1946年3月5日，前英国首相温斯顿·丘吉尔在美国富尔顿城威斯敏斯特学院发表的反苏联、反共产主义的演说，运用“铁幕”一词之意攻击苏联和东欧社会主义国家“用铁幕笼罩起来”，因此此演说被称为“铁幕演说”。铁幕演说也被认为是正式拉开了美苏冷战的序幕。1947年3月12日美国“杜鲁门主义”出台，标志着以美国为主的资本主义阵营，与苏联为主的社会主义阵营之间的冷战正式开始。
选修课就不是课啊
冷战背景：二战结束后，世界各国的民族解放运动高涨，各国纷纷脱离原来的殖民统治建立新型的独立国家。尤其在东欧 亚洲等地，共产主义运动蓬勃，建立了不少的社会主义国家。美国认为社会主义国家的建立势必会威胁到资本主义社会。使其利益受到最大的损害。所以美国要推行“冷战”政策遏制和颠覆社会主义政权。已达到维护资本主义社会，保持自己利益不受损失的目的。
对冷战研究，起源问题是重中之重。中外学者围绕冷战起源，就各大国应负何种责任、起了何种作用、谁是主动挑起者等问题展开讨论。西方有学者认为，苏联是冷战的发动者，正是因为苏联追求和扩大势力范围，企图通过世界革命使苏联式的共产主义统治整个世界，美国才做出必要的反应，以防止“极权主义”的蔓延，从而保障“自由世界”之安全。
国防科技与军事是密切相关的两个领域。二者之间的关系可以概括为：军事上的需要促成了国防科技领域的形成与发展；国防科技的发展为军事提供所需要的物质技术手段，在此同时还会促使军事领域不断发生变革，甚至导致出现军事革命；军事上的变革和战争提出了新的需要又会给国防科技发展以新的推动力。国防科技与军事之间相互关系的这种机制或逻辑是一种客观存在的规律。近几年来，新军事革命问题成为人们关心的热门话题。实际上，新军事革命正是上述客观规律在军事高技术迅速发展这一特定条件下的反映。当然，国防科技与军事的关系还会受到政治、经济等因素的影响。 一、军事上的需要是国防科技发展的强大动力 社会的需要是科技发展的动力。恩格斯曾指出：“社会一旦有技术上的需要，则这种需要会比十所大学更能把科学推向前进”(《马克思恩格斯全集》第四卷，人民出版社，1972年，第505页)。同样的，作为整个科学技术的重要组成部分的国防科技，则是社会的特殊需要———军事需要的产物，而且这种需要比任何力量都更能把国防科技推向前进。 自从国家产生以后，为了维护国家的领土主权以及维护和获取国家的根本战略利益，便产生了国防和国家间的战争。为了巩固国防或为了夺取战争的胜利，各国都力图掌握更先进的军事技术手段，于是便组织专门力量研制武器装备，国防科技便由此产生。由于新的武器的发明和使用可以造成军事上的巨大优势，从而使得“最幼稚的公理论者”，也从“手枪战胜利剑”的铁的事实中，越来越清楚地认识到国防科技对于军事及战争的重要影响，因此国防科技便愈来愈受到各国政府的高度重视。正如科学学创始人丁·贝尔纳所认为的：“自古以来，改进战争技术，一直比改善和平生活更需要科学。这并不是由于科学家具有好战的特性，而是因为战争的需要比其他需要更加急迫。各国君主和政府不那么乐于向其他研究工作提供津贴，都乐于向军用研究工作提供经费，因为科学界能研制出新的装备，而这种装备由于十分新颖，在军事上极为重要”。这里如实地指出了为满足军事上的需要研制武器装备，是国防科技发展的动力和主要任务与目的。 第二次世界大战结束以后，从50年代至80年代末，在长达40余年的冷战岁月，美苏两国进行了激烈的军备竞争，两国都执行优先发展国防科技的战略，并要求国防科技部门为军队研制出一批又一批、一代又一代在战术技术性能上超过对方的先进武器装备。在军事需求的强烈刺激下，两国的国防科技发展获得了强大的推动力，达到了极度的繁荣。许多其他国家在这种临战状态下也被迫采取相应的对策加速国防科技的发展。据统计，到80年代中期，世界各国每年的国防科研经费累计高达800～1000亿美元。就这样，在冷战的军事需求的推动下，国防科技发展进入了军事高技术时代。 冷战结束以后，世界主要国家都调整了军事战略，压缩了军费开支，军事需求从原先既追求武器装备的数量又重视其质量转向主要追求其高质量，国防科技也因此而进入注重发展高新技术武器装备的新时期，即进入了“打什么仗需要什么武器就能研制出什么武器”的新时期。 自90年代初开始，美国国防部、美军参谋长联席会议及三军，每年都要研究并提出美军的军事需求，同时根据这种需求制定和调整其国防科技和武器装备发展计划。例如，1996年，美军又确定了新的未来11大军事需求，为满足这些军事需求还分别制定了国防科技“基础研究计划”、《国防技术领域计划》和《联合作战科学技术计划》，这些计划对所要研究发展的科学技术领域及武器装备所要达到的性能要求都有明确的规定。俄罗斯、日本及西欧国家也采取了类似的举措。由于未来的军事需求主要是关于信息战能力的需求，因此有关国家的国防科技发展正紧密围绕夺取信息优势的信息战技术、C3I系统和精确制导武器等军事高技术开展研究工作。 综上所述，国防科技完全是在军事或国防的需要的推动下不断获得发展的。国不可一日无防，国防不可一日无科学技术。展望未来，世界各国的国防科技都将在军事需求的不断推动下，继续不断地获得发展，并随着军事需求的高技术化而日益走向高技术化。 二、国防科技发展对武器装备的影响 军事上的需要导致国防科技的发展，而国防科技发展为了满足军事上的需要，必须不断研制出新型武器装备，因而必然对武器装备，即对军事技术手段产生重大影响。 总体上看，直接从事武器装备研制的国防科技对武器装备发展的影响是全面的、决定性的。这集中表现在：使武器装备的原理和种类不断多样化、结构逐渐复杂化、性能日益得到提高
《1945-1975美苏冷战史话 》、《两霸争雄 美苏冷战及后冷战时代》、《冷战与内战(美苏争霸与国共冲突的起源1944-1946)》
The Cold War is the name given to the relationship that developed primarily between the USA and the USSR after World War Two. The Cold War was to dominate international affairs for decades and many major crises occurred - the Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam, Hungary and the Berlin Wall being just some. For many the growth in weapons of mass destruction was the most worrying issue.Do note that USSR in 1945 was Russia post-1917 and included all the various countries that now exist individually (Ukraine, Georgia etc) but after the war they were part of this huge country up until the collapse of the Soviet Union (the other name for the USSR).Logic would dictate that as the USA and the USSR fought as allies during World War Two, their relationship after the war would be firm and friendly. This never happened and any appearance that these two powers were friendly during the war is illusory.Before the war, America had depicted the Soviet Union as almost the devil-incarnate. The Soviet Union had depicted America likewise so their ‘friendship’ during the war was simply the result of having a mutual enemy - Nazi Germany. In fact, one of America’s leading generals, Patton, stated that he felt that the Allied army should unite with what was left of the Wehrmacht in 1945, utilise the military genius that existed within it (such as the V2’s etc.) and fight the oncoming Soviet Red Army. Churchill himself was furious that Eisenhower, as supreme head of Allied command, had agreed that the Red Army should be allowed to get to Berlin first ahead of the Allied army. His anger was shared by Montgomery, Britain’s senior military figure.So the extreme distrust that existed during the war, was certainly present before the end of the war……..and this was between Allies. The Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, was also distrustful of the Americans after Truman only told him of a new terrifying weapon that he was going to use against the Japanese. The first Stalin knew of what this weapon could do was when reports on Hiroshima got back to Moscow.So this was the scene after the war ended in 1945. Both sides distrusted the other. One had a vast army in the field (the Soviet Union with its Red Army supremely lead by Zhukov) while the other, the Americans had the most powerful weapon in the world, the A-bomb and the Soviets had no way on knowing how many America had.So what exactly was the Cold War?In diplomatic terms there are three types of war.In diplomatic terms there are three types of war.Hot War : this is actual warfare. All talks have failed and the armies are fighting.Warm War : this is where talks are still going on and there would always be a