大标题是论文的题目;
一级标题是论述的第一点内容,譬如前言等,字样通常为一、或者1。
二级标题为一级标题下面的分论点,譬如(一)(二)……或者1.1、1.2等等。
撰写英文题名的注意事项:英文题名以短语为主要形式,尤以名词短语最常见,即题名基本上由一个或几个名词加上其前置和(或)后置定语构成;短语型题名要确定好中心词,再进行前后修饰。各个词的顺序很重要,词序不当,会导致表达不准。
论文正文:
(1)引言:引言又称前言、序言和导言,用在论文的开头。引言一般要概括地写出作者意图,说明选题的目的和意义, 并指出论文写作的范围。引言要短小精悍、紧扣主题。
(2)论文正文:正文是论文的主体,正文应包括论点、论据、论证过程和结论。主体部分包括以下内容:
a、提出问题-论点;
b、分析问题-论据和论证;
c、解决问题-论证方法与步骤。
以上内容参考:百度百科-论文
这是我们的论文要求格式材料与化学工程学院毕业设计(论文)撰写规范(试行)一、毕业设计报告撰写的内容与要求 1.标题:设计课题名称要求简洁、确切。标题的字数一般不超过20个字。 2.目录:按三级标题建立。 3.摘要:应扼要叙述本设计的主要内容、设计的成果及特点;文字要简练。中文摘要为200~300汉字字符,关键词约3~5个,同时还需译成英文摘要和英文关键词。通常在毕业设计报告全文完成后再写。 4.前言:应说明本设计的目的、意义、范围及应达到的技术性能与要求;简述本课题的国内(外)发展现状及存在的问题;本设计的指导思想、技术路线;阐述本设计应解决的主要问题。 5.正文: (1)设计方案论证:应说明设计原理和方法、方案选择的过程,多种方案的比较分析;还应阐述所采用方案的特点(如:采用了何种新技术、新对策、提高了什么性能等)。 (2)设计部分:这也是设计报告的重要组成部分。写出具体实现设计任务的全过程, 大体有:设计方案,具体内容,设计成果。可结合设计的有关图纸叙述。 (3)计算部分:这部分在设计报告中应占相当的比例。具体包括:计算项目、相关理论、计算方法、公式推导、计算过程、数据结果等。 (4)技术经济分析及社会、环境评价等。 (5)设计方案的校验:说明所设计的系统是否满足各项性能指标的要求,能否达到预期效果。校验的方法可以是理论分析(即反推算),包括系统分析;也可以是实验测试及计算机的上机运算等,如各种实验及测试情况;主要包括实验方法、测试数据及分析处理等。6.结论:概括说明本设计的情况和价值,分析其优点、特色,有何创新,性能水平,并指出其中存在的问题和今后的改进方向,特别是对设计中遇到的重要问题要重点指出并加以研究。7.谢辞:简述自己通过本设计的体会,并对指导教师和协助完成设计的有关人员表示谢意。8.参考文献与附录:在报告的谢辞之后,应列出主要参考文献。并将各种篇幅较大的图纸、数据表格、计算机程序清单等作为附录附于报告之后。 二、毕业论文撰写的内容与要求毕业论文的主要内容和形式有:1.标题:标题应该简短、明确,要有概括性。让人看后能大致了解文章的确切内容、专业的特点和学科的范畴。标题的字数要适当,一般不宜超过20字。2.目录:按三级标题建立。3.摘要:应当以浓缩的形式概括本研究课题的主要内容、方法和观点,以及取得的主要成果和结论,应反映整个论文的精华。要求陈述客观,重点突出,简明扼要,语句精练,独具文采。中文摘要为200~300汉字字符,关键词约3~5个,同时还需译成英文摘要和英文关键词。摘要一般在毕业论文全文完成后再写。4.前言:这是全篇论文的开场白。它包括选题的缘由及意义,对本课题现有研究情况的评述,说明所要解决的问题和采用的相关理论与方法,概述研究的论点、论据和所获成果。5.正文正文是作者对自己研究工作的详细表述。6.结论:这是对整个研究工作进行归纳和综合而得出的总结。它集中反映作者的研究成果,表达作者对所研究课题的见解和主张,是全文的思想精髓,是论文的水平及价值的体现。要求写得概括、明确、措辞严密、容易领会;要实事求是地介绍自己的研究成果,属于他人的结论不可写;同时也切忌言过其实。7.谢辞:在论文的结尾处,以简短文字,对课题研究与写作过程中曾给予直接帮助的人员,如指导教师及其他人员,表示自己的谢意。8.参考文献:这是毕业论文不可缺少的组成部分。它反映毕业论文的取材来源、材料的广博程度及可靠程度。一份完整的参考文献也是向读者提供的一份有价值的信息资料。引用参考文献时,必须注意写法的规范性。 必须提醒的是:不管在论文的那一部分,采用到前人的观点、方法、结论、成果时,都必须注明其来源。一般的做法是将前人的相关论文或资料编入参考文献,然后在你引用的文字处加上该参考文献的编码即可,如不这样做,就有抄袭、剽窃、侵权之嫌。 三、毕业设计(论文)具体排版格式要求毕业设计说明书和毕业论文均采用word文档打印(建议OFFICE2003以上版本)。具体格式要求如下:1.标题:摘要、目录、参考文献、附录、致谢等标题作为第一级标题排版。论文正文按章、节、款、项分级,在不同级的章、条、款、项阿拉伯数字编号之间用点“.”(半角实心下圆点)相隔,最末级编号之后不加点。标题排版格式标题字号格式举例论文题目二号字加粗居中对齐 论文题目第一级(章)二号字加粗居中对齐第一章 XXX第二级(节)三号字加粗左对齐1.1 XXXXXX第三级(款)小四号字加粗左对齐1.1.1 XXXXXX正文小四号字………… 2.目录 目录生成到3级标题,目录序号使用阿拉伯数字,如:目 录(二号字) 第1章××××××××××(四号)…………… ……页码 1.1××××××××× (四号)…………… ……… …页码 1.1.1××××××××× (小四)…… … …………… 页码 第2章×××××××××…… … ……………页码 2.1××××××××× ………… ……………页码 2.1.1×××××××× ………… ……… …页码 结束语(四号)…… …………………………………页码 致 谢(四号)………… ………………………………页码 参考文献(四号)…… ………………………………页码 3.正文: 正文采用小四号字,两端对齐,1.5倍行距,首行缩进2字符。 每章结束后,另起一页(相邻章的内容不能在同一页面内)。4.页眉、页脚:自摘要页起加页眉、页脚。页眉采用五号字居中,奇数页的页眉书写毕业设计 ( 论文 ) 的题目,偶数页的页眉书写:安徽建筑工业学院本科生毕业设计 ( 论文 )。页脚采用五号字居中标注页码(摘要和目录采用罗马数字,其它采用阿拉伯数字)。5.插图:图标题应在一级编号下顺序编号,如图1.1、图1.2、图2.1、图2.2……,采用五号字居中置于图的正下方,段后空一行。数据图尽量用Origin绘图软件绘制。坐标比例适当,同一图上不同曲线的点要分别用不同形状标出;图中的术语、符号、单位等应同文字表述所用一致;图序及图名置于图的下方,居中排写。需要的话,可在图名之下加附说明。6.表:表标题应在一级编号下顺序编号,如表1.1、表1.2、表2.1、表2.2……,采用五号字居中置于表的正上方,段前空一行。