这里有，你自己去看看，内容比较多、比较全：%20Control%20and%20Apdf
Accounting for R&D in the National Accounts Dennis Fixler Bureau of Economic Analysis 24 February 2009 Paper presented at ASSA meetings in San Francisco, January 2009 %20for%20RD_02_pdf Accounting information as political currency* Karthik Ramanna Harvard Business School du and Sugata Roychowdhury MIT Sloan School of Management du This draft: March 31, 2008 Abstract: We test whether accounting can be used as political Our setting is the US congressional election of 2004, where outsourcing of US jobs was a campaign We find that the largest corporate donors to principal candidates in closely watched congressional races manage earnings downwards in the two quarters immediately preceding the 2004 We find no evidence of such downwards earnings management among corporate donors to candidates in all other congressional Election outcomes for candidates are also systematically associated with the extent of donors' downwards earnings management in closely watched races, but not all other The findings are consistent with firms managing accounting information in circumstances where this is likely to benefit allied -pdf 哈佛商学院2008年3月31日
你用EI检索啊（要钱）。
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Confidentiality and type of information Management Accounting is the branch of Accounting that deals primarily with confidential financial reports for the exclusive use of top management within an These reports are prepared utilizing scientific and statistical methods to arrive at certain monetary values which are then used for decision Such reports may include: Sales Forecasting reports Budget analysis and comparative analysis Feasibility studies Merger and consolidation reports Financial Accounting, on the other hand, concentrates on the production of financial reports, including the basic reporting requirements of profitability, liquidity, solvency and Reports of these nature can be accessed by internal and external users such as the shareholders, the banks and the Regulation and standardization While financ ial accountants follow Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) set by professional bodies in each country, managerial accountants make use of procedures and processes that are not regulated by a standard-setting However, multinational companies prefer to employ managerial accountants who have passed the Certified Management Accountant (CMA) The CMA is an examination given by the Institute of Management Accountant, a professional organization of Accounting This certification is different and distinct from the CPA or Chartered Accountant [edit] Time Period Managerial Accounting provides top management with reports that are future-oriented, while Financial Accounting provides reports based on historical However, Management accountants based their reports on historical values, while employing stati stical methods to arrive at future There is no time span for producing managerial accounting statements but financial accounting statements are generally required to be produced for the period of 12 previous Other differences There is no legal requirement for an organization to use management accounting but publicly-traded firms (limited companies or incorporated companies whose shares are bought and sold on a open market) must, by law, prepare financial account In management accounting systems there is no requirement for an independent external review but financial accounting annual statements must be audited by an independent CPA In management accounting systems, management may be concerned about how reports will affect employees behavior whereas management concerns are about the adequacy of disclosure in financial (BAC)
