z其它末说明文献(1)文献类型标识：专著[M];期刊[J];论文集[c];学位论文[D];标准[S];报告[R];专利[P];报纸[N];(2)电子文献类型标识：数据库[DB];计算机程序[CP];电子公告[EB];(3)电子文献的载体类型及其标识：联机网上数据库[DB/OL];
参考文献可以在百度学术中找到。参考文献规范格式 一、参考文献的类型参考文献（即引文出处）的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：M——专著 C——论文集 N——报纸文章J——期刊文章 D——学位论文 R——报告对于不属于上述的文献类型，采用字母“Z”标识。对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是： 姓，名字的首字母. 如： Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为：Cowley, .，如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：FrankNorris 与Irving Gordon应为：Norris, F. & .；②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature，English Weekly。二、参考文献的格式及举例1.期刊类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号（期号）：起止页码.【举例】[1] 王海粟.浅议会计信息披露模式[J].财政研究，2004,21(1)：56-58.[2] 夏鲁惠.高等学校毕业论文教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育，2004(1):46-52.[3] Heider, . The structure of color space in naming and memory of twolanguages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 – .专著类【格式】[序号]作者.书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码.【举例】[4] 葛家澍，林志军.现代西方财务会计理论[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2001：42.[5] Gill, English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: .报纸类【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[N].报纸名，出版日期（版次）.【举例】[6] 李大伦.经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27(3).[7] French,W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33).4.论文集【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[C].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码.【举例】[8] 伍蠡甫.西方文论选[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979：12-17.[9]Spivak,G. “Can theSubaltern Speak?”[A]. & L. Grossberg(eds.). Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 1988, .[10]Almarza, . Student foreign language teacher’s knowledge growth [A]. In and (eds.).Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge UniversityPress. 1996. .学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地：保存者，出版年份：起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京：北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983：.研究报告【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[R].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码.【举例】[12] 冯西桥.核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京：清华大学核能技术设计研究院, 1997：.条例【格式】[序号]颁布单位.条例名称.发布日期【举例】[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会.科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991—06—058.译著【格式】[序号]原著作者. 书名[M].译者，译.出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码.三、注释注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明。注释前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。四、参考文献参考文献与文中注（王小龙，2005）对应。标号在标点符号内。多个都需要标注出来，而不是1-6等等 ，并列写出来。 最后，引用毕业论文属于学位论文，如格式55.学位论文【格式】[序号]作者.篇名[D].出版地：保存者，出版年份：起始页码.【举例】[11] 张筑生.微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京：北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983：1-7.