chance of a peaceful outcome but armies, navies etc. are being fully mobilised and war plans are being put into operation ready for the command to fight.Cold War : this term is used to describe the relationship between America and the Soviet Union 1945 to 1980. Neither side ever fought the other - the consequences would be too appalling - but they did ‘fight’ for their beliefs using client states who fought for their beliefs on their behalf e.g. South Vietnam was anticommunist and was supplied by America during the war while North Vietnam was pro-Communist and fought the south (and the Americans) using weapons from communist Russia or communist China. In Afghanistan, the Americans supplied the rebel Afghans after the Soviet Union invaded in 1979 while they never physically involved themselves thus avoiding a direct clash with the Soviet Union.附件链接里还有其他相关文章
是这个吧Cold War The Cold War began after World War Two. The main enemies were the United States and the Soviet Union. The Cold war got its name because both sides were afraid of fighting each other directly. In such a "hot war," nuclear weapons might destroy everything. So, instead, they fought each other indirectly. They played havoc with conflicts in different parts of the world. They also used words as weapons. They threatened and denounced each other. Or they tried to make each other look foolish. Over the years, leaders on both sides changed. Yet the Cold War continued. It was the major force in world politics for most of the second half of the twentieth century. Historians disagree about how long the Cold War lasted. A few believe it ended when the United States and the Soviet Union improved relations during the nineteen-sixties and early nineteen-seventies. Others believe it ended when the Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989, or when the Soviet Union collapsed in late 1991. The United States and the Soviet Union were the only two superpowers following the Second World War. The fact that, by the 1950s, each possessed nuclear weapons and the means of delivering such weapons on their enemies, added a dangerous aspect to the Cold War. The Cold War world was separated into three groups. The United States led the West. This group included countries with democratic political systems. The Soviet Union led the East. This group included countries with communist political systems. The non-aligned group included countries that did not want to be tied to either the West or the East. From the Western perspective, during the Second World War, the Soviet Union was an ally of the Western democracies, in their struggle against the Axis Powers of Germany, Japan and Italy. From the Soviet perspective, the Western democracies had provided material assitance to the Soviets during the Great Patriotic War, their struggle to expell the forces of Hitlerite Fascism which had invaded the Soviet Union. As the War neared its conclusion, the future of Eastern Europe became a point of contention between the Soviet Union and its Western allies. The Soviet Union had been invaded via Eastern Europe in both the First and Second World Wars. In both conflicts, some of the nations of Eastern Europe had participated in those invasions. Both Wars had devastated the Soviet Union. An estimated twenty-five million Russians were killed during the Second World War. The Soviet Union was determined to install "friendly" regimes throughout Eastern Europe following the War. The strategic goal was to protect its European borders from future invasions. Since the Soviet Union was a communist state, the Soviet government preferred to install communist regimes throughout Eastern Europe. The Red Army was liberating the nations of Eastern Europe and therefore, the Soviet Union was in a position to influence the type of governments that would emerge following the War. The Soviets believed that they had an agreement with the western democracies that made Eastern Europe a Soviet sphere of influence, i.e. the Soviet Union would have dominant influence in that region. In 1945 Joseph Stalin pronounced that any freely elected governments in Poland, Czechoslovakia and other Eastern European states would be anti-Soviet and he refused to allow this. In March 1946 Winston Churchill referred to an iron curtain descending across the continent. The cold war began because of this struggle for control of the politics of these nations. By 1948, pro-Soviet regimes were in power in Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. The Western democracies, led by the United States, were determined to stop the spread of communism and Soviet power. While not being able to stop the Soviets in Eastern Europe, the U.S. and Britain were determined to prevent communist regimes from achieving power in Western Europe. During the Second World War, communists parties throughout Western Europe, had gained popularity in their resistance to Nazi occupation. There was a real possibility the communist parties would be elected in both France and Italy. Harry Truman was the first American president to fight the Cold War. Probably the most