表格应随文给出,先见文后见表;表中参数应标明量和单位的符号;表序及表名置于表的上方,居中排写;一张表格应为一个整体,表格一页排不下允许下页接写,表题可省略,表头应重复写,并在右上方写 “ 续表 ××” 。7.公式:正文中引用的公式、算式或方程式等应在一级编号下顺序编号(式号),如式(1.1)、式(1.2)、式(2.1)、式(2.2)……,采用五号字。公式一般单行居中排版与上下文分开,式号与公式同行居右排版。8.注释 毕业设计 (论文)中有个别名词或情况需要解释时,可加注说明,注释可用页末注(将注文放在加注页的下端)或篇末注(将全部注文集中在文章末尾),而不可行中注(夹在正文中的注)。9.附录:包括设计图纸、原始数据、计算程序及说明、过长的公式推导以及外文文献译文等。其中,设计图纸可另附。附录标题按顺序用大写英文字母标识,如附录A、附录B……。附录中的图、表、公式、参考文献等另行编排序号,与正文分开,一律用阿拉伯数字编号,但在数码前冠以附录序码。例如:图A.1,式(B.3)等。10.参考文献:正文中引用的内容应在引用处的右上角用阿拉伯数字顺序统一编号(用方括号括起)标注,并在正文后面按正文中的编号顺序用阿拉伯数字列出参考文献,五号字体。参考文献按国标GB7714-87的规定进行书写,即文献编号、作者姓名、书名或文集名卷号(或期刊名、期刊号)、出版单位、出版年月、页码等。作者姓名写到第三位,余者写“,等”或 “, et al.”。专著格式:序号. 编著者. 书名[M],出版地:出版社,年代,起止页码期刊论文格式:序号. 作者. 论文名称[J],期刊名称,年度,卷(期):起止页码学位论文格式:序号. 作者. 学位论文名称〔D〕,发表地:学位授予单位,年度四、用纸、印刷及装订 1.纸张规格: 纸张尺寸为标准A4复印纸(210mm×297mm)。 2.页面设置: 所有页面的页边距设置为上:2.5cm、下:2.5cm、左:3cm、右:2.5cm,装订线在左侧。 3.字体:中文字符使用宋体,西文字符使用Times New Roman字体,全文统一。 4.封面:安徽建筑工业学院本科生毕业设计说明书(毕业论文)标准封面。 5.装订:毕业设计说明书或毕业论文按封面、扉页、中英文摘要(含关键词)、目录、正文、参考文献、附录、致谢的顺序沿长边装订成册。
标准论文写作格式一、论文的书写格式规范化要求论文本身由论文题目、作者、中文摘要、关键词、正文、参考文献等几部分组成。1.论文题目:简明、确切地表述研究的对象和内容,一般不超过25个字,可分两行书写。2.作者:处于论文题目正下方,须写明院系、专业、年级、班别、学号、姓名。3.摘要:摘要应反映文章的主要观点,重点表述研究内容及结论,必须重点突出、文字简练,中文摘要字数不超过300字。4.关键词:要符合学科分类及专业术语的通用性,并注意与国际惯例一致,中文关键词限制在3~8个。5.正文:论文的.主体。论文须符合学术论文的格式,正文要标明各级标题,设计合理,文稿中应采用规范化名词术语。6.参考文献:必须是本人真正阅读过的,应选用公开发表的资料。以近期发表的学术期刊文献为主,图书类文献不能过多,且要与论文内容直接相关,参考文献应按文中引用出现的顺序列全。
二、论文的排版格式规范化要求1.版面尺寸:a4(210×297毫米)。2.装订位置:左面竖装,装订位置距左边界0毫米。3.版芯位置(正文位置):按照a4纸张默认格式。4.页码:采用页脚方式设定,采用五号time new roman,处于页面下方、居中。5.论文题目:三号黑体,居中。6.作者:论文题目下隔一行,居中,采用小四号仿宋体,7.中文摘要和中文关键词:用五号仿宋体、两端对齐方式排列。8.正文文本:宋体小四号、标准字间距、行间距为1.25倍行距、所有标点符号采用宋体全角、英文字母和阿拉伯数字采用半角的要求排版,采用多级符号版式。如:一级标题用阿拉伯数字(1、2、3 ……)标引,采用四号黑体并缩进4个字符排列;二级标题缩进4个字符并用阿拉伯数字(1.1、1.2、1.3……)标引,字体采用小四号黑体。9.文中图表:所涉及到的全部图、表,不论计算机绘制还是手工绘制,都应规范化,符号、代号符合国家标准,字体大小与正文协调,手工绘制的要用绘图笔,图表名称和编号准确无误。10.参考文献:位于正文结尾后下隔2行,“参考文献” 四字左对齐,采用宋体小四号加粗;具体参考文献目录按五号宋体、靠左对齐、阿拉伯数字标引序号([1]、[2]……)的方式排列。
三、论文书写、排版、打印规范化要求样式论文题目(采用三号黑体,居中)(隔一行)(仿宋体小四号,居中)院系 专业名称 年级 班别 学号 学生姓名(隔一行)中文摘要:(仿宋体五号)关于高等教育改革体制问题的思想观念问题,……。关键词:(仿宋体五号)(隔一行)(正文用宋体小四号)当前,在教学领域中,……。1 教学思想 (黑体四号,左对齐)1.1 有关关系的处理(黑体小四号, 缩进4个字符)(正文用宋体小四号)在知识传授与能力和素质培养的关系上,树立注重素质教育,融传授知识、培养
论文格式如下:
一、论文篇幅:
3000—4500字,论文必须包含200字左右的中、英文摘要及3到4个关键词。
二、论文格式:
(一)题目、署名及层次格式、文字、字数要求:
1、文稿采用A4幅面word文档;中文标题为三号宋体,正文为小四号仿宋体;英文字体为TimesNewRoman,标题字号为三号,字母全部大写;如有副标题,另起一行,首字母大写,正文为小四号字体;文稿应加注页码。
2、题目居中,署名及单位标在题目下,例如:数字城市化进程王赵(大学系,北京100001)(设计院,天津300001)需作叙述时,可在当页下方划一条横线,在横线下加说明。
3、摘要和关键词,写在题目下、正文前。
4、论文的层次,统一要求采用:11.1(占一行或接排。当接排时,标题后要加标点)1.1.1,1.1.1.1。
(二)文稿和图稿其它要求:
1、正确阐述技术内容。名词术语应符合国家有关标准、规范。如所采用的名词术语尚未编定时,可采用各业务部门和科研单位常用的名词术语,不要任意用简称、方言。
2、准确使用标点符号,注意:
(1)标题、图题、表名后及公式后不用标点。
(2)阿拉伯数字的起止(范围)号用“~”,如:“20~30”,“8%~10%”,“0~10oC”。
3、对正文中的某些问题需加以说明时,可用“呼应注”(也叫脚注),即在所要加注处的右上角标注“①、②……”,同时在本页末留出位置,划一横线与正文隔开,在横线下注明“①、②……”。
4、计量单位采用国务院颁发的《中华人民共和国法定计量单位》,一律用拉丁文书写。
5、外文字母写成印刷体,同时注意将正斜体、大小写分清楚。
6、数字的书写(统计数、各种计量及图表编号等各种顺序号)均用阿拉伯数字,世纪、年代、月、日和时刻均用阿拉伯数字,并一概用全称。
7、表格、公式、样图均要编号,每篇论文加注流水号,例如:图1、图2,表1、表2,公式(1)、公式(2)。
8、照片要求清晰、层次分明,非彩印书尽量用黑白照片。墨线图要大小适当,图线要规整。照片、图稿等电子文件需备份一份随稿件一并提交。