参考文献类型，参考文献类型及文献类型，根据GB3469-83《文献类型与文献载体代码》规定，以单字母方式标识：专著(M)；论文集（C）；报纸文章（N）；期刊文章（J）学位论文（D）；报告（R）；标准（S）专利（P）
参考文献作为毕业论文的组成部分，在一定程度上体现着写作者的遴选能力与整合能力，也能反映出大学生对于论文的严谨态度，一篇合格的参考文献应具备以下三个方面的要求。
第一，参考文献来源需把关。一篇优秀的大学毕业论文自然离不开好的参考文献的支撑，就期刊论文而言，级别越高，论文的质量越好，亦更具参考度。建议同学们在写作的过程中优先查阅与自己选题相关的核心期刊论文，发现其中的闪光点与立论点，以此作为自己写论文的参考。同时也可以像读小说式的读文献,学习与模仿相关学术术语的使用、好词佳句的积累，这些东西亦可以成为论文的参考点。
第二，参考文献排列需分类。本科的毕业论文常用的参考文献可以分为专著、学位论文、期刊、论文集、作品集、报纸及电子文献等，在参考文献页面罗列时，应按这样的分类方式进行归类排列。具体如上图所示。如学校没有相关的顺序排列要求，则按照的顺序排列，则按照专著、期刊论文、学位论文、论文集、作品、报纸、电子文献这样的顺序依次排列。
第三，参考文献格式需规范。参考文献在写的过程中是有一定的格式要求的，首先需明确每类参考文献的格式代号，例如专著[M]、期刊论文[J]、学位论文[D]、会议论文集[C]等，同学们在写作的过程中一定要注意格式代号与文献类别的统一，避免出现张冠李戴的错误。其次，每一条参考文献的相关信息书写需按照一定的顺序进行，如[1]作者名.文献题名[文献类型标识].出版地：出版者：起止页码.（具体如上图所示）最后，在写参考文献的过程中应注意标点的规范，区分中英文状态下输入标点的差别。
参考文献主要是以角标或脚注形式注释，采用黑体10号，内容包括作者姓名、文献名、文献分类、期刊名、时间、页码等。
点我用户名，空间博文有介绍详细各种论文检测系统软件介绍见我空间各种有效论文修改秘籍 111
具体有以下几种类型：M——专著C——论文集N——报纸文章J——期刊文章D——学位论文R——报告，采用字母“Z”标识。对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：1、作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓，名字的首字母。2、书名、报刊名使用斜体字。
基本都是有情爱的。只有一个是很极端的，曹七巧，金锁记里面的住人公。这个是一个很好的切入点和讨论重点。海内外，张的名声，一部分就是这个人物撑起来的。其他的还有本来有，又失去了的：茉莉香片里的聂传庆（男的）沉香屑：第一炉香里的葛薇龙沉香屑：第二炉香里的愫西散戏里的女主人公。（丧失了爱）同学少年都不贱里面的几个女人都又点不正常我想到的久这些了。张的文章里面缺失是少的
[1] 熊秋菊. 一曲美丽而苍凉的哀歌——论《半生缘》的审美风格[J]. 沧桑, 2006,(02) . [2] 秦军,王旭. 论张爱玲小说中的悲剧人生[J]. 黑河学刊, 2006,(01) . 中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 7 条[1] 陈坤. 母爱的缺失——张爱玲小说世界的“审母”情结[J]. 北华大学学报(社会科学版), 2008,(04) . [2] 胡晓虹. 谈《半生缘》的自然主义色彩[J]. 福建商业高等专科学校学报, 2006,(04) . [3] 徐娜. 浅析《金锁记》中女性的命运[J]. 安徽文学(下半月), 2008,(05) . [4] 尹正纯. 张爱玲小说中男性人物形象分析[J]. 保山师专学报, 2008,(06) . [5] 张英. 浅析张爱玲读者接受心理特点[J]. 辽宁工业大学学报(社会科学版), 2008,(02) . [6] 闫云霄,马芳. 电影《半生缘》改编的遗憾[J]. 徐州教育学院学报, 2006,(04) . [7] 高园园. 谈《半生缘》的舞台表现手法[J]. 戏剧-中央戏剧学院学报, 2005,(03) . [1] 田春林. 悲欢半生缘苍凉一世情——读张爱玲《十八春》[J]. 青春男女生(少年作家), 2006,(06) . [2] 袁瑾. 永未言尽的苍凉故事——从《半生缘》品读张爱玲小说的悲剧意味[J]. 沙洋师范高等专科学校学报, 2002,(05) . [3] 林幸谦. 《半生缘》再解读:姐妹情谊的反动与女性冲突主题[J]. 海南师范学院学报(人文社会科学版), 2000,(01) . [4] 麦凤庄. 救赎与毁灭——以曼桢为例浅谈对《半生缘》的女性价值反思[J]. 贵州文史丛刊, 2006,(03) . [5] 邓筠!96(2)班. 回不去的《半生缘》──张爱玲小说阅读笔记[J]. 南京师范大学文学院学报, 2000,(01) . [6] 袁瑾. 悲剧人生 苍凉最美——从《半生缘》品读张爱玲小说的悲剧意味[J]. 天津大学学报(社会科学版), 2003,(03) . [7] 熊秋菊. 一曲美丽而苍凉的哀歌——论《半生缘》的审美风格[J]. 沧桑, 2006,(02) . [8] 王朝彦. 读张爱玲的《十八春》及《半生缘》[J]. 中南民族学院学报(人文社会科学版), 2001,(03) . [9] 胡晓虹. 谈《半生缘》的自然主义色彩[J]. 福建商业高等专科学校学报, 2006,(04) . [10] 张廷山. 评《半生缘》兼析张爱玲小说的审美特征[J]. 中共郑州市委党校学报, 2005,(02) .