什么是会计？会计是一种商业语言，它反映的一定是当前经济的现实内容，现实的经济业务事项如何真实展示和说明才是会计的重要问题，有观点认为：“会计是以货币为主要计量单位，以凭证为依据，采用专门的技术方法，对一定主体的经济活动进行全面，综合，连续，系统的核算与监督，并定期向有关方面提供会计信息的一种经济管理活动。” 如果我们将它更简单的称述出来，它就是：“会计是一种经济管理活动”，更简洁一点则：“会计是活动”它有统一性，确定性，强制性。综上所述，会计不仅仅是一种活动，也是一种制度。要学好会计，就要掌握科学的学习方法是学好这门课程的关键所在：一．掌握会计的基本概念，基本理论。基本方法，基本技能。 二．注意好三个联系：注意各项经济业务之间的联系注意各帐户之间的联系，注意会计核算方法之间的联系：三、处理三个关系 处理好全面与重点的关系 处理好理解与记忆的关系 处理好自学与面授的关系会计的未来是什么？对我而言，会计的未来就是今天的努力。我不会预测未来的结果如何，但我必须在今天就要努力，未来的工作环境会不断变化，就业环境也会越来越严峻，竞争必然有上进与淘汰，会计这个岗位需要与时俱进的人才，落后就会被淘汰我的妈妈是一位老会计了、她曾跟我说：“不按照法规制度办事的会计，不是合格的会计；只按法规制度办事的会计，不是称职的会计；维护企业的利益，实质重于形式；执行法规制度，形式重于实质；处理一切繁杂的事情的最好方法就是抓住本质，化繁为简”。这就是我们会计的工作环境，难与易只是一步之遥，看我们如何去做了。经过半个学期的学习，我对会计的认识又进了一步，就拿财务报表来说: 财务报表亦称对外会计报表，是会计主体对外提供的反映会计主体财务状况和经营的会计报表， 财务报表主要是反映企业一定期间的经营成果和财务状况变动，对财务报表可以从六个方面来看，以发现问题或作出判断。一看利润表，对比今年收入与去年收入的增长是否在合理的范围内。二看企业的坏账准备。三看长期投资是否正常。四看其他应收款是否清晰。五看是否有关联交易，六看现金流量表是否能正常地反映资金的流向，注意今后现金注入和流出的原因和事项。What is an accounting? accounting is a business language, it must be reflected by the current economic reality content business, the reality of economic issues how to display and description is true about important issues, there are views “ accounting is in money as the main unit of measure to voucher on the basis of special techniques, a principal economic activities for a comprehensive, integrated, continuous, checking and supervision, and regularly to provide accounting information in an economic and administrative ”If we put it out with a simpler name called, it is: “ accounting is an economic management activities ”, a little clearer: ” “ accounting is active, it has a unity, All things considered, the accounting is more than a To learn accounting, you have to master the science of learning is to learn the key to this course: to grasp the basic concepts of accounting, the basic The basic method, basic Note three contact: to note that various economic links between the to note that the links between the accounts, pay attention to accounting methods between contact:III handling three to deal with the relationship between the full and focal to deal with a good understanding and to deal with the relationship between the self-study and face to faceWhat is the future of accounting? as I'm concerned, the accounting future is today's hard I'm not going to predict the future, but I have to work hard in today's working environment in the future will continue to change, and the employment situation will also be aggravating, and upward mobility and competition is bound to be eliminated and accounting this post and talents who are falling behind isMy mother is an old accounting, she once told me: “ not in accordance with the accounting rules and regulations, is not a qualified accountant; just press the accounting rules and regulations, is not a qualified accountant; protection of interests of substance over form; enforcement system in the form of the substance is more important than; to deal with all complicated things the best way to capture the essence, simplify ” This is our accounting working environment with easy-to-just a short walk away, look at our