important, certainly the most forgotten, and surely the most controversial, was the decision to concentrate on the European theater, rather than the Pacific. Avoiding a two front war has long been a fundamental strategic choice. Germany during the 20th Century was bedeviled by two front wars, and the Allies gave preference to the European theater [where the Soviet Union was engaged with Germany] over the Pacific theater [where the Soviets remained at peace with Japan]. Truman was in a sense re-affirming the geographical preferences of the struggle against the Axis in his priorities in the struggle against Communism. George Catlett Marshall was chief of staff of the United States Army from 1939 through 1945 and the principal American military architect of Allied victory. Marshall was special representative of the president to China, from 1945 until 1947. He concluded that no describable amount of American aid could save Chiang Kai Chek from the communists, and returned to Washington to propose a strategy that concentrated on Europe. Marshall retired from active service February 1947, and served as Secretary of State from 21 January 1947 until 21 January 1949. In March 1947, President Truman asked Congress for $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. “It must be the policy of the United States,” he argued in what became known as the Truman Doctrine, “to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.” The Truman Doctrine was a plan to give money and military aid to countries threatened by communism. The Truman Doctrine effectively stopped communists from taking control of Greece and Turkey. And in April 1948 the Marshall Plan was announced, to provide financial and economic assistance to the nations of Western Europe. This strengthened the economies and governments of countries in western Europe, and as the economies of Western Europe improved, the popularity of communist parties declined. The conflict came to center on the future of Germany, and the Soviet Union blockaded all surface transport into West Berlin in June 1948. In June 1948 the Soviets blocked all ways into the western part of Berlin, Germany. President Truman quickly ordered military planes to fly coal, food, and medicine to the city. The planes kept coming, sometimes landing every few minutes, for more than a year. The United States received help from Britain and France. Together, they provided almost 2.5 million tons of supplies on about 280,000 flights. Gradually there was a massive build up of an airlift of supplies into that city through until September 1949, although the blockade was officially lifted in May 1949. The United States also led the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. NATO was a joint military group. Its purpose was to defend against Soviet forces in Europe [or, as the saying went, "to keep Russia out, America in and Germany down"]. The first members of NATO were Belgium, Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the United States. The Soviet Union and its east European allies formed their own joint military group -- the Warsaw Pact -- six years later. The passing in 1953 of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin gave the new American president, Dwight Eisenhower, a chance to deal with new Soviet leaders. In July 1955 Eisenhower and Nikolai Bulganin met in Geneva, Switzerland. The leaders of Britain and France also attended. Eisenhower proposed that the Americans and Soviets agree to let their military bases be inspected by air by the other side. The Soviets later rejected the proposal. Yet the meeting in Geneva was not considered a failure. After all, the leaders of the world's most powerful nations had shaken hands. Cold War tensions increased, then eased, then increased again over the years. The changes came as both sides actively tried to influence political and economic developments around the world. For example, the Soviet Union provided military, economic, and technical aid to communist governments in Asia. The United States then helped eight Asian nations fight communism by establishing the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. In the middle 1950s, the United States began sending military advisers to help South Vietnam defend itself against communist North Vietnam. That aid would later expand into a long period of American involvement in Vietnam. The Cold War also affected the middle east. In the 1950s, both east and west offered aid to Egypt to build the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River. The west canceled its offer, however, after Egypt bought weapons from the communist government of Czechoslovakia. Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser then seized control of the company that operated the Suez Canal. A few months later, Israel invaded Egypt. France and Britain joined the invasion. For once, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed on a major issue. Both supported a United Nations resolution demanding an immediate ceasefire. The Suez Crisis was a political victory for the Soviets. When the Soviet Union supported Egypt, it gained new friends in the arab world. In 1959 Cold War tensions eased a little. The new Soviet leader, Nikita Khruschchev, visited Dwight Eisenhower at his holiday home near Washington. The meeting was very friendly. But the next year, relations got worse again. An American military plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. Eisenhower admitted that such planes had been spying on the Soviets for four years. In a speech at the United Nations, Khruschchev got so angry that he took off his shoe and beat it on a table. John Kennedy followed Eisenhower as president in 1961. During his early days in office, Cuban exiles invaded Cuba. They wanted to oust the communist government of Fidel Castro. The exiles had been trained by America's Central Intelligence Agency. The United States failed to send military planes to protect them during the invasion. As a result, their mission failed. In Europe, tens of thousands of East Germans had fled to the west. East Germany's communist government decided to stop them. It built a wall separating the eastern and western parts of the city of Berlin. Guards shot at anyone who tried to flee by climbing over. During Kennedy's second year in office, American intelligence reports discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba. The Soviet Union denied they were there. American photographs proved they were. The Cuban Missile Crisis easily could have resulted in a nuclear war. But it ended after a week. Khruschchev agreed to remove the missiles if the United States agreed not to interfere in Cuba. Some progress was made in easing Cold War tensions when Kennedy was president. In 1963, the two sides reached a major arms control agreement. They agreed to ban tests of nuclear weapons above ground, under water, and in space. They also established a direct telephone line between the white house and the kremlin. Relations between east and west also improved when Richard Nixon was president. He and Leonid Brezhnev met several times. They reached several arms control agreements. One reduced the number of missiles used to shoot down enemy nuclear weapons. It also banned the testing and deployment of long-distance missiles for five years. A major change in the cold war took place in 1985. That is when Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev held four meetings with President Ronald Reagan. He withdrew Soviet forces from Afghanistan. And he signed an agreement with the United States to destroy all intermediate range nuclear force [INF] missiles and short-range [SRINF] missiles. By 1989 there was widespread unrest in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev did not intervene as these countries cut their ties with the Soviet Union. In less than a year, East and West Germany became one nation again. A few months after that, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved. November 9, 1989, will be remembered as one of the great moments of German history. On that day, the dreadful Berlin Wall, which for twenty-eight years had been the symbol of German division, cutting through the heart of the old capital city, was unexpectedly opened by GDR border police. In joyful disbelief, Germans from both sides climbed up on the Wall, which had been called "the ugliest edifice in the world." They embraced each other and sang and danced in the streets. Some began chiseling away chips of the Wall as if to have a personal hand in tearing it down, or at least to carry away a piece of German history. On December 22, the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin was opened for pedestrian traffic. Perhaps the most central conflict of the Cold War, probably the defining conflict, was the division of Germany. Thus, arguably, 09 November 1989 marked the end of the Cold War, as it marked the effective end of the division of Germany between east and west. The DoD Cold War Recognition Certificate was approved for service during the "Cold War era" from 02 September 1945 to 26 December 1991. By this account, after 45 years of protracted conflict and constant tension, the Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union. This is, upon reflection, a rather tendentious reading of history, since it takes the central conflict of the Cold War to have been the struggle between the two competing social systems, which could only end with one or the other being consigned to the ash heap of history. President Bush presented the Medal of Freedom award to former President Ronald Reagan at a ceremony in the East Room on January 13, 1993. President Bush said that Rreagan " ... helped make ours not only a safer but far better world in which to live. And you yourself said it best. In fact, you saw it coming. We recall your stirring words to the British Parliament. Here were the words: ``the march of freedom and democracy . . . will leave Marxist-Leninism on the ashheap of history.'' Few people believe more in liberty's inevitable triumph than Ronald Reagan. None, none was more a prophet in his time. Ronald Reagan rebuilt our military; not only that, he restored its morale."