CLOTHING MARKET : The UK retail clothing market was worth $43 billion in 2000, having grown by just since 1999. Women’s, girls' and children's clothing account for the major share of the market, making up of the total value. The increase in working women might have been expected to cause an upsurge in demand for smart clothing, but a major feature of the market has been a trend towards dressing down. Men's tailors, such as Moss Bros Group and Austin Reed Group, have suffered from the demise of the formal suit, while the retail chain Ted Baker, which targets the 18-25 year old market, has embraced the trend and recently recorded a pre-tax profit margin almost four times that of the industry average. In the world of UK fashion, it is the ability to identify and respond immediately to trends that is all-important. Textile manufacturing is in serious decline and clothing retailers continue to find trading conditions difficult in the face of weak consumer demand and heavy discounting. Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group, BhS Ltd, and Moss Bros Group are among the stores struggling to maintain their position. Meanwhile, the Dutch multiple chain C&A has admitted defeat and has now completely withdrawn from the British market. It is companies such as these, competing in the middle market, which are finding business so hard, since the market favors either value or premium brands. Those that are thriving include discount chains such as Matalan, Peacock's and Primark Stores, which are expanding rapidly and are predicted to increase their market share. With depressed demand and the prevalence of discounters, UK clothing retailing is expected to see modest growth in the near future. The market value is expected to reach $51 billion by 2005, an increase of 19% from 2000. MARKET OVERVIEW The main sectors in the market for clothing retailing are Outerwear, Underwear and Hosiery. Outerwear includes men's shirts, suits, jackets, smart trousers, coats, sweaters, T-shirts and jeans. Women's dresses, blouses and skirts also fall under this category. Underwear is made up of briefs and vests for men, womens lingerie - panties, corsetry, petticoats, teddies and camisoles. Hosiery covers men's, women's and children's socks, and women's pantyhose and stockings Expenditure on clothing, as well as having to compete with other durable and non-durable household goods, is threatened by increased expenditure on leisure, travel and financial services, including savings. Figures show that spending on clothing as a percentage of total household expenditure has dropped from percent in 1995 to percent in 2000. The popularity of heavy discounting stores is likely to be a factor in this decline. MARKET TRENDS A Diminishing Mid-Price Market The chain of C&A has been one of the casualties of an ongoing shrinking of the mid-price clothing market. Consumers are now tending towards the budget end of the market, which is targeted by companies such as Primark, Peacock's and Matalan, or the designer, premium-priced extreme. The mid-market has consequently become very competitive, with the struggles of Marks and Spencer, Arcadia Group and BhS to retain market share being well documented. Designer Outlets The first Designer Outlet centre opened in 1995. There are now several such centres that offer discounts of up to 50% on branded fashionwear, footwear, accessories, and housewares. Discount retailing is an important and growing part of several retail markets, and clothing is no exception. Gap, Tommy Hilfiger and Nike are among the names operating in these shopping `villages'. So called 'Off-Price' clothing is said to account for around 30% of the . clothing market. Although it is still a relatively immature part of the UK market, it is expected to grow rapidly as both established and new retailers (. Marks and Spencer and Matalan) plan to set up discount stores and enter the shopping villages. Informality Modern lifestyles, on the whole, have become much less formal, a trend reflected in clothing. While some places of work may maintain a strict dress code, they are fewer and further between — especially in the information technology industry. Many offices have a policy of `dress down Friday' where it is quite acceptable, indeed expected, to dress casually. This attitude extends into social life. Certainly some clubs and restaurants insist on a formal dress code, but many more think it unnecessary. A prime example of this movement toward informality is the huge resurgence in the denim market. UK sales of denim clothing in 2000 shot up by 8% on the previous year to reach $ billion. Sportswear Participation in sports has increased over the long term, and there is a high level of branding in sports clothes. A particular feature of the sports clothing sector is its acceptability as leisurewear, whether or not any participation in sport is intended. With the growing trend towards informality, the sportswear market is set to grow. This is evident on the UK High St with the entrance of . chains such as Footlocker. Brand Extension In the fiercely competitive UK retail market, the extension of an established brand name into other products has become common practice. This trend is becoming more popular in the clothing industry. For example, Oasis Stores PLC has developed an own-brand toiletries range, launched in October 1999. Meanwhile, designer Tommy Hilfiger has introduced new fragrances targeted at young adults. Other clothes chains with cosmetics, skincare or fragrance ranges include Ted Baker, French Connection Retail Ltd and Karen Millen Ltd. This kind of brand extension is continuing as more and more retailers are following the trend in an effort to compete with each other and offer their customers a complete product range. High street retailer H & M (Hennes and Mauritz) have recently launched a range of cosmetics and cosmetic accessories. Technology in Textiles Before the 1940s, clothes were made of wool, silk or cotton. The 1950s saw the introduction of synthetic fibres that would revolutionise the