how to do Now that half a semester of study, my understanding of accounting and one step further and take it to the financial statements:Financial statements also called external financial statements, is transactions'effect for banjiachi transactions'effect financial position and operating in the financial statements,The financial statements reflect company period operating results and financial position of the change in the financial statements are available from six ways to discover problems or A look at the income statement of income and this year, compared to last year revenue growth falls within a reasonable The second of Three long-term investment is Four look at other students'payment is Five for any related party transactions,Six at the cash flow statement is to reflect the movement of funds, cash injection and look for the causes and
更好那个
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Market Risk and Model Risk for a Financial Institution Writing OptionsThe Journal of FinanceVolume 54, Issue 4, Date: August 1999, Pages: 1465-1499T Clifton Green, Stephen FiglewskiAbstract | Full Text: PDF (153K) select this item for viewing How Theories of Financial Intermediation and Corporate Risk-Management Influence Bank Risk-Taking BehaviorFinancial Markets, Institutions & InstrumentsVolume 10, Issue 5, Date: December 2001, Pages: 277-323Michael S PaganoAbstract | Full Text: PDF (204K) select this item for viewing The Importance of Financial Leverage and Risk Aversion in Risk–Management Strategy SelectionAmerican Journal of Agricultural EconomicsVolume 84, Issue 4, Date: November 2002, Pages: 1130-1143Brent A Gloy, Timothy G BakerAbstract | Full Text: PDF (130K) select this item for viewing Economic Capital and Financial Risk Management for Financial Services Firms and Conglomerates by B Porteous and P TapadarJournal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series A (Statistics in Society)Volume 170, Issue 2, Date: March 2007, Pages: 510-510N H BinghamAbstract | References | Full Text: HTML, PDF (45K) select this item for viewing Handling Weather Related Risks Through the Financial Markets: Considerations of Credit Risk, Basis Risk, and HedgingJournal of Risk & InsuranceVolume 74, Issue 2, Date: June 2007, Pages: 319-346Linda L Golden, Mulong Wang, Chuanhou YangAbstract | References | Full Text: HTML, PDF (717K) select this item for viewing Evaluation of Production and Financial Risk: A Stochastic Dominance ApproachCanadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue canadienne d'agroeconomieVolume 35, Issue 1, Date: March 1987, Pages: 109-126John G Lee, John R Ellis, Ronald D LacewellAbstract | References | Full Text: PDF (645K) select this item for viewing Does Financial Distress Risk Drive the Momentum Anomaly?Financial ManagementVolume 37, Issue 3, Date: Autumn 2008, Pages: 461-484Vineet Agarwal, Richard TafflerAbstract | References | Full Text: HTML, PDF (183K) select this item for viewing Does Difference Make a Difference in Financial Planning for Risk?Social Policy & AdministrationVolume 42, Issue 6, Date: December 2008, Pages: 576-592Deborah Quilgars, Anwen Jones, David AbbottAbstract | References | Full Text: HTML, PDF (125K) select this item for viewing Two Classroom Simulations in Financial Risk Management and InsuranceRisk Management and Insurance ReviewVolume 3, Issue 1, Date: March 2000, Pages: 115-124David