9、参考文献的项目要列全。
(三)文稿最后应有附件页,注明作者个人信息,内容见下表:作者基本情况表姓名性别职称工作单位职务联系电话(固定电话请注明本地区号)传真通信地址邮编E-mail。
英文论文的详细格式:
一、标题
一篇较长的英语论文一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期。
二、提纲
英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行的始端打上Thesis一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。
主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。
三、摘要
1、英文摘要是应用符合英文语法的文字语言,提供论文内容梗概为目的的短文。(内容基本与中文摘要相同,但不用完全逐句对应)。
2、英文题目、摘要、关键词自成一页(1页即可),放在中文摘要页之后。
3、英文字体与行间距:统一使用“西文字体”中的“Times New Roman”,1.5倍行间距。
4、英文题目:使用三号字加粗。
5、英文摘要:“Absract”顶格,使用四号字,并加粗。
英文摘要具体内容使用四号字。
6、英文关键词:“Key Words”顶格,使用四号字并加粗。
四、正文
有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。
正文第一页不必标页码,自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字应为该行的最后一个空格。
五、文中引述
正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。
引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。
六、文献目录
论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited,其格式须注意下列几点:
目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。
目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码,其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。
英语毕业论文排版格式
第一部分:封面
1、 需填写的项目由本人用碳素墨水手写或打印。
2、 封面上的毕业论文(设计)编号填写统一编排的12位学号。
3、 届、班级均采用阿拉伯数字,班级应标明某级某班。
4、 用纸要求(以下所有用纸按此要求)
·纸型:A4纸,单面打印;
·页边距:上2.54cm,下2.5cm,左2.5cm,右2.5cm;
·页眉:4.5cm,页脚:1.8cm,左侧装订。
第二部分:目录 (单独用一页 对齐方式:两端对齐、1.5倍行距)
目 录(标题三号,Times New Roman,加粗,居中;)
摘要(关键词)(小四号,Times New Roman)……………………………………(页码)
英文摘要(关键词)(小四号,Times New Roman)………………………………………(页码)
致谢(小四号,Times New Roman)……………………………………………………………(页码)
1.Introduction………(小四号,Times New Roman)……………………………………………… (页码)
2.XXXXXX(一级标题)(小四号,Times New Roman)………………………………… (页码)
2.1 XXXXXX(二级标题)(小四号,Times New Roman)………………………………… (页码)
2.1.1XXXXX(三级标题) (小四号,Times New Roman)…………………………………… (页码)
(注:此处目录中的标题层次根据正文标题层次来确定)
参考文献(小四号,Times New Roman)………………………………………………………(页码)
第三部分:文章标题、摘要与关键词
1. 文章标题:二号、Times New Roman、加粗、居中
题目:应在20个单词以内,能简明、具体、确切地表达论文的'特定内容。必要时可使用副标题;
2.中文摘要、关键词(中英文关键词、摘要段落:左右缩进2 个字符)
摘要:(小三号,黑体,加粗,居中)
摘要正文(小四号,宋体,双倍行距)
关键词:标题(小四号,黑体,顶格,加粗)
关键词正文(小四号,宋体,词间逗号隔开)
3.英文摘要、英文关键词
英文摘要标题Abstract:(小三号,Times New Roman,加粗,居中)
英文摘要正文(小四号,Times New Roman,双倍行距)
英文关键词标题Key words:(小四号,Times New Roman,加粗,顶格)
英文关键词正文(小四号,Times New Roman,词间用逗号隔开)
第四部分: 主体部分
正文:论文正文都必须包括引言(introduction),正体、结束语 (conclusion)论点正确、逻辑性强、文理通顺、层次分明、表达确切。把实践结果上升到理论认识或应用理论的高度,最终解决实际问题,并提出自己的见解和观点;
1. 前言标题(三号字,Times New Roman,加粗,顶格)
前言内容(小四号字,Times New Roman,行间距采用1.5倍行距)
2.各级标题与正文
论文的标题层次按以下两种格式编排
第一种:
1 XXXX(一级标题)
1.1 XXXX(二级标题)
1.1.1 XXXXXXX(三级标题)
一级标题(三号字,Times New Roman,加粗,顶格)
二级标题(四号字,Times New Roman,加粗,顶格)
三级标题(小四号字,Times New Roman,加粗,顶格)
四级标题格式同三级标题
正文用小四号字,Times New Roman,行间距采用1.5倍行距
3.正文中的图表
正文中图、表均需编排序号,有图、表题目及说明(五号、Times New Roman),如table 1.1。
4.每页页脚居中注明页码, 页码起始 从Introduction 部分开始第1页。页眉设置要求:居中,以小5号字宋体键入“辽宁对外经贸学院毕业论文”。页眉从正文页开始设置,到参考文献部分结束,包括参考文献部分。封底不加页眉。
第五部分: 参考文献 (三号、宋体、加粗、顶格)
参考文献:参考文献按作者姓名的首字母顺序排列。中文文献在英文文献之后。参考文献应另起一页,总数不少于15篇。原则上,参考文献为期刊时,出版时间应在近五年之内;参考文献为图书时,出版时间应在近10年之内。参考文献要求采用MLA格式。