industry. Elastane microfibres, such as Lycra and Tactel, combine the qualities of stretch and control while being comfortable, durable and easy to care for. Manufacturers now claim to produce fabrics with other characteristics, such as anti-bacterial or moisturising properties, even cellulite-reducing hosiery. As a result of these changes in textile technology, prices are likely to increase, therefore assisting in growing the value of the market. Awareness of Fashion Marks and Spencer, BhS, and Mothercare have lost market share in the children's clothing market to Woolworths, ASDA Group Ltd and Next. Young people are becoming more fashion conscious at a younger age, and shun the somewhat conservative and old-fashioned image of traditional shops. This is in favour of those with a more trendy image, such as Gap, Next and Miss Selfridge. Similarly, older, and often affluent, consumers remain fashion conscious. The product offering for those older consumers wanting to appear in tune with fashion, has improved in recent years. Previously it was almost non-existent, especially at the cheaper end of the market. Larger Sizes Research has shown that British women are now taller, and more curvaceous, than in the past. This trend has been confirmed by bra manufacturer, Triumph, which has found that the average bra size has grown from a 34B to a 36C in less than a decade. Accordingly, Marks and Spencer, for one, is to use a UK size 14 (US size 10) rather than UK size 12 (US size 8) as its base model. Size 14 bust, waist and hip measurements have also been increased. With 62 percent of women in the UK wearing a UK size 14 (. size 10) or larger, there are undoubtedly opportunities for growth in the larger size clothing market. IMPORTS An estimated two-thirds of the value of the UK clothing market is imported, a percentage that is increasing as more countries with low-cost labour join the supply chain. Traditional sources, primarily Hong Kong and India, are now facing competition from countries such as Morocco and Romania. There is, however, some variation across the product sectors. Germany, Italy and Hong Kong are principal sources of women's, girls' and children's jackets. Men's suits and jackets come primarily from Italy and Portugal. Hong Kong is a significant source of imports of both men's and women's overcoats and raincoats, although in the case of men's coats, the Netherlands is the most important. Hong Kong is by far the most significant exporter of men and women's trousers to the UK, and of women's dresses and skirts. Many British companies are transferring production overseas. Much of the recent growth in value of imports into the UK can therefore be attributed to British companies, and their subsidiaries. The UK imported over $81 million worth of clothing from the . in 2000, a figure which has declined over the last few years. UK imports of . clothing goods 1997 $81,621,996 $81,139,559 $103,448,033 $121,300,429 EXPORTS Total clothing exports from the UK were $ billion in 1999 – a drop from the 1998 figure of $2 billion. In 2000, the UK exported $ million worth of clothing to the . There has been a recent trend towards exporting more British clothing to countries outside Europe, but less to countries within the European Union (EU). The UK has a reputation for quality in, for example, woollens and knitwear. However, it has been hard hit by the strength of sterling and the recent downturn in economies such as Japan, which are of great importance to UK trade. COMPETITION The Marketplace Vertical integration is a feature of the UK market for clothing. Companies such as Alexon Group, Laura Ashley, River Island Clothing Co., and Austin Reed Group manufacture collections for retail in their own stores. Place of Purchase In order of popularity, department stores, chain stores, independents, fashion multiples and sports shops are the most commonly used retail outlets for clothing. Age and sex are important determining factors in this however. For example, although department stores appeal to all age groups, fashion multiples are generally used by younger shoppers. For all the above outlets, penetration levels are higher among men than women except for independents and sports stores. Traditional mail order catalogues continue to come under pressure from discount stores. They cannot keep up with changes in prices, as their catalogues are printed weeks in advance of a season. The internet and digital television have introduced online shopping but there are hurdles to overcome if this kind of purchasing is to grow the clothing market considerably. Many consumers are hesitant to give credit card details and they like to be able to see and feel garments before they purchase. Brand recognition is important in online shopping, and it, therefore, seems likely that established High St stores may find it easier to make the step from 'brick to click' than a new online only retailer. Brand Awareness There is a high level of brand awareness in some sectors of the clothing industry. For example, the name Levi-Strauss & Co. is synonymous with jeans, like that of Nike with sports clothing. These brands will maintain sales due to firm establishment in their specific markets. However, with more and more discount stores introducing their own labels (. George at Asda, and Matalan), and the consumers decreasing clothing expenditure, mid market retailers will undoubtedly suffer. As mentioned previously, strong brand names are increasingly moving outside their original product. While this might ensure the success of, for example, Ted Baker skincare products, it also opens the clothing market for infiltration by outside brands. Market Leaders and their Brands The UK retail market for clothing is one spanning many extremes. Exclusive designer names are at one end of the scale, while discount stores and market stalls are at the other. In between is a variety of retailers aimed at the middle mass market. It is some of these that are currently finding survival so difficult. C&A is a prime example, but its demise obviously provides