T RussellAbstract | References | Full Text: PDF (572K) select this item for viewing Financial Globalization, International Business Cycles and Consumption Risk Sharing*Scandinavian Journal of EconomicsVolume 110, Issue 3, Date: September 2008, Pages: 447-471Michael J Artis, Mathias HoffmannAbstract | References | Full Text: HTML, PDF (225K) select this item for viewing Interest Rate Risk Rewards in Stock Returns of Financial Corporations: Evidence from GermanyEuropean Financial ManagementEarly View, Date: July 2008Marc-Gregor Czaja, Hendrik Scholz, Marco WilkensAbstract | References | Full Text: HTML, PDF (195K) select this item for viewing A Unified Approach to Hedging Interest Rate Risk with Financial Futures*Decision SciencesVolume 19, Issue 3, Date: September 1988, Pages: 654-671Jimmy E HilliardAbstract | References | Full Text: PDF (880K)
1 the meaning of financial risk Ye at "small and medium-sized financial risk assessment and control of research" that the financial risk is the possibility of corporate insolvency and shareholders, the proceeds of uncertainty, it is difficult because of enterprise funds, to adopt a different mode of financing brought about by Starting from the analysis of financial risk on its meaning, characteristics and types of content; at this based on the causes of the financial risk to conduct in-depth analysis and detailed research, analysis concludes that the financial risks arising from internal factors and external aspects; in turn, establish a risk awareness, the establishment of an effective risk prevention mechanism; set up and improve the financial management system to meet the financial management of environmental change; set up the financial risk early warning mechanism, strengthen the financial crisis management; improve the scientific level of financial decision-making to prevent due to poor decisions arising from the financial risk; through internal systems to prevent the establishment of binding mechanisms to control and guard against financial risk in five areas of financial risk prevention measures as well as self-insurance, diversification of risk control, risk transfer, risk averse, risk reducing the five Only controlled enterprises to guard against and defuse financial risks, in order to ensure that enterprises in the fierce competition in the market in an invincible 2 The causes of the financial risks(A) external causes 1, the national policy changes brought about by the financing Generally speaking, small and medium-sized production and operation because of A country's economy or monetary policy changes, there may be small and medium-sized production and management, market conditions and financing forms have a certain Beginning in 2007, our country has increased the intensity of macroeconomic regulation and control, the central bank to raise the fourth time the deposit reserve ratio, in particular, are ready to implement the difference between a direct deposit system to make small and medium-sized service-oriented small and medium-sized commercial banks to tighten credit, SMEs First of all, the capital supply disruption, the risk of inviting a lot of financing, SMEs also in urgent need of funds can not be forced to stop production or the scale of 2, bank financing channels for non-financial risks caused by Corporate sources of funds are nothing more than its own funds and external financing