第六部分: 致 谢(三号、Times New Roman、居中、单独一页)
致谢内容(小四号、Times New Roman)
英文论文标题的格式如下:
英语论文标题一共有三种写法。 第一种就是你们老师说的“:” ,冒号左边为主标题,冒号右边为副标题, 是比较规范的标题格式,同时是应用最为广泛的格式。 比如:Hand and Mind : What Gestures Reveal about Thought
第二种的话是 破折号 。 其实近年来文化大融合,中西方的一些习惯都在互相渗透。 但是英文中破折号同中国传统的书写方法不同,一般不需要另起一行,而是直接跟在后面。 比如:Challenger——A Lesson for the Future
第三种则是 语意衔接式 ,最常见的为提问回答型的。 比如:What Is Africa to Me? Language,Ideology,and African American
中文论文副标题(小二,黑体,紧挨正标题下居中,文字前加破折号)
英语论文副标题(三号,"Times New Roman"字体,居中,英语论文题目副标题前可以加英文状态下的破折号,也可以不加)
(一)副标题设立条件
并不是所有论文都需要题目副标题,同学们在写论文时一般只有在以下情况下才能设立副标题:
1.题名语意未尽,用副题名补充说明报告论文中的特定内容
如:《全域旅游:建设世界一流旅游目的地的理念创新——以北京为例》
《利益的层次结构与利益衡量的展开——兼评加藤一郎的利益衡量论》
《公司治理、财务状况与信息披露质量——来自深交所的经验证据》
《略论域名抢注与商标保护 ——以“恶意目的”之认定为视角》
《原则裁判论 ——基于当代中国司法实践的理论反思》
2.主标题是虚题,副标题为实题
比如有些作者以诗词作引,《我以我血荐轩辕——浅论鲁迅五四前后十年间杂文》《于无声处听惊雷—从〈平凡的世界〉中透析路遥的悲剧意识》等
3.商榷性的论文
例:《为语文的教育还是为教育的语文——与温儒敏教授商榷》《也论<周易>经传的法哲学思想——兼与任国杰、关梅二同志商榷》
(二)副标题设立原则
1.逻辑性
副标题是对正标题加以补充、解释,所以,如果正副标题之间没有任何逻辑关系,那么,副标题就失去了存在的价值。
2.准确性
副标题应该和文章内容保持一致。如果副标题不准确,会适得其反,误导读者。无论从编辑对文章的`文字处理角度,还是从作者修改文章的角度,都应尽量减少用副标题夸大文章的研究内容、意义和作用的现象。
3.简练
学术期刊一般对文章正标题的字数有所限制,而对副标题的字数没有明确限定,但是,副标题应避免使用烦琐的形容词和不必要的虚词,也不应使用抽象、空洞或者生僻、生造的词,以免使读者不知所云。
4.便于检索
副标题的用词要为检索提供特定的实用信息。副标题最好包括反映文章内容的关键词,这样也避免了副标题的空泛。
根据 Modern Language Association (MLA)的Style,应该是:Title of the Paper: Subtitle of the Paper (标题:副标题)或者,Title of the Paper:Subtitle of the Paper (如果副标题太长)标题:副标题举个例子,1. Jesus’ Attitude towards Woman:A Lesson for Contemporary “Male Dominated” Societies有任何关于论文的格式问题可以参考这个网站:Purdue OWL这里有非常详细关于英语学术论文,文章格式,包括如何正确引用等等的资料。其中最广泛使用的是MLA 和 American Psychological Association (APA) 这两种格式。关于破折号这个问题,破折号通常在英语中是起到连接两个到三个词,把这几个词组成一个词组的作用,比如“ dog-eat-dog"。用一个文章举例, Christine Gorman在 4月20号, 2017年发表在Scientific American的文章标题:Bill Gates Enthusiastic about Disease-Fighting Process. 就可以得知,在这里破折号起到的是连接和Disease 和 Fighting 这两个词的作用。
Times New Roman 字体,1.5倍行距,首行缩进2字符,
外国语学院英语论文格式规范(附样例) A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese Idioms(题目:二号,黑体,加粗,居中,除了英语小词外,其他单词首字母都要大写;另外:除了题目外,论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”)外国语学院 2001级英语教育1030120011XX XXX 指导老师:XXX(学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名(小四号宋体字,加粗),依次排印在论文题目下,上空二行,居中)【Abstract】 This paper centers on the different expressions of ……(英文摘要:上空二行;题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,加粗,置于粗体方括号【】内,顶格放置;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用其他任何标点符号;采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,不加粗;单倍行距。)【Key Words】 idiom; comparison; English; Chinese (英文关键词:题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,加粗,两个单词的首字母要大写,置于粗体方括号【】内,顶格放置;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用任何其他标点符号,采用五号“Times New Roman”字体,不加粗,除了专有名词外,其他单词的首字母不大写,各单词之间用分号“;”隔开,分号之后空一格;最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号;单倍行距。)