trillion; CD-ROM
楼主研究的好深啊！我国现当代美术史，这方面的专著很少。伤痕美术，类似罗中立油画《父亲》大概就是。多描写艰苦岁月，人们的真实生活写照。
陈宜明与刘宇廉、李斌于1978年合作的连环画《伤痕》，在全国引起极大反响。他们合作的连环画《伤痕》《枫》与《张志新》，一扫建国后极左政治路线统治下的虚假艺术模式，以高度写实的艺术手法再现了历史的真相，其真挚的情感，新颖的形式，令千百万刚刚走出文革阴影的中国人为之动容。陈宜明、刘宇廉、李斌在20世纪70年代末的合作创作，是“伤痕美术”的发端与代表作，具有重要的历史价值。铸就了中国当代美术史上一段华美篇章。1978年，《连环画报》邀请陈宜明、刘宇廉、李斌一起创作《伤痕》，这是根据当年影响很大的卢新华的同名小说改编而来，表现“文革”中悲剧灾难的生活历史。1979年刊出后获得广泛好评。获第二届全国连环画展览一等奖。 因为当时我们都是二十多岁的青年，青年的朝气、活力都摆在那里的，所以，并不觉得那段经历很苦。只是返城后再回过头来看那段历史时，才发觉自己原来经历的是一场噩梦，但很多东西都已找不回来了。我一般不太愿意谈这段历史，在创作上，其实那个时候是很幼稚的。在此之前，受到美术教育也不是很正规，直到后来我进学校到老师至今，我反而是认为显得更成熟一点，离艺术更近一点。78、79年虽然影响很大，可影响并不意味着就是我艺术的高峰期，我是比较客观的看这个问题。不过，现在与那时无法比拟的是，虽然当时技术上很幼稚，但创作的态度却很真诚。
20世纪70年代。伤痕美术的时间为20世纪70年代。 “伤痕美术”是与“伤痕文学”相对应的美术现象，是用美术的形式对十年“文革”的反思和控诉。
冷战的群就是两极风化吗
选修课就不是课啊
The Cold War started to develop after the Second World War when the USA and the USSR no longer had a common goal of Hitler’s Nazism. As soon as Cold War was instigated, the differences in ideology and other factors worsened the relationship between the USA and the USSR. This meant that many events such as Cuban Missile Crisis and arms race nearly led to a hot war. As Cold War progressed until the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cold War had significant impact on American society.Firstly, Cold War instigated strong anti-communism within the USA. The hatred towards Communism was so great that it eventually led to McCarthyism. During McCarthyism, Americans were obsessed with the process of identifying the Communists and removing those Communists from American society. The strength of this obsession increased greatly that Americans started to forget the fact that the US constitution guaranteed all Americans freedom to believe what they wanted to believe. The purpose of organisations such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the House Un-American Activities became the ‘removal of Communists’ and laws such as the Communist Control Act were passed to facilitate the process of identifying, capturing and removing Communists. The McCarran Act was also introduced, which forced all Communist organisations to be registered within the US government and banned Communists carrying US passports and working in defence industries. Inevitably, many were questioned without having done anything wrong, many lost their jobs and some even lost their lives like the Rosenbergs, who were blamed for having passed secret information about atomic bombs to the Soviet Union. This red scare continued to dominate the American society until late 1950s.Secondly, Cold War made many Americans to live in fear of danger of war. This fear of war was instigated by the arms race. One example is Cuban missile crisis, which caused high tension within the USA as the missiles in Cuba could reach the USA at any time. Until the U-2 planes found