内容摘要：广告口号铺天盖地，大致可分为三类：说明商品或服务功能、品质的；宣传企业文化和品牌的；传递现代的生活理念和科学的消费观念的。广告口号是研究社会变迁的生动素材，它随手拈来，但却真实、准确地记录了人们消费观念、生活观念不断进步的过程和生活水平提高、社会文明发展的过程。 关键词：广告口号 社会文明 商务务印书馆出版的《现代汉语词典》对“口号”的解释是“供口头呼喊的带有纲领性和鼓动作用的简短句子”，但就当今社会现实看，这个定义偏狭了些。现实生活中，口号可能是时代精神、理想信念、行为规范的凝炼和概括，可能是一定目的、某项任务的设定和指向，也可以只是一句忠告，一个提醒，一种关怀，一条信息，听不听、看不看，悉听尊便。生活是鲜活的，现实是客观存在的。笔者认为“口号”可以定义的宽泛些，就是指供口头传诵的简短句子。特点如下：有特定的内涵和目标指向；有时效性；简洁明了；口头传诵。利用口号、标语作为宣传手段，是极为常见的现象，可以说古今中外概莫能外。普京当选俄罗斯总统，那句“让人民过上好日子”的竞选口号功不可没，小泉纯一郎高呼“改革无禁区”的口号坐上了日本首相宝座。时下中国，从南到北，从东到西，口号标语伴你走天下。 广告口号的发展演进 回顾建国后的历史，最难忘的是一串串的政治口号，任何大的政治决策、政治主张、政治变革都在口号上打下了烙印。从政治学或社会学角度分析，各个不同时期流行的政治口号和某些宣传口号，为我们研究社会体制变迁和社会意识形态变迁及其线索提供了大量丰富的信息和素材；而同一时期流行的不同口号则为我们多侧面地展示了社会变迁的复杂性和曲折性。就现阶段而言，存在政治口号或带政治色彩的宣传口号多且滥现象，形式主义倾向严重。有些时髦口号只是为了装点门面或例行公事；有些口号内容本身假大空或缺乏科学性，行文粗俗生硬，有悖社会主义道德风尚和精神文明。但从另一方面看，这种现象和中国社会转型时期社会征候是一致的。改革开放以来，中国社会的急剧变迁超出了常规的想象力，旧的破除了，新的还在生成过程中，无论是制度还是观念的建构与完善，都还需假以时日，整个社会在相当长时间内将显现出新质和旧质共存，有序与无序交织的状态，社会的价值取向、利益主体多元化。与这种社会发展趋势相一致的是，社会心理的深刻变化：从封闭走向开放，从单一走向多样，从狭隘走向宽容，从僵化走向活跃。这一过程中各类社会群体、利益主体都想张扬自己，努力向社会表达自己的利益要求和价值观念，大众化的口号、标语成为他们宣传自己的有效手段和工具，于是谁都喊口号，写标语，口号、标语的泛滥也就不足为怪了。 除了政治口号和带政治色彩的宣传口号外，铺天盖地的是商业广告口号。商业广告口号是19世纪以来现代广告活动成熟化和广告文案写作专门化后的产物，一句成功的广告口号不仅会给商品和企业带来巨大的现实利润，同时也成为商品和企业形象借助口碑流播的一面旗帜，从而鲜明持久地招引受众视线，诱惑人们由消费而生的种种欲望。 商业广告口号大致可分为三类：第一类是直接或间接说明商品功能、品质的。如“洗衣用白猫，洗发用法奥”、“世界第一饮料可口可乐”、“味道好极了”、“喝了娃哈哈，吃饭就是香”、“迅速止痒，当然不求人”、“杀菌治脚气，请用达克宁”、“哪里有路，哪里就有丰田车”等。第二类是宣传企业文化和企业精神，树立企业形象和品牌形象的。如IBM的“科学、创新、卓越”，这是企业的整体定位，是企业文化特征的集中体现。“太阳神”的广告口号“当太阳升起的时候，我们的爱天长地久”，其含义深邃、意境深远，令人回味无穷。中国银行的“选择中国银行，实现心中理想”以实现人生理想、抱负为标的，为受众展现出一个在中行支持下开创美好未来的前景。在激发受众对生活增强信心的同时，也激发了受众对中行的信赖。还有如“真诚到永远”、“四十年沧桑岁月，中华永在我心中”、“全心全意小天鹅”等，都属这一类。第三类是传递现代的生活理念和科学的消费观念，引导人们进行正确和合理的消费的。