1. Introduction (顶格,除了第一个单词及专有名词外,其他单词首字母都不要大写;标题最后不用任何标点符号,上空两行) In both English and Chinese, …. So, this essay is trying to focus on the differences between Chinese and English idoms in terms of their essential meaning, customary usage and typical expression (Chang Liang, 1993:44; Li Guangling, 1999). (段落第一行缩进4个英文字符;夹注的标注法:出现在夹注中的作者必须与文后的参考文献形成一一对应关系;注意一个或多个作者间的标点符号,时间、页码等的标注法;另外,汉语参考文献的作者要以拼音形式出现,不能出现汉语姓氏;夹注出现在标点符号之前)2. The similarities between English idioms and Chinese idioms In English, …. And it can be clearly seen in the below examples: (1) I don’t know。我不知道。 (2) I am not a poet. 我不是诗人。 (正文中的例子以(1),(2)…为序号排列,直至最后一个例子;而①, ②…则为脚注或尾注的上标序号)…3. The differences between English idioms and Chinese idioms3.1 The characteristics of English idioms(正文章节序号编制:章的编号:1. ,2., 3.,…;节的编号:1.1,1.2…,2.1,2.2…;小节的编号为:1.1.1, 1.1.2…。小节以下层次,采用希腊数字加括号为序,如(i),(ii)…;之后再采用字母加括号,如(a), (b),…;每章题目左顶格,小四号字,加粗;每节(及小节以下)题目左顶格,小四号字,不加粗但要斜体;所有章节的题目都单独一行,最后不加任何标点符号) …. In conclusion, ….3.2 The characteristics of Chinese idioms …. Feng (1998) found some problems as shown in the following examples (注意此句中夹注的另一种写法): (9) We never know the worth of water till the well is dry. (10) People take no thought of the value of time until they lose it. ….3.2.1 The analysis of the differences between English and Chinese idioms …(i) …. ….(ii) …. …. 4. Conclusion ….Bibliography (References) (小四号,加粗,后面不加任何标点符号)Sanved, ed. The Oxford book of American literary anecdotes[C]. New York: OUP, 1981.常亮,“关于英语的偏离否定”[J] 。《外国语文》,1993,4:44。冯树健,“否定之否定新说”[J] 。《英语辅导》,1998,6:11。李光陵,“不完全否定浅析” [J] 。《大学英语》,2000,30:30。(论文最后的参考文献中所有文献的排列顺序:尾注:按照编号顺序。夹注:英文文献----网络文献----汉语文献,各个文献的先后以作者的姓氏字母或拼音为序,不用单独加序号或编号;每个参考文献的第二行起必须缩进4个英文字符;1.5倍行距;另外,与文中的夹注一一对应;不同类型的参考文献写法请参照写作指南中附件2的内容)(以下内容单独一页)汉英习语的对比研究(题目:二号,黑体,加粗,居中)【摘 要】 汉英的习语问题是个既简单有复杂………………(中文摘要:上空二行;题目采用黑体五号字,加粗,置于粗体方括号【】内,缩进2个汉字字符,方括号中的“摘要”两个字之间空一格;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用其他任何标点符号,采用楷体五号字,不加粗,单倍行距; 第二行起要顶格;字数约400字,约8-10行;)【关键词】 习语;对比;英语;汉语(中文关键词:题目采用黑体五号字,加粗,置于粗体方括号【】内,缩进2个汉字字符;随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格,不用其他任何标点符号,采用楷体五号字,不加粗,单倍行距;各单词之间用分号“;”隔开,分号之后不空格;最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号;单倍行距)一、 基本格式:论文只能打印在每页纸的一面上,不得打印在正反面上。论文纸的大小尺寸为A4纸打印。侧面装订。二、题名页:论文题名页上打印格式基本相近,中、英文对照,中文题目页在第一页,英文题目页在第二页。一般由顶部往下三分之一页处打印论文题目,论文题目都用大写字母,下隔八行打印论文调查者姓名、所属电大,再下隔八行视实际情况打上提交日期XX年XX月XX日以及课程名称:论文项目设计上述各项内容都应打印在论文题名页的中间部位。三、摘要及关键词页摘要及关键词页上打印格式同论文题名页,中、英文对照,中文题目页在上,英文题目页在下。一般根据提要的内容多少安排打印。中文题目摘要采用宋体一号,加粗,摘要正文部分采用宋体,小四号。关键字题目部分采用宋体三号,加粗,关键字短语部分采用宋体,小四号。英文题目摘要采用Times New Roman字体,字号为一号,加粗,摘要正文部分采用Times New Roman字体,字号为小四。四、致谢页学员可以自选致谢页,一般不要求写中文。英文大标题采用Times New Roman字体,字号为一号,加粗,正文部分采用Times New Roman字体,字号为小四。五、目录页英文大标题采用Times New Roman字体,字号为一号,加粗,小标题部分统一采用Times New Roman字体,字号为三号,加粗。注意在右方注明对应的页号,中间虚线连接。六、正文页论文的正文需隔行打印,正文采用Times New Roman字体,字号为小四。大标题为Times New Roman字体,字号为三号、加粗字。副标题为Times New Roman字体,字号为三号、加粗。七、尾注、参考文献页与附录页尾注、参考文献页与附录页(大标题采用Times New Roman字体,字号为一号,加粗)正文部分如尾注、参考文献目录与附录可不必隔行打印,字体为Times New Roman小四。
一般实词(名词、动词、代词、形容词、副词等)首字母大写,虚词(介词、冠词、连词、感叹词)首字母小写. 标题第一个单词、最后一个单词无论词性首字母应该大写.超过5个字母的虚词,如between、without、alongside、underneath等应该大写.