in two In various modes of financing, the bank credit is also an important source of funds, but banks in the country's financial policies as well as their own sound system is not under the influence of such circumstances, the general enthusiasm for SME lending is not high, their loans more difficult to increase the the enterprise's financial (B) internal factors one, blind expansion of investment There is a considerable number of conditions are not ripe for the SMEs in the circumstances, only the experience of one-sided pursuit of companies to determine the expansion of the extension, ignore the company's content and core competitiveness, resulting in a major capital investment 2, the investment decision-making For business, the correct selection of industries are the starting point for the survival and development However, some industrial enterprises in the selection process, the often overlooked "industry is a dynamic selection process" concept, should not a keen grasp of industry trends and direction of 3, improper selection of investment Enterprises to make investment decisions, we must give full consideration to qualified partners, reputation, and should have to bear the corresponding 4, less than Lack of SME credit is a common Therefore, small and medium-sized banks to provide loans or investments to small and medium-sized people had to step up investment on human resources in order to improve the quality of information collection and This respect has increased the investment bank or person lending and investment On the other hand also give small and medium enterprises financing Ability to finance capital, to finance the number of funds, the financing of SMEs exist great 2 国内研究现状1财务风险的含义叶华在《中小企业财务风险评价与控制研究》中指出财务风险是企业丧失偿债能力的可能性和股东收益的不确定性, 它是由于企业资金困难, 采取不同的筹资方式而带来的风险。从分析财务风险入手，阐述其含义、特征以及种类等内容；在此基础上对财务风险产生的原因进行深入细致的分析研究，分析总结出财务风险产生的内因和外因诸方面；从而提出树立风险意识，建立有效的风险防范机制；建立和完善财务管理系统，以适应财务管理环境变化；建立财务风险预警机制，加强财务危机管理；提高财务决策的科学化水平，防止因决策失误而产生的财务风险；通过防范内部制度，建立约束机制来控制和防范财务风险五个方面的财务风险防范措施以及自我保险、多元化风险控制、风险转移、风险回避、风险降低五种技术方法。只有控制防范和化解企业财务风险，才能确保企业在激烈的市场竞争中立于不败之地。 2 财务风险的成因（一）外部原因1、国家政策的变化带来的融资风险。一般而言，由于中小企业生产经营不稳定。一国经济或金融政策的变化，都有可能对中小企业生产经营、市场环境和融资形式产生一定的影响。从2007 年开始，我国加大了对宏观经济的调控力度，央行第四次提高存款准备金率，尤其是实行差额准备金制度使直接面向中小企业服务的中小商业银行信贷收紧，中小企业的资金供给首先受阻，融资风险徒增不少，中小企业也因无法得到急需资金而被迫停产或收缩经营规模。2、银行融资渠道不流畅造成的融资风险。企业资金来源无非是自有资金和对外融资两种方式。在各种融资方式中，银行信贷又是重要的资金来源，但是银行在国家金融政策以及自身体制不健全等情况的影响下，普遍对中小企业贷款积极性不高，使其贷款难度加大，增加了企业的财务风险。（二）内部原因1、盲目扩张投资规模。有相当一部分的中小企业在条件不成熟的情况下，仅凭经验判断片面追求公司外延的扩大，忽略了公司内涵和核心竞争力，造成投资时资金的重大浪费。2、投资决策失误。对企业来说，正确的产业选择是生存发展的战略起点。但一些企业在选择产业过程中，往往忽视了“产业选择是一个动态过程”的观念，不能敏锐地把握产业演变的趋势和方向。3、投资合作伙伴选择不当。企业在做出投资决策时，一定要充分考虑合作伙伴的资质、信誉，并应具备承担相应风险能力。4、诚信不足。中小企业信用不足是一个普遍现象。因此，银行要向中小企业提供贷款或投资人要向中小企业进行投资就不得不加大人力资源的投入以提高信息的收集和质量分析。这一方面加大了银行或投资人的贷款和投资成本。另一方面也给中小企业的融资带来困难。能否融通到资金，能融通到多少资金，中小企业的融资存在很大的不确性。
1，谦虚，不要和老师争论。老师说什么就是什么，只管微笑着点头。2，让没事的朋友在电脑旁边等着，等老师问你问题后，会让你出来准备，你有搞不定的问题可以短信你朋友，立刻百度一下。当然，提前去图书馆借些相关书籍更是应该的。3，回答问题要简练，说到点子上，不要废话，语态要好，手上不要有多余动作，坐姿要正。实在搞不定的问题可以说，这个问题我目前还缺乏研究，等下去后会查找资料认真研究。但与其相关的某某问题/方面目前是什么情况。4，如果是硕士博士的话最后有一个答谢导师环节，不要太动情说太多话，说三四句即可。祝你成功。跟你的论文相关的,要阐述下你写这个论文的思路,想法,为什么选这个题目老师会根据你的叙述跟论文问相关问题直接向指导老师求助---答辩一定程度与指导老师捆绑，指导老师有职责和相应的面子风险；把“自己”的论文赶紧熟悉起来，自己都不知道写点啥肯定一问三不知；也别太怕所谓的答辩---其实老师一看文章基本心里就知道文章的所下的功夫，提问只是进一步了解而已。本科以下的答辩尺度把握不会太严。吸取教训，别临时抱佛脚了。今后的工作必须要认真、踏实，不然做不好事情成不了大事的！(一)携带必要的资料和用品 携带论文底稿和主要参考资料(二)要有自信心，不要紧张只有充满自信，沉着冷静，才会在答辩时有良好的表现。而自信心主要来自事先的充分准备。作为将要参加毕业论文答辩的同学，必须对自己所著的论文内容有比较深刻的理解和比较全面的熟悉。