“绿色食品 ”、“无公害食品”、“健康成就未来”等，口号的内涵丰富，隐含着人们的社会生活需求、情感需求、审美需求，它折射着人们的生活质量、消费观念、道德时尚。 广告口号对社会变迁的反映 广告口号是研究社会变迁的重要素材，它随手拈来，对历史没有任何的歪曲、粉饰，是最朴素、最直观的素材，但却真实、准确地记录了人们消费观念、生活观念转变和生活水平提高、社会文明进步的过程。 我们将不同时期流行的一些广告口号罗列起来，就能生动地再现随着社会生产力的不断发展，人们生活质量步步提高的历史过程。不少市场营销学教材都会提到一个经典的案例：福特汽车公司销售广告口号的演变。1920年以前，生产的发展不能满足需求的增长，多数商品都处于供不应求的状况，在这种背景下，只要有商品，质量过关、价格便宜，就不愁在市场上找不到销路，有许多商品都是顾客上门求购。企业的精力集中于扩大生产、降低成本，生产出尽可能多的产品来获取利润。这时工业企业界十分流行的口号和观念是“我们会生产什么就卖什么”。此时，美国福特汽车公司大规模生产T型汽车，而且十分畅销，亨利福特这位汽车大王的口号是：“不管顾客需要什么颜色的汽车，我只有一种黑色的。”1950年以来，由于科学技术和生产的迅速发展使人民的文化生活水平不断提高，消费者的需要向多样化发展并且变化频繁，企业的经营哲学从以产定销转变为以销定产，企业和顾客的位置对调，市场观念发生重大革命，企业一切活动都以顾客需求为中心，企业把满足消费者的需求和欲望作为自己的责任，流行口号变成了“顾客需要什么，我们就生产什么”、“顾客是上帝”等等。福特汽车公司的口号也变成了“顾客需要什么颜色的汽车，我们就生产什么颜色的汽车 ” 不同时期广告口号诉求内容的转变，展示的是人们的消费观念、生活方式逐步走向理性和科学的过程。1970年开始，国外许多企业、商家在作广告时不再满足于诉说物品原来设计所要满足的需要，即物品直接的、显性的功能，而且还在努力传递一些现代的生活理念，并竭力触发人们内心的追求和渴盼。这种变化的社会背景是西方国家提出了“可持续发展观”，对于片面追求生产增长而不顾环境的承受能力这种发展观提出了反思和批判，环境污染、资源短缺、人口爆炸、通货膨胀等一系列日益严重的社会问题引起了广泛关注。与此同时，在西方国家市场观念、营销观念悄然发生深刻变化，保护长远的社会利益成为公众的价值取向。对企业而言，它的生产既要在满足消费者需求的基础上获取经济效益，又要兼顾和符合整个社会的利益。渐渐的一些新鲜口号，如“绿色食品”、“绿色消费”、“绿色生活”、“生态生活”等等，流行于全世界，同时，人们注重生活质量、追求人与自然和谐相处的新时尚和新观念成为一种新追求。另一方面，经过广告口号对人们听觉、视觉和心理的反复冲击，也会造就一种虚实相生的流行观念和时尚风气，反过来影响人们的消费趋向和生活方式。 同样，在今天，只要我们注意对中外企业各类广告口号和品牌口号的收集，就能及时准确地把握时尚潮流的走向和消费热点的转换。近年来中国人的生活由温饱型转向小康型、富裕型，“吃得饱，穿得暖”已不成问题，现在想的是“有品味，会享受”，买产品重在买服务。这种发展趋势促使企业迅速应变，企业的竞争焦点和市场宣传点转向售后服务。一时间，服务开始摆脱原来作为产品的附加和补充地位，走上前台，成为整个经济发展的最重要因素。与此同时，和服务相关的口号风行世界。如在IT业，几乎所有著名厂商都不约而同地亮出了自己的服务口号：“金牌服务”、“全程服务”、“零距离服务”、“IBM就是服务 ”、“软件就是服务”、“分销就是服务”，“24小时昼夜服务”，如此等等，不一而足。保健类补品的广告口号则往往以“健康”为说词，以激发人类本能的生命意识，从而对所广告的产品产生不可抗拒的亲和力。“为健康每一天”、“健康是金，金施尔康”、“健康成就未来”、“新年送什么？送健康！”、“更黑更亮更健康”等，这是人们注重身体和健康，追求生活质量的一种写照。 