包括英文标题,英文作者名和单位名,英文摘要,英文关键词,中图分类号,正文,参考文献,中文标题,中文作者名和单位名,中文摘要,中文关键词等部分,并建议按此顺序书写.1. 文章标题 英文标题一般在10个实词以内,最多不超过15个实词,避免使用非公知公用的缩略词,代号等.2. 作者简介 作者真实姓名,作者单位全称,所在城市,邮编;如有多名作者,在每一作者姓名右上角依次标出与作者单位相对应的序号,如: CHUN Yu 1, DONG Xiao-xue2 (1.Department of Electronic Engineering, School of Information Science and Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,China; 2. School of Mechatronic Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081,China).3. 论文如有涉密问题或已在公开期刊上发表,请在篇首页地脚处注明.4. 摘要 英文摘要一般为150-180个实词,中文摘要一般在300字以内,中英文摘要应基本一致.其内容应包括研究目的,方法,结果,结论等,禁用"本文","作者","This paper"等作主语.详见"科技期刊文章摘要5. 关键词 每篇文章可选3~8个能反映文章主要内容的单词,词组或术语.英文关键词应与中文关键词相对应.6.中图分类号 请查《中国图书馆分类法》.7. 正文 正文篇幅一般希望控制在成书5页(记空格,图表占位)以内.内容力求有创新,论证严谨,语句通顺,文字精炼.8.文中正体,斜体,黑体字符的用法:9.图形图中所有线条,文字必须用黑色绘制;用线形或标识符区分;不得有背景;图中线条须清晰,均匀,刻度线向内侧画,并且间隔应均匀;图中坐标线粗0.5磅,曲线宽度为坐标线宽度的3倍;10.表格要求 表格采用三线表,表头中使用物理量符号/单位,11.参考文献 来稿引用他人观点与材料,须将参考文献按正文中出现的先后次序列于文后,文中须在引用处右上角加注"[序号]".中文参考文献必须列出相应的英文,并在后面加注"(in Chinese)".
论文选题是按一定价值标准或条件对可供选择的课题进行评价和比较并对研究方向、目标、领域和范围作出抉择的过程,是决定论文内容和价值的关键环节。这里学术堂整理了十五个论文选题供大家进行参考:1、从语用学视角看汉英口译中的语用失误2、英语心智谓词的模糊性及其语际语用发展研究3、英语科技术语的词汇特征及翻译4、Moment in Peking中异国形象之汉译5、中医典籍中“气”的源流与翻译探析6、女性主义视角下张爱玲的翻译观--以英译《海上花列传》为中心7、二语习得视觉化研究的几个关键问题8、晚清以降的中国佛典英译高潮9、基于降维法的译者风格研究10、中国英语口音研究述评11、口译中视角转换的语用原则12、模因理论指导下的汉语歇后语英译13、本土英语教学法:流派、体系与特色14、《骆驼祥子》三个英译本中叙述话语的翻译--译者风格的语料库考察15、基于语料库的“人生”隐喻英汉对比研究
题目:①实物大写(如apple ……),虚物小写(如a,an……)但是若虚物大于5个字母,则大写(如before……) ②第一个单词首字母,末单词首字母大写! ③专有词汇大写(地名,名字,城市,宗教,书名……)
英语语言学论文题目 13论国际商务谈判中的语言交际技巧 33成人世界的童话——从文体学角度解析现今童话再度流行的现象 49论文化差异与英汉商标互译 55浅谈英汉句子结构差异 59诗意的美和喜剧性幽默 62试论广告英语的语言特点 65统觉团对英语初学者词汇学习的影响 67外语学习中应该重视中介语的作用 69新闻报道中的转述动词研究 73英汉禁忌语、委婉语的对比研究 74英汉数字习语的对比研究 76英译汉中词序的变动 78英语广告的语言特征 80英语双关语汉译的可译性限度 101词义演变的原因与方式 137从汉语中英语借词的翻译看文化交流 138从价值观转换看斯佳丽的角色特征 142从礼貌准则看中英文化的异同 146从习语看英汉民族的文化差异 149从英语人名中看性别歧视 157动词过程类型的选择和话语隐性态度的表达 161对母语在英语写作中词汇负迁移现象的思考 162对严复译作中“信”的质疑 167法律英语用词特征分析 168法律语言翻译与法律文体 177副词EVER的句法环境和语义特征 180功能语法视角下的英语报纸新闻标题的功能 183广告口号语的语言特点 189国际商务文化之对比研究 204汉语中双关语的翻译 213基于概念隐喻的诗歌解读 228论广告英语中的幽 默 265论广告英语的语言特点 268论汉英谚语的语言特征 280论清教理念与美国西进运动 282论莎士比亚十四行诗中的时间 300论英语广告中几种常用修辞格及其汉译 310论尤金?奥尼尔的表现主义手法 324名词化的语篇功能 330诺曼时期法语对英语词汇的影响 339浅谈英语虚拟语气的语用功能 340浅谈英语虚拟语气及其语用功能 345浅析二十世纪计算机英语词汇的构成特点
转摘More and more scholars are now showing an interest in adopting linguistic approaches to translation studies. Between 1949 and 1989, an incomplete survey by the author revealed that there were only about 30 textbook passages discussing the relationship between linguistics and translation, including aspects of general linguistics, pragmatics, stylistics, text linguistics, rhetoric and machine translation. From 1990 to 1994, there was an incredible increase in the number of passages looking at translation from a linguistic point of view. Almost 160 articles published over these five years concerned translation and general linguistics, stylistics, comparative linguistics, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, text linguistics, rhetoric, etc. New terms such as discourse analysis, hermeneutics, dynamic equivalence, deep structure and surface structure, context, theme and rheme, cooperative principles, to mention just a few, appeared in the field of translation studies. We can definitely identify a trend of applying linguistics theories to translation studies in these years. Today, we are at the point of questioning whether linguistics is a necessary part of translation. In recent years, some scholars who are in favour of free translation, have repeatedly raised this question to the public and appealed for an end to the linguistic approach to translation. Some firmly believe that translation is an art and that therefore linguistics is neither useful nor helpful. Such a claim is wrong if we look at translation as a whole, including scientific translation where meanings are rigid and restricted and the degree of freedom is limited. Flexibility, in this case, is neither required nor appreciated. But even in literary translation, linguistics is hardly a burden. Wang Zongyan pointed out that « If one sees linguistics as a body of rules regulating language, translators most probably will yawn with boredom. If it signifies the use of words and locutions to fit an occasion, there is nothing to stop translators from embracing linguistics » (Wang 1991: 38). The controversy over « literal » versus « free » translation has a long history, with convincing supporters on each side. For example, ancient Western scholars like Erasmus, Augustine, and others were in favour of literal translation. Among early Chinese translators, Kumarajiva is considered to be of the free school, while Xuan Zuang appears as literal and inflexible. In modern China, Yan Fu advocated hermeneutic translation, while Lu Xun preferred a clumsy version to one that was free but inexact. There is nothing wrong in any of these stances. When these translators emphasized free translation they never denied the possibility of literal translation, and vice versa. Problems only arise when the discussion turns to equivalent translations. The problem of equivalence has caused much controversy. Some people believed that there could be an equivalence of language elements independent of the setting in which they of occurred. Based on this assumption, some « literal » translators tried to decompose a text into single elements in hopes of finding equivalents in the target language. This is a naive idea. Jakobson (1971: 262) notes that « Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics. » He does not refer to « equivalence » but to « equivalence in difference » as the cardinal problem. Nida was also misunderstood by many for his notion of « equivalence, » which he took to mean that « Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style » (1969: 12). He further concluded that « Absolute equivalence in translating is never possible » (1984: 14). De Beaugrande and Dressler believed that the success or failure of either free or literal approaches was uncertain: an unduly « literal » translation might be awkward or even unintelligible, while an unduly « free » one might make the original text disintegrate and disappear altogether. To them, equivalence between a translation and an original can only be realized in the experience of the participants (cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler 1981: 216-217). Catford (1965: 27) expressed the same concern that equivalent translation is only « an empirical phenomenon, discovered by comparing SL and TL texts. » In citing