opportunities for other stores and products. This is not least because its withdrawal from the UK is freeing up valuable High Street sites. A relatively new entrant to the market is the grocery multiple, and the most successful example is ASDA Group Ltd. The UK's third largest supermarket, taken over by Wal-Mart Stores Incorporated last year, has its own George at ASDA brand of clothing (which had a turnover of $893m in 1999). Tesco PLC, the country's most successful supermarket chain, also devotes significant space to children's clothing, and women's and men's underwear. END USERS The total population of the UK is approximately 60 million, and is split roughly equally beween men and women. By age, the population is divided as follows: AGE % 0-19 20-49 49 + Over 83 percent of clothing and accessories are purchased by women over 25. Even 28 percent of menswear purchased in the UK is bought by women. According to the Family Expenditure survery (FES), average weekly household expenditure on commodities and services was $520 in 1999. On average, $32 of this was spent on clothing - this amounts to just over 6% of total expenditure. Although expenditure on clothing, both male and female, has grown in the past ten years, attitudes of consumers have changed. The proportion of spending on clothing that people regard as essential has declined. In 1989, conspicuous consumption was at its height and people were far more concerned with keeping up with the latest fashions. By the end of the recession in 1994, attitudes had changed and fashion had much less of a following - people still care about their appearance, but not to the same extent. This declining regard for fashion is apparent in all socio-economic groups. It is, however, more pronounced in the upper income brackets and the 25-34 and 35-44 age groups. Within these groups, people now view a holiday or products for the home as a priority over new/fashionable clothing. Despite the decline in regard for fashion, the desire to be fashionable still exists and is generally higher among teens, low income households, and the unemployed - hence the success of the discount retailers. MARKET ACCESS The UK clothing industry is an aggressively competitive marketplace, and is dominated by a handful of powerful chains. It has lower productivity than leading European competitors, and opportunities exist, therefore, for low-cost foreign competitors. The UK clothing market has to be instant in its response to changes in fashion in order for spending on clothing to compete with expenditure on other personal and household goods, leisure activities and savings. The market needs to accurately interpret trends so as to avoid surplus stock having to be sold cheaply. Rail upon rail of discounted clothes not only eats into any profit margin, but also damages the image of a shop, giving it a somewhat desperate look. There is one legal requirement regarding the labeling of textiles for clothing. The label must bear an accurate description of the fiber content. This is an obligatory marking requirement. Washing instructions and the size of garment are optional information, but must not be false or misleading. This would result in a breach of the UK Trade Descriptions Act. There are no requirements for a "Keep Away from Fire" label on any childrens daywear (but there is for all nightwear). However, there must be a flammability label on all babywear 0-3 months (day and night wear). This also applies to babywear with a chest size of 21 inches or less. There is no EU Directive on flammability labels on clothing. Clothing falls under the harmonized code of – and there is currently a maximum duty of payable. SALES PROSPECTS Clothing is an essential requisite, although consumers can also be tempted to purchase on impulse. Nowadays, few people have the necessary dressmaking and knitting skills to make their own clothing, so nearly all clothing is bought. Unusual garments and colour combinations, can differentiate one product offering from another and may be the determining factor in remaining competitive. The exit of C&A from UK retailing in 2001 has made prime High Street sites available for other chains and product offerings. In addition to this, the removal of tariffs and quotas protecting foreign markets (under the Multi Fibre Arrangement) in 2005, will increase opportunities for overseas companies. However, overseas competitors should be aware of the increased emphasis on design that differentiates British product makes it less vulnerable to cheaper foreign competition. Opportunties for . manufactured goods exist, as they are more likely to be able to compete with British designed product. Men's lifestyle magazines are helping to increase interest in men's and boys' fashion and men are more interested in fashion than they were ten years ago. Women are more financially dependent and able to spend as they like on their wardrobe, and as the proportion of working women increases, they are likely to require more clothes than they would if they stayed at home. However, as mentioned previously, the trend towards dressing down is increasing, therefore clothing purchased for the office will not necessarily include business suits. Home shopping through catalogues, the Internet, and interactive television means that goods, including clothing, can be bought at any time of the day, 7 days a week. However, people will always prefer to see the clothing and feel fabrics and textiles before purchasing so it is unlikely that home shopping will seriously threaten the High Street retailers. CONCLUSION The UK clothing market will see steady but modest growth over the next few years and is expected to reach $51. billion by 2005, an increase of 19% from 2000. Judging by current trends and evidence, it appears that the majority of this growth will come from the success of discount retailers. The diminishing mid market in fashion retailing means that best opportunities for . companies exist at this end of the scale. For more information on the UK Clothing Market, please contact: 瞎找的 看都没看