广告口号对社会的影响 广告口号以其自身独特的方式记录着社会的变迁，同时悄然地对社会生活和社会文化心理起着作用。广告口号本来是为推销商品与服务而创作出来，但它并不象广告标题那样切实紧密地一一对应，实打实地贴合商品与服务的特点与优势，而是具有更广阔更丰富的容量。它常常要把商品与服务的特点、优势泛化到社会、人生、生活、真理等范畴，并以积极上进、乐观美满、轻松愉悦的生活样式呈现出来。在广告世界里，一条领带就是男人的世界，一个承诺就是一生朋友，一旦拥有就别无所求，一卡在手就能走遍神州；年轻没有失败，知识改变命运，有空间就有可能，世间自有公道，付出总有回报，生活原来可以更美的等等。还有一些广告口号表现出浓厚的人情味和趣味性。杉杉服饰的“不要太潇洒”、珊拉娜洗面奶的“只要青春不要痘”、双汇火腿的“省优、部优—葛优”等，在自然中透出幽默，并在笑声中悄然改变了世界。从“吸烟有害健康”到“公共场所严禁吸烟”，广告口号由提醒而至劝诫至禁止，这是社会文化心理变化的鲜明反映，也是对社会心理的变化引导和规范。曹铭宗先生在他的《台湾广告发烧语》一书的序言中指出：“一句为促销而创造出来的广告口号，却可能在‘为资本主义服务’之外，再产生升华作用。因为，这句广告口号可以搭上社会脉动，甚至呈现社会意义，被一传再传，最后变成了具有文化意义的广告流行语。”广告口号成了大众文化的一种表现形式。 广告创意理论告诉我们：一则卓越的广告创意，一句脍炙人口的广告词不仅要准确、贴切、生动、巧妙地传递产品的概念和信息，展现产品的独到之处，而且要融入一定的文化背景，要努力理解人的深层次心理，洞察人性；要紧贴时代气息，把握某一阶段社会情感的流向。因此，广告口号的制作，不在于优美文字、华丽辞藻的堆砌，也不是歇斯底里的喊叫，它一方面要把所广告的商品（或服务）将给受众带来的利益告诉他们，以激发他们的购买欲望，从而促进消费；另一方面是真、善、美意境和人文关怀的传递，是社会文明进步的见证。 参考文献： 徐祝林中华广告文化艺术[M]辽宁大学出版社,1996 张文和口号与中国[M]中共党史出版社,1998 曹铭宗台湾广告发烧语[J]国际广告,1995(5) ============================================================================================================================================[摘要] 广告成功的关键在于新颖独特的言中行为及即广告语言。本文从言语行为理论的合作原则与礼貌原则的角度出发，结合实例对广告语言的语用特点进行了分析。 [关键词] 广告语言 言语行为理论 合作原则 礼貌原则 一、引言 广告一词源自拉丁语，意为“警告或唤起注意”，其目标为认知、理解、说服与行为。它旨在引起人们关注并使其对企业及产品产生好感，进而产生购买行为。为达到其特殊交际目的，广告用语在内容表达与句法结构上均有独特之处。本文拟运用言语行为理论、合作原则及礼貌原则等语用学原理，并结合实例，对典型广告语言加以分析。 二、语用学相关理论 言语行为理论 言语行为理论认为交际的基本单位是一定行为的完成。说话人通过说话执行一个或多个行为，其行为的实现能给听话人带来某些后果。该理论最初由Austin于20世纪50年代提出，认为完整的言语包括三种不同行为，即言中行为（用声音组词，联词成句，并用正确的语调说出来）、言外行为（话中带有用意所体现的言者交际意图）和言后行为（言语对听者产生的影响）。后Searle 将Grice的“会话含义”学说与之联系，提出间接言语行为等概念，丰富和发展了言语行为理论并使之成为语用学的重要研究内容。 合作原则与礼貌原则 (1)合作原则与直接言语行为 1967年，Grice提出：在言语交际时，为相互了解、配合及使谈话顺利进行，人们应遵守合作原则。