the above examples, I have absolutely no intention of insisting on untranslatability. What I mean is that a translator should incorporate his or her own experience and processing activities into the text: solving the problems, reducing polyvalence, explaining away any discrepancies or discontinuities. Linguistic knowledge can help us treat different genres in different ways, always with an awareness that there are never exact equivalences but only approximations. Therefore, amplification and simplification become acceptable. If we agree that texts can be translated, then, in what way does linguistics contribute to translation? To answer this question, we must look at the acceptance of western linguistics in China and its influence on translation. Systematic and scientific study of the Chinese language came into being only at the end of the last century, when Ma Jianzhong published a grammar book Mashi Wentong «马氏文通» in 1898, which was the first in China and took the grammar of Indo-European languages as its model. The study of language was, in turn, influenced by translation studies in China. In Mashi Wenton, the main emphasis is on the use of morphology, which takes up six-sevenths of the book. Influenced by the dominant trend of morphological studies, a word was regarded as the minimum meaningful unit, and a sentence was therefore the logical combination of words of various specific types. Translation was, then, principally based on the unit of the word. In the West, Biblical translation provided a very good example, just as the translation of Buddhist scriptures did in China. Not until the end of the 19th century did some linguists come to realize that sentences were not just the summary of the sequenced words they contained. The Prague School, founded in the 1920s, made a considerable contribution to the study of syntax. According to the analytic approach of the Functional Perspective of the Prague School, a sentence can be broken down into two parts: theme and rheme. Theme is opposed to rheme in a manner similar to the distinction between topic and comment, and is defined as the part of a sentence which contributes least to advancing the process of communication. Rheme, on the other hand, is the part of a sentence which adds most to advancing the process of communication and has the highest degree of communicative dynamism. These two terms help enlighten the process of translating Chinese into English. In the mid-1950s, the study of syntax peaked with the Chomsky's establishment of transformational-generative grammar. This theory of the deep structure and surface structure of language influenced translation tremendously. Nida relied heavily on this theory in developing his « analyzing-transfering-reconstructing » pattern for translation. Some Chinese linguists, in the meantime, tried to raise language studies to a higher plane. Li Jinxi (1982) enlarged the role of sentence studies in his book A New Chinese Grammar, two thirds of which was devoted to discussing sentence formation or syntax. He writes that « No words can be identified except in the context of a sentence. » The study was then improved by other grammarians, including Lu Shuxiang, Wang Li. With the development of linguistic studies, translation based on the unit of the sentence was put forward by some scholars. It was Lin Yu-Tang who first applied the theory to translation in his article « On Translation. » He claimed that « translation should be done on the basis of the sentence [...] What a translator should be faithful to is not the individual words but the meaning conveyed by them » (Lin 1984: r 3). The importance of context in the understanding of a sentence was therefore emphasized. Chao Yuanren, a Chinese scholar and professor at Harvard University, criticized scholars and translators who tended to forget this point and take language for something independent and self-sufficient. In fact, it is obvious that when we translate a sentence, we depend on its context; when we interpret an utterance we rely on the context of the speech (cf. Chao 1967). When a sentence is removed from the text, it usually becomes ambiguous due to the lack of context. Therefore, translation becomes difficult. In the 1960s, people began to realize that the study of language based on sentences was not even sufficient. A complete study should be made of the whole text. A simple sentence like « George passed » may have different interpretations in different contexts. If the context is that of an examination, it means George did well on a test; in a card game it would indicate that George declined his chance to bid; in sports it would mean the ball reached another player. Without a context, how could we decide on a translation? Linguists therefore shifted their attention to the study of texts and to discourse analysis. Text linguistics have become increasingly popular since that time. Van Dijk was a pioneer in this field, and his four-volume edition of the Handbook of Discourse Analysis is of great value. Halliday's Cohesion in English and Introduction to Functional Grammar help us to better understand the English language on a textual level. It is worth noting that de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) provided an overall and systematic study of text, which is useful to translation studies. De Beaugrande actually wrote a book called Factors in a Theory of Poetic Translating in 1978. The book did not become very popular as it confined the discussion to translating poetry. At the same time, books on a linguistic approach to translation were introduced into China, such as the works of Eugene Nida, Peter Newmarks, J.C. Catford, Georges Mounin, and others. These books gave a great push to the application of linguistic theories to translation studies in China. Textual or discoursive approaches to the study of translation could not keep pace with the development of text linguistics. Some studies remained on the syntactic or semantic level, though even there textual devices were employed. In talking about the translation units of word and text, Nida wrote: ... average person naively thinks that language is words, the common tacit assumption results that translation involves replacing a word in language A with a word in language B. And the more « conscientious » this sort of translation is, the more acute. In other words, the traditional focus of attention in translation was on the word. It was recognized that that was