所谓“深刻的理解”是对论文有横向的把握。(三)听清问题后经过思考再作回答 (四)回答问题要简明扼要，层次分明 (五)对回答不出的问题，不可强辩(六)当论文中的主要观点与主答辩老师的观点相左时，可以与之展开辩论(七)要讲文明礼貌 最后，祝毕业顺昨，每天都在进步！正式答辩开始，下面是我的部分发言： 尊敬的评委老师以及在座的各位同学：大家早上好。我是X级XX专业的XX，很高兴在这里论文答辩，希望今天能为我20年的学生生涯画上一个完满的句号。（这句可是我琢磨了半天的经典啊） 下面，论文答辩 论文答辩ppt 论文答辩技巧,就我毕业论文的选题原因，国内外研究现状，研究目的，研究方法，研究内容，研究结论等问题向大家做一个简单的汇报。 之所以选择这样一个论文题目，主要是基于以下三方面的考虑：………… 以上是我毕业论文的一些基本情况，欢迎各位老师批评指正（这句话挨了一顿批，答辩主席先给我个下马威。这句可是我上网时看到的，以示谦卑，没想到犯了本本主义错误。答辩之前最好是多答辩评委老师的性格爱好都有个底，尤其是答辩委员会的主席，他可是一把手），谢谢。 在答辩中有一些小体会，这里与大家分享，希望对大家有所帮助。 答辩分为三个阶段：陈述期（20-25分钟）、提问期、回答期，三个阶段大致一个多小时左右一个人。 在陈述期的20分钟，有的学院要答辩者做PPT,有的则不用；有的陈述时要脱稿，有的则可以看稿子。在这个阶段，一般情况下没有老师在听你讲什么，他们都在低头看你给他们发的论文和论文简介，因为这么厚的论文是没有老师有时间看的，他们也都是临阵摸枪，看个大概。所以在这一阶段，你的任务就是磨时间，注意语气要平缓，要稳，发言时尽量不要太专业化，没有人听你讲晦涩的理论，当然，更不能拉家常，说一些你们邻居家怎们怎么的事情，这显得你太没专业素养和水准。总之，这个度要拿捏好。注意观察老师和同学的表情，察言观色才是硬道理。 在提问期这个阶段，聆听是你的主要任务。老师会为你磨时间。有本校的老师，一般都会先评价下你的论文，当然是说很多好话的，这都是讲给答辩委员会主席听的。接下来就是提问，老师提问的时候你要记好他的问题，理解他的意思。在记得时候要注意把你回答的要点关键字一起写上，因为老师问完了你就要回答的，如果你反应比较快，你可以把老师的问题分类做个概述，然后按类作答，这样更显得你这孩子不错。 回答之前要对老师的评价和建议表示感谢，接下来回答老师的问题。第一个问题，先念一下题目，然后作答。作答时忌讳一盲目自大，得意洋洋，一副欠抽的样子，忌讳二信心不足，慌里慌张，没有底气，一副心虚的样子。要知道论文是你写的，你看的相关东西比他们多，所以你可以大胆的说，只要自圆其说即可。在这一阶段回答时要言简意赅，一语中的，废话少说，言多语失，能说就说，不能说的就说自己在这方面写论文的时候也考虑过，但考虑的不充分。忌讳的是不知道了就不说话，大家都不说话，气氛就凝固了，在论文答辩中如果没人说话，那就不好了，所以一定要说，哪怕你说不会，也比不说好。 值得一提的是，老师提问的问题有大有小。有对理论的，所以你要对你论文的理论了如指掌，尤其是一些相近的名词，尤其是长的差不多的词，比如这次我们同学的社会资源、社会资本、社会关系这三个词就让老师给缠了半天；有对方法的，所以你要对你做的调查细节注意再注意，不要有闪失。应付的东西老师都能看出来，人家干了这么多年，眼睛都很毒的；有对细节感兴趣的，所以你要对你的论文的逻辑结构、句子通顺与否、措词、错别字、标点尤其是摘要部分注意注意再注意注意，在这些方面出问题显得你不够认真仔细，所以校对时要下功夫，可以和同学交换校对，因为我们对自己写的东西，挑错别字是很困难的。摘要就那么点字，又在论文开头，这可是门面啊，还有最好有个后记，感谢之类的话，虽然老套，但咱们读了这么多年的书也应该感谢一下老师，必须的嘛。 答辩通过基本上是十拿九稳的，但是咱们也不能弄的太难看。自己丢人无所谓，给导师丢人就是罪过了。为了导师，为了自己，也要好好表现。好了，基本上就说这么多吧，各个专业各个学校的情况不一样，我说的只是一家之言，仅供参考而已，希望对大家有些帮助。快要硕士论文答辩了，PPT还没有做，在网上搜索了一通，大概知道了做论文答辩PPT的要点。也给需要答辩的同学一个参考。哇卡卡！一、要对论文的内容进行概括性的整合，将论文分为引言和试验设计的目的意义、材料和方法、结果、讨论、结论、致谢几部分。二、在每部分内容的presentation中，原则是：图的效果好于表的效果，表的效果好于文字叙述的效果。最忌满屏幕都是长篇大论，让评委心烦。能引用图表的地方尽量引用图表，的确需要文字的地方，要将文字内容高度概括，简洁明了化，用编号标明。三、1 文字版面的基本要求幻灯片的数目：学士答辩10min10～20张硕士答辩20min 20～35张博士答辩30min30～50张2 字号字数行数：标题44号（40）正文32号（不小于24号字）每行字数在20～25个每张PPT 6～7行（忌满字）中文用宋体(可以加粗)，英文用 TimeNew Romans对于PPT中的副标题要加粗 3PPT中的字体颜色不要超过3种（字体颜色要与背景颜色反差大）建议新手配色：（1）白底，黑、红、篮字（2）蓝底，白、黄字（浅黄或橘黄也可） 4 添加图片格式：好的质量图片TIF格式，GIF图片格式最小图片外周加阴影或外框效果比较好PPT总体效果：图片比表格好，表格比文字好；动的比静的好，无声比有声好。四、(注意) 幻灯片的内容和基调。背景适合用深色调的，例如深蓝色，字体用白色或黄色的黑体字，显得很庄重。值得强调的是，无论用哪种颜色，一定要使字体和背景显成明显反差。注意：要点！用一个流畅的逻辑打动评委。字要大：在昏暗房间里小字会看不清，最终结果是没人听你的介绍。不要用PPT自带模板：自带模板那些评委们都见过，且与论文内容无关，要自己做，简单没关系，纯色没关系，但是要自己做！时间不要太长：20分钟的汇报，30页内容足够，主要是你讲，PPT是辅助性的。记得最后感谢母校，系和老师，弄得煽情点 ^_^ 。
题名又称题目或标题。题名是以最恰当、最简明的词语反映论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合。论文题目是一篇论文给出的涉及论文范围与水平的第一个重要信息，也是必须考虑到有助于选定关键词不达意和编制题录、索引等二次文献可以提供检索的特定实用信息。论文题目十分重要，必须用心斟酌选定。有人描述其重要性，用了下面的一句话：“论文题目是文章的一半”。对论文题目的要求是：准确得体：简短精炼：外延和内涵恰如其分：醒目。(二)作者姓名和单位(Authoranddepartment）这一项属于论文署名问题。署名一是为了表明文责自负，二是记录作用的劳动成果，三是便于读者与作者的联系及文献检索(作者索引)。大致分为二种情形，即：单个作者论文和多作者论文。后者按署名顺序列为第一作者、第二作者……。重要的是坚持实事求是的态度，对研究工作与论文撰写实际贡献最大的列为第一作者，贡献次之的，列为第二作者，余类推。注明作者所在单位同样是为了便于读者与作者的联系。(三)摘要(Abstract）论文一般应有摘要，有些为了国际交流，还有外文(多用英文)摘要。它是论文内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述。其他用是不阅读论文全文即能获得必要的信息。摘要应包含以下内容：①从事这一研究的目的和重要性;②研究的主要内容，指明完成了哪些工作;③获得的基本结论和研究成果，突出论文的新见解;④结论或结果的意义。(四)关键词(Keywords）关键词属于主题词中的一类。主题词除关键词外，还包含有单元词、标题词的叙词。主题词是用来描述文献资料主题和给出检索文献资料的一种新型的情报检索语言词汇，正是由于它的出现和发展，才使得情报检索计算机化(计算机检索)成为可能。主题词是指以概念的特性关系来区分事物，用自然语言来表达，并且具有组配功能，用以准确显示词与词之间的语义概念关系的动态性的词或词组。