the missiles in Cuba, the fear was not significant as people knew that the missiles in the USSR could not cover such long distance to reach the USA. However, the missiles in Cuba threatened the USA’s security to a significant extent that many Americans had to live in fear. Although the attitude of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) was existent, the missiles in such proximity alarmed many Americans at that time. Apart from Cuban missile crisis, Americans lived in constant fear as the Cold War could turn into a hot war at any time.Thirdly, Cold War had an impact on American people economically. The impact was caused mainly by the increase in the amount of taxes. The United States used to adopt isolationism previously, meaning that the USA did not intervene in any other foreign matters to only concentrate on the domestic issues. As soon as the USA decided to intervene in foreign matters, Americans had to pay more taxes to support the USA’s actions. These actions, including the arms race and other wars, required massive amount of capital. For instance, the Vietnam War was one of the factors that used up massive amount of capital. The Vietnam War was very different from any other wars because it was a guerrilla war between Vietcongs. The Vietcongs had successfully planned the strategies to kill many Americans without having America’s latest technology such as tanks and airplanes. As the war developed, it was estimated that it costed Americans $400,000 to kill one Viet Cong.To conclude, although the Cold War never actually led to a hot war between two major powers, the USA and the USSR, it caused massive impact upon the world, including American society. The main impacts include anti-Communism, fear of war and economic damage. Of all the impacts, I believe that anti-communism is the one that caused everlasting impact on American society. The fear of war and the economical impact had short term effect while the hatred towards communism still exists within American society.
对冷战研究，起源问题是重中之重。中外学者围绕冷战起源，就各大国应负何种责任、起了何种作用、谁是主动挑起者等问题展开讨论。西方有学者认为，苏联是冷战的发动者，正是因为苏联追求和扩大势力范围，企图通过世界革命使苏联式的共产主义统治整个世界，美国才做出必要的反应，以防止“极权主义”的蔓延，从而保障“自由世界”之安全。
可以写日本经济政治的发展情况
写日本的政治经济变革史或者日本的文化发展史或者干脆写日本战争史都可以
0世纪80年代末90年代初，随着苏联及其阵营的解体，以半个世纪的东西对峙为特征的冷战走向结束。在苏维埃社会主义联邦共和国旗帜骤然飘落，柏林墙轰然倒塌的时刻，全世界为之惊愕，即使那些一向以“准确预见国际关系发展的模式与轨迹”为己任的国际关系理论专家们，也不曾预料全球范围的冷战会在这个时刻以这种方式锁定在历史的时间坐标上。于是，即有国际关系理论的“科学性”遭遇质疑。人们对国际关系理论及国际关系史传统研究方法的挑战，使冷战史研究成为后冷战时期受到国际学术界高度重视的课题。一批国际学术机构相继成立：华盛顿威尔逊中心国际冷战史项目、哈佛大学国际冷战史研究中心、乔治·华盛顿大学冷战史研究组、伦敦国际经济政治学院冷战研究项目、挪威诺贝尔研究所等。它们出版学术刊物，设立网站，组织高水平学术研讨会，搜集、整理、公布档案资料，资助学者研究，在冷战史研究的热潮中推波助澜。到目前为止，在国际互联网上，有关“coldwar”的条目达700万之多。中国学者从上个世纪90年代初开始冷战史的研究和讨论，陆续发表了一批研究成果，其中部分高质量作品已经被翻译介绍到国外，互联网上的“冷战史”条目也多达28000余。他们在冷战史研究中、尤其在与中国有关问题的研究中作出了独到的贡献，其理论的更新，视角的转换，思路的拓展，方法的改变，以及在此基础上对一些重大历史问题研究的突破性进展，促进了中国历史学的繁荣和发展。冷战史研究已经成为一个新的学术增长点