not a sufficiently large unit, and therefore the focus shifted to the sentence. But again, expert translators and linguists have been able to demonstrate that individual sentences, in turn, are not enough. The focus should be on the paragraph, and to some extent on the total discourse. (Nida and Tabber 1969: 152) From that statement we can see that Nida regards a discourse as something larger than a paragraph, as an article with a beginning and an ending. Nida himself never applied text linguistics to translation, and there might be some confusion if we use his term in our interpretation of discourse, because discourse analysis is not merely a study based on a larger language structure. Some Chinese scholars did make the effort to apply text linguistics to the theory and practice of translation. Wang Bingqin's article (1987) was the first academic paper of this sort. He stated his aim to study and discover the rules governing the internal structure of a text in light of text linguistics. He analyzed numerous examples using textual analysis, but unfortunately, all the samples he collected were descriptions of scenery or quotations from the books of great scholars--no dialogue, no illocutionary or perlocutionary forces in the language. He failed to provide a variety of examples. For this reason, his research findings are largely restricted to rhetorical texts in ancient China (cf. Wang 1981; Luo 1994). Scholars like He Ziran applied pragamatics to translation. He's article (1992) put forth two new terms, « pragmalinguistics » and « socio-pragmatics » which, in translation, refer respectively to « the study of pragmatic force or language use from the viewpoint of linguistic sources » and to « the pragmatic studies which examine the conditions on language use that derive from the social and cultural situation. » He discusses the possibility of applying the pragmatic approach to translation in order to achieve a pragmatic equivalent effect between source and target texts; that is, to reproduce the message carried by the source language itself, as well as the meaning carried by the source language within its context and culture. In this article he tries to distinguish « pragma-linguistics » from « socio-pragmatics » but finally admits that « Actually, a clear line between pragma-linguistics and socio-pragmatics may sometimes be difficult to draw. » Still he insists that the application of the pragmatic approach to translation is helpful and even necessary. Ke Wenli (1992) argued that semantics, which in a broad sense combines semantics and pragmatics, should be studied to help understand, explain and solve some of the problems encountered in translation. In this article, he examines four semantic terms--« sense and reference, » « hyponomy, » « changes of meaning » and « context »--giving many examples to illusrate the importance of having some general knowledge of semantics and of understanding the relationship between semantics and translation. This article is clearly written and readers can easily draw inspiration from it. These linguistics approaches shed new lights on the criteria of « faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance » defined by Yan Fu. Chinese scholars began to criticize the vagueness of these three criteria and endeavored to give them concrete significance through the theories of western linguistics. The result is that the content of these three traditional criteria has been greatly enriched, especially by the effect equivalence theory, which in a broad sense means that the target language should be equivalent to the source language from a semantic, pragmatic, and stylistic point of view. But we are still unable to evaluate translations in a very scientific way. Therefore, Chinese scholars like Fan Shouyi, Xu Shenghuan and Mu Lei embarked on quantitative analyses of translations and used the fuzzy set theory of mathematics in accomplishing their analysis. Fan published several articles on this field of study. His 1987 and 1990 articles evaluate translations according to a numerical quantity of faithfulness. Xu's article « A Mathematical Model for Evaluating a Translation's Quality » presents a normal mathematical model. He states that it is difficult to produce an absolutely accurate evaluation of translations with this model because of the uncertainty and randomness of man's thought process. Making such analysis more accurate and objective would require further research. The unit in translation is a hard nut to crack. Without solving this problem, no research in translation studies will ever be sufficient. To date, very few people have focused their research on this area. Nida holds that the unit should be the sentence, and in a certain sense, the discourse. Barkhudarov (1993: 40), Soviet linguist and translation theorist, suggests that: translation is the process of transforming a speech product (or text) produced in one language into a speech product (or text) in another language. [...] It follows that the most important task of the translator who carries out the process of transformation, and of the theorist who describes or creates a model for that process, is to establish the minimal unit of translation, as it is generally called, the unit of translation in the source text. Though he notes the importance of the unit of translation in a text and considers that this unit can be a unit on any level of language, he fails to point out what a text is and how it might be measured in translation. Halliday's notion of the clause might be significant in this case. To him, a clause is a basic unit. He distinguishes three functions of a clause: textual, interpersonal and ideational. According to Halliday, these functions are not possessed by word or phrase. But he is not quite successful in analyzing the relationship between clause and text (cf. Halliday 1985). In China, some people have tried to solve this problem. Wang Dechun (1987: 10) more or less shares Bakhudarov's view that the translation unit cannot be confined just to sentences. In some ways, the phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or even text can all serve as a unit. At this point, we cannot find anything special in treating text translation except for having text as the highest level among translation units. This is not the aim of text linguistics or discourse analysis. If we want to apply these to the theory and practice of translation, we will require a textual approach.