它包括四个范畴，即量准则（不多说，也不少说）、质的准则（说真话）、关系准则（要有关联）和方式准则（要清楚明白）。即应采用最直接最切题的方式真实地表达交际意图。这常要求使用直接言语行为的表达形式。 (2)礼貌原则与间接言语行为 但语言学界逐渐注意到人们在言语交际时常常违反合作原则，如使用间接而非直接的言语交际方式，让对方曲折意会而不坦率言传……等等。为解释这类现象，Brown, Levinson及Leech等在Grice理论基础上提出了与合作原则相益补的礼貌原则，核心是：言者应自己多吃亏而给人方便，令对方感到受尊重并获得其好感。据研究，对同一话题，越直接的表达方式越不礼貌。因此，遵守礼貌原常体现为使用间接言语行为的表达形式。 合作原则与礼貌原则的关系 理想的言语交际状态是尊重对方，与人方便，同时又直接快捷地表明说话意图，即同时遵守礼貌原则和合作原则。但实际应用中却少有这种情况。事实上，人们常常牺牲合作原则来遵守礼貌原则或牺牲礼貌原则来赢得合作原则。选择直接或间接的表达方式取决于交际双方的角色关系和交际目的。 三、语用学相关理论在广告语言中的实际运用 广告语言的语用特点 商业广告涉及广告商、广告受众和广告商品三个方面。首先是由广告商制作、发布广告语言（言中行为），其言外行为是向消费者推销产品或服务，以达到促其自发购买的言后行为；而受众则凭借个人的认知和经验对广告语言加以揣摩、完成理解并采取相应的意向或倾向（受或不受广告影响），从而完成广告的交际过程。为顺利实现其劝说目的，即执行推销产品的言外行为，并进一步促使广告受众购买的言后行为发生，商家必须采用有效的言中行为。因此，广告成功的关键在于新颖独特的言中行为。 广告商灵活处理合作原则和礼貌原则的关系 一方面，广告商理应为受众提供最为直接、关联和适量的信息，以节省时间和费用，及让对方以最小的努力换取最大的语境环境，这本身即是对合作原则的遵守。但另一方面，广告交际要求受众购买产品或服务，本身属于指令性言语行为。因此，要严格遵守合作原则，广告商就应直接陈设其交际意图；然而，这对受众是极不礼貌的，反而不利于交际目的的实现。 在此情况下，Leech提出广告语言应将礼貌原则作为第一性，合作原则作为第二性。他认为，对广告受众无礼将使交流的大门关闭，消费者将会不愿付钱购买，广告商就无法获得收益；因而，为说服消费者购买产品，广告商应有意识违背合作原则诸准则，通过遵守礼貌原则来迎合受众的消费心理。为此，广告商应隐藏真实交际意图，大量运用婉转间接的手法和礼貌的言辞，将指令性言语行为变为承诺性言语行为，最大限度地体现礼貌原则，尽量夸大受众所能获得的益，使之觉得物有所值，从而自愿花钱购买，最终实现其交际目标。 具体运用方式举例 (1)违反量准则 如：Wwwhat's newww? At … gives you even more ways to explore land's end with even more ease, comfort, confidence and So, wwwhat are you wwwaiting for? 广告中多个“w”明显多余，违反了量准则，这种变异拼写的使用意在引起受众对该网站的注意。 又如夸大产品性能以强调消费者可受的益：For real brain-scalding, colon-burning taste, try Joe’s Atomic Made from 100% animal by-products and just a dish of diesel It's a burst of flavor that will make your tongue turn black and drop to the floor quivering in So for a true gastro-intestinal assault, try Joe’s…广告用词夸张，对辣酱的描述诙谐生动，仿佛热辣辣的琼辣酱就在受众眼前，令人神往。 (2)违反质的准则 为增强广告效果，吸引人们的注意力，广告商常使用反语、隐喻等修辞手法。 例如美国癌症协会广告：If people keep telling you to quit smoking cigarettes, don't listen… They're probably trying to trick you into 吸烟预警广告的目的在于让人们看到警示后停止吸烟，但如直接警告“stop smoking” 容易引起反感。广告有意识地使用反语来违背质准则，幽默委婉地表达了规劝警告意图，意味深长。 再如：An extra rich and robust blend of Premium beaus, specially roasted to bring out all the flavor and aroma you expect from a gourmet 广告采用了隐喻手法，便于受众深刻理解蚕豆的风味并产生购买欲望。 (3)违反关系准则 广告有意识违反关系准则，借用似乎相关的名人来提高产品的知名度，而非强调产品质量本身，即利用消费者的攀比心理，以其熟知但与产品不相关的事物来提升产品地位，满足其虚荣心。如销路很好的“李宁牌”运动鞋及服装就利用了对明星的崇拜心理来增加产品竞争力。 (4)违反方式准则 为避免直接劝说的不礼貌，不少广告违反方式准则，使用双关手法以引起联想，间接劝说消费者购买。 如在伦敦某机场一免税店前的广告：“Have a nice Buy－buy!”广告用动词“buy”替换了同音异义的招呼语“bye”，意在劝说游客在离开前买些免税产品，亲切自然。 又如：She's the nimblest girl Nimble is the way she Nimble is the bread she Light, Delicious, N广告中Nimble一语双关（面包名；聪明敏捷的），暗示Nimble面包使人聪明、行动敏捷；而该词的重复令人印象深刻，无须刻意吹捧即达到了其交际目的。 四、小结 总之，商品广告的交际目标在于促使广告受众消费。广告商灵活应用言语行为理论和会话原则，有选择地违反合作原则的某些准则来遵守礼貌原则，以间接的表达方式迎合消费者的心理需求，最终劝导其购买广告商品，成功地实现了交际意图。 参考文献: [1]付红桥:汉英广告翻译中的语用失误[J]成都理工大学学报（社会科学版），2003，11（4）：23～25 [2]何自然:语用学概论[M]湖南：湖南教育出版社，1992 [3]Levinson, S Pragmatics [M]Cambridge University Press, 1983 [4]郑建凤:浅析广告语言的语用基础[J]山西师范大学学报（社会科学版），2001，28（1）：109～112 [5]丁俏蕾:广告语言中的幽默现象及其语用分析[J] 浙江万里学院学报，2002，（1）:114～117 [6]L G Principles of Pragmatics [M] New York: Longman, 1983 [7]杨彬:从关联理论看英汉广告双关语[J]山东外语教学，2004 ======================== 上面的是网上找到的~你可以根据化妆品的实际情况自己修改一下~估计差不多~
和我的论文有点相似，我的论文是：我国男士化妆品消费者心理与行为分析，不过你这个比我的偏多了，有机会的话，我把我的论文借你参考参考。
社会语言学主要研究du社会的各层面（包含文化准则、社会规范或对话情境）对语言运用的影响以及语言对社会的影响。 社会语言学研究的是语言的社会本质和差别，以及他们的社会因素。在传统的语言地理学中也有相同的研究，但是自社会语言学出现以后，这些内容都算做社会语言学的范畴了。对语言差异的研究包括：1、标准语与方言、行话的差异。2、发音差异。3、用词差异。4、地位差异。对社会本质的研究包括：1、语言的社会本质的特点及其规律。2、语言、意识、社会在起源上的相互关系。3、民族共同语的形成与社会发展的关系。4、语言演变与社会演变的关系。