冷战时期美苏经济关系的演进回望远去的冷战，我们可以清晰的看到冷战合规律性地演绎着否定之否定之路：从冷战到缓和，又从缓和到新冷战，如今又走向缓和，呈现出波浪式发展的基本态势． 现于外的军事、政治、意识形态的尖锐冲突与藏于内的经济关系发展的脉络大致相同又时有背离。军政冷战和经济冷战之间互为因果、互为目的手段。虽然冷战最引人注目的特点是军事力量的对抗，但 财富和实力始终是相关的 ”从长远的、深层意义上看．冷战演绎的主导者和胜利者不是军政力量而是经济力量。本文拟以经济冷战为线索讨论冷战时期美苏经济关系演进的历史，并揭示其内在的必然性．一、从冷战到缓和这一阶段的时间范围大致从战后到60年代末．美苏经济关系的基本态势是从由热转冷，再到由冷转热．但前一转变是明显深刻的，而后一转变是浅显微弱的，故又称为 有限缓和 。1945年。二战最后一缕硝烟尚未散去，美苏战时盟友关系即已开始解体，军事、政治、经济等各种关系由热转冷．急剧降温并直至冰点，在两大阵营、两个军事集团对立的同时，两个平行的市场体系也迅速建立并展开对峙，形成了冷战棵刻的经济内涵。战争结束时的美国是世界上最大的军政强国和经济强国，但大有大的难处，美国在经济上最为担忧的是军事订单消失 军队复员会造成大规模失业并导致经济重新衰退，危及制度安全；担忧苏联会利用欧洲经济混乱进行经济渗透。于是，对苏经济遏制战略应运而生，作为其重要组成部分的马歇尔计划和东西方贸易管制政策如同一把双刃剑，锋芒直指苏联。1947年出台的马歇尔计划是杜鲁门主义在经济上的翻版，正如杜鲁门形容的那样，是一个核桃两半边 。 其主要内容是扶植西欧经济使其强大到足以抵抗苏联的攻势，并在推动西欧联合(其直接结果是欧共体)的基础上使之成为遏制苏联的集团力量。因而 从东西方之间的关系这一角度看，马歇尔计划是走向冷战的最后一步。 东西方贸易管制政策发端于杜鲁门政府时期，其主要内容表现为全面禁止战略物资、紧缺商品和与战略物资有关的技术资料直接或间接地输^苏东各国。从1948年3月美国决定对苏东禁运战略物资，到1949年《出口管制法》出台和 对共产党集团出口管制统筹委员会 (简称 巴统 )建立，对苏经济遏制战略基本形成．其现实目标是 使苏联的势力范围限于它目前的地区． 苏联虽然在战争中遭受了巨大损失，但仍然是欧洲第一、世界第二的军政强国。面对战后初期严竣的政治，军事和经济形势和咄咄逼人的美国全球攻势，苏联迅速做出强烈的反应。在冷战思维的偏激指导下，斯大林提出了。两个平行市场 对峙的理论，并在国际经济问题上全面推行与西方对立的政策，坚决反对美国对苏联及其势力范围的任何经济蚕食企图。1945年2月苏联最终拒绝批准 布雷顿森林协定 ，又进一步使经济对抗从理论变成现实．为抵抗马歌尔计划的影响，苏联通过实施莫洛托夫计划，强化与东欧国家经济联系并限制其与西方经济往来，到1949年又正式发展成为苏东经济集团(经互会)．这样，作为美苏两个计划直接经济后果，欧洲“出现了两种对立的世界体系 和彼此隔绝并相互对峙的两大经济集团。美苏原有的交流渠道彻底中断．50年代中后期起，冷战首次出现了转折，美苏关系由冷转热，呈不断缓和的趋势，即使是古巴导弹危机这样的突发性尖锐对抗，也不能使之发生实质性逆转．缓和的经济背景是苏美力量对比开始了由劣势到均势的逐渐转变。美国经济在50～60年代总体上仍呈增长态势，但却 正在迅速失去其1945年曾在世界财富、生产和贸易中所占有的相对比重． 1．m 60年代起美国经济的某些重要领域出现明显的危机征兆。面对苏联军政实力膨胀的压力，美国被迫采取战略收缩，实行缓和。艾森豪威尔时期美国就已经认识到 缓和东西方经济关系是美国国家利益所在 ，并在实际政策方面做了一些调整，如将经济打击重心转向中国，缓和对苏东的贸易管制等。5O年代中期又通过拟定东西方交流方案，形成韧始的演变政策以逐步取代激变政策。60年代，美国进一步考虑以经济让步来换取苏联政治让步．肯尼迪时期实施的 和平战略 ，也将贸易作为推进缓和的一个重要手段．但这种经济缓和仍然是受到严格限制的，如1962年《出口管制法》修正案就将出口限制扩大为：凡属对 军事或经济潜力发展有重要意义的物资， 一律禁止向共产党国家出口． 由于战后恢复性生产、高投A所形成的初始冲力以及宇航和核船等几个与军事潜力密切相关的高新技术部门的超常发展，苏联经济出现了跳跃式发展，其国民收入，1950年为美国的30‰ 到1960年为美国的58％，差距开始缩小。苏共二十大赫鲁晓夫提出 三和路线 ，用两个平行市场之间的和平竞赛取代了斯大林时期的隔绝对峙，他认为： 现在我们的国家在增长速度方面和产品的绝对增长量方面都超过了美国，我们以比美国快三辖的速度前进，我们每年的产量比它多．因此，赶上美国现在容易多了． 两大市场体系 长期共存、和平竞赛成为赫鲁晓夫及其以后较长时期内苏联对外经济关系的主导思想。既然可以平行共存，对外(资本主义市场体系)的经济关系可有可无，对内(社会主义市场体系)的经济关系必须加强控翻． 因此苏联的缓和攻势主要表现在政治姿态上，经济关系的缓和是极其低调的．在6O年代后半期，苏联开始出现主动寻求对美经济缓和的迹象．然而，冰冻三尺非一日之寒，经济关系的转变更具相对滞后性．在整个60年代，美苏经济关系一直处于非常低的水平．以1969年为例，双方贸易颧仅为1．6亿美元，为苏联与西方其它国家贸易额之最低(同期苏联与英国 西德、法国，意大利的贸易额分别为7．O6亿、7．4l亿、4．7亿．5．3l亿)．且贸易主要限于农产品，1963年美国向苏联出口的50万吨小麦就堪称这一时期贸易之大宗了．从缓和到新冷战这一阶段的时间范围大致从6o年代末到70年代末．美苏经济关系的基本态势是承接上一时期的缓和，继续由冷转热．再由热转冷．但后一转折在形式和内容上仍然是不明显的，与军事、政治态势的剧烈变动相比，呈现出不一致性和滞后性，当新狰战的阴影再次笼罩世界时，东西经济的交流依然在冰封的河面下捅动． ．1969年美国越战的失败，标志着美苏战略力量对比均衡态势的基本完成，同时也将经济缓和推进到具有一定实质性内容的时期．其背景是美苏经济实力对比继续朝着有利于苏联的方向发展，经济差距进一步缩小．越战失败加快了美国经济衰退的步伐，经济霸权也开始动摇， 战争费用大幅度猛增对美国经济产生很坏的影响， lJI 并把自杜鲁门最初在1941年宣布了遏制主义以来逐渐形成的对冷战外交政策的一致支持打得粉碎。 尼克松时期提出 国际新经济政策 ，以退为进，推行以发展美苏经济关系为主要内容的缓和方针，对苏实行 诱导式经济外交 ．