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
英语毕业论文文献综述好写的，根据题目写相关学者的总结，开始我也不会，还是师姐介绍的莫文网，专业的就是不一样，很快就帮忙完成了对大学英语翻译教学若干问题的思考应用英语翻译呼唤理论指导大学英语翻译教学:现状与对策国内商务英语翻译研究综述商务英语翻译中存在的问题与对策顺应理论视角下科技英语翻译切雅实证分析经济一体化环境下的商务英语翻译教学新世纪十年来商务英语翻译研究:回顾与前瞻语用观视角下的中医英语翻译教学实证研究翻译——找到源语的所指——对规划教材《商务英语翻译》误译译例的批判研究从功能对等角度看商务英语翻译高校科技英语翻译课程设置探讨科技英语汉译的英语翻译技巧研究——以船舶英语文本中的汉译为例功能对等视角下的科技英语翻译论商务英语翻译的4Es标准大学英语翻译教学存在的问题与对策关联理论在科技英语翻译中的应用——以Climate Change and Peak Oil文本的翻译为例功能对等理论指导下的商务英语翻译大学英语翻译教学:问题与对策英语翻译专业本科生的笔译能力调查分析——以某师范大学英语翻译专业为例中国职业篮球俱乐部体育英语翻译人员现状及发展对策研究从目的论的角度下看商务英语翻译论高职商务英语翻译教学中学生跨文化交际意识的培养试论近代国人英语翻译任务型教学法在《商务英语翻译》教学中的运用商务英语翻译与文化信息等值研究大学英语翻译教学教材编写探讨——以《新时代交互英语(读写译1-4册)》为例东西方文化差异对商务英语翻译的影响顺序分析在科技英语翻译中的应用——以翻译项目《大气污染排放系数手册》为案例从关联理论分析法律英语翻译中的文化差异及其翻译补偿商务英语翻译原则探讨跨文化因素对商务英语翻译的影响及调整策略
持续性交际法对商务英语学习者口语和能力提高的研究分析商务英语中模糊语言的应用及其语用分析从功能对等角度看商务英语翻译基于学生需求分析的商务英语专业英语课程设置研究英语商务付款信函中言语行为的语用策略研究合作学习理论在商务英语谈判课堂中的应用研究商务英语对话中的会话含义研究基于体裁分析的教学法在商务英语信函作教学中的应用中职校电子商务专业英语课程模式的调查研究商务英语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养成人商务英语教学中学生自主学习能力的培养商务英语作中介语错误分析的研究功能对等理论视角下的商务英语翻译商务英语网络课件的评估：TMM个案研究商务英语中复合形容词的研究图式理论在商务英语口译中的应用英语商务谈判中模糊语的顺应论阐释语域理论与英语商务合同汉译关联理论在商务英语阅读教学中的应用商务谈判英语的人际意义研究基于体裁的商务英语阅读教学研究英语商务报告的语体分析商务英语阅读策略和词汇策略相关性研究教师反馈对提高商务英语作准确性作用的研究功能加忠诚模式对商务英语翻译的启示商务英语信函的词汇特点研究商务英语词汇的一词多义现象研究剑桥商务英语证书考试中句子填空的衔接分析论任务型教学法在商务英语作教学中的运用商务英语报忧类信函的人际意义研究商务英语电子邮件的体裁特征研究商务英语信函翻译的语用充实策略任务型语言教学在中等职业学校商务英语中的应用研究跨文化情境下商务英语口译研究基于文化图式理论下的商务英语翻译教学研究迁移理论在大学商务英语口语中的应用研究商务英语中带连字符复合形容词的认知研究关联顺应模式下的商务英语翻译
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