在此方针指导下，1969年《出口管制法》，以高新技术转让限制取代全面战略物资出口限制，放松了一般技术和商品的出口，并利用 巴统 的 例外 条款扩大禁运物资和限运物资出口。但是，经济缓和的目的是十分明6 宁波大学学报(人文科学版) 2001拒确的，美国官方公然宣称： 我们的战略是要利用贸易让步作为政治工具，以便在苏联冒险时制约他们，在他们采取合作态度时鼓励他们， ⋯⋯ 使共产党国家的国内发展和对外政策沿着我们期望的目标前进。 尼克橙也形象的说： 在我们的商品上不但要印上经济价码，而且要印上政治价码． 啪实际上，美国就曾在北越、限制战略核武器、苏联国内政策等同题上以发展经济关系为筹码，迫使苏联让步。由此可见，美国的经济缓和并非遏制的终结，而是遏制的新形式和继续．70年代是苏联军政实力最为强大的年代，苏美经济实力差距大为缩短，l965年苏联国民收人相当于美国的57％，1978年上升为67％ 左右．钢铁、石油等近2O种工业产品产量甚至超过美国。勃列日涅夫过高估计了苏联的经济状况，他认为： 最近25年里，苏联的社会、经济、文化和科学的发展，达到了其成果可成为决定世界政治因素的高峰。 但苏联经济存在严重的弊端，与同期美国趋于表面的危机相比，苏联的经济危机是隐性的，但也是更深刻的。勃列日涅夫秉承苏共二十大的外交路线，军事上表现强硬，经济上有求于美国。苏共二十四大提出 六点和平纲领 ，宣布要把缓和放在外交政策的首位，着重改善同美国的关系。由于美苏在经济利益上互有所需，双方经济美系有较大进展，1972年美苏贸易协定签署后，贸易额呈上升趋势，从1972年的6．88亿美元到1979年44．77亿美元，成为缓和的一大标志。这一时期举行的几次最高首脑会晤，签订的几十个协定、协议，也都不同程度地具有经济内容，涉及经济、科技，贸易、能源、医药、环境、公共卫生等众多方面．如仅在1972年7月就签订了关于美国向苏联提供贷款、用于苏联向美国购买价值7．5亿美元粮食的协定，此举 使两国贸易额陡增近一倍 ；关于苏联与美国西方石油公司总额为3O亿美元的科技合作协定：关于双方在能源、电子计算机、农业等六个研究领域合作的协定等等。在l972年lO月签订的一项为期3年的全面贸易协定中，美国甚至允诺要国会批准给予苏联最惠国待遇，并约定在对方首都互设贸易办事处。双方经济关系获得战后以来的最大发展。但是，经济缓和并投有带来军政缓和。7O年代中后期，苏联利用美国战略收缩之际，不断扩大在中东、非洲、中美的渗透，乃至出兵阿富汗，全球攻势达到顶峰。美国以经济援助为诱饵牵制苏联内外政策的战略方针宣告失败。经济利益上的对立迅速盖过了微弱的一致·陛，缓和得以建立的基础开始崩溃，经济对抗重又发展起来。1977年卡特上台，以 全球秩序政治 取代了尼克橙主义，虽然美苏经济关系仍然沿着前期缓和的轨道惯性向前，但已逐渐由热转冷。1979年以前，美国曾多次以苏联的武器控制问题、持不同政见者问题、苏联武装干涉安哥拉问题以及人权阿题等为由，用搁置贸易谈判、限制出口等经济手段制裁苏联。7O年代又是苏联盛极丽衰的年代。1978年苏联军费开支已达到世界首位，高出美国20％，军事上的疯狂增长与经济上的停滞后退使其成为“泥足巨人 ，更加迫切地希望发展与美国的经济关系。勃列日涅夫打出 缓和物质化 的旗号，提出以军事缓和与经济合作来补充政治缓和，将发展美苏经济关系作为政治合作的前提。提出 应该最迅速地和最充分地使两国经济合作的潜力变为现实 。虽然这一时期美国对苏制裁已经升级，但1977年10月到l978年9月，苏联仍从美国进口了1 480万吨谷物，l979年粮食贸易颧更是达23亿美元之多．大大超过了l975年协定规定的每年600 800万吨的数额。而同年美国也从苏联进口了价值5．48亿美元的黄金和2．54亿美元的其它商品。然而，现实的情况是美苏战略力量对比再次朝着有利于美国的方向发展，美国已越来越倾向于运用制裁方式来处理美苏经济关系了．随着阿富汗事件的爆发，美国对苏联实施大规模经济制裁，新冷战掀起了高潮。二、从新冷战到新缓和这一阶段的时间范围大致从70年代末到l991年苏联解体．美苏经济关系的基本态势呈现出与冷战前期相似的形式，即从由热转冷，到由冷转热。但是，国际经济大环境和美苏国内经济状况第4期 牛笑风：拎战时期美苏经济关系的演进 87的重大变化，构成美苏经济关系新的背景，无论高压遏制还是诱压结合都不能阻止经济交往的潮流，发展经济关系已成为解决其它一切问题的前提和关键。1979年起美苏经济关系大幅降温，此后直到80年代上半期，一直停留在一个较低的水平上。其根本原因在于美苏力量对比的实质性变化，美国重新取得优势，再次发动对苏联的全面攻势．经济攻势范围之广 经济武器 力量之强前所未有。新科学技术革命的迅猛发展极大地推动了美国经济，虽然经济发展仍然面临诸多困难，经济实力相对衰落，但国内经济发展总体向好趋势已经形成。由于对苏经济缓和的结果和初衰大相径庭，于是美国再次调整对苏经济战略。1980年1月， 卡特主义 出台，成为新经济遏制战略的信号，接着，里根政府又推出耗资上万亿美元的 星球大战计划 ．它是美国全球称霸政治与强大的综合国力相结合的产物，具有军事上和经济上的双重意义，它在把军备竞赛引入太空的同时．也将对苏经济关系推向低谷。从长远的角度看，它在经济上对苏联的战略反制作用更大． 与战后初期的经济遏钼战略相比，这一时期美国对苏经济遏制达到新的高峰，改变了7O年代以来的 诱导式经济外交 的缓和方针，实行 高压式经济外交 ，将经济打击目标重新对准苏联：把技术转让限制作为基本国策，建立起 类巴统管制 、 第三国合作体系 ，扩大限制范围；对苏实行 无例外政策 ，采取多种钼裁手段加剧其国内经济困难。苏联8O年代经济衰退加速，经济日趋困难。按美国中央情报局等西方机构估计．1981年苏联国民生产总值增长率仅为1％．在世界国民生产总值中所占的份额从1970年的1 5．9％ 降到1980年的l】．6％．n D1l ”科学技术总体水平与美国差距持续扩大，8O年代中期在民用生产的新技术利用方面落后美国近2O年．综合国力不及美国一半。在现实的力量对比面前，苏联对美转入战略守势．经济上更是采取低姿态，希望借助美国援助来摆脱经济困境．但这只是一厢情愿．1979年底以后美国对苏联实施大规模经济制裁，包括单方面停止履行已经批准的一批 例外 出口协定：除1975年协定规定外，不再支付苏联另外定购的1 700万吨粮食；停止尖端技术和战略物品许可证出口．冻结价值1．55亿美元的对苏高级技术项目的出口申请；严格限钼苏联在美国水域的捕鱼权等等．双方经济关系骤然降温，贸易额由1979年的44．77亿美元锐减至1980年的19．63亿美元．此后，美国又不断扩大钼裁范围，如推迟双方长期谷物协定谈判；对苏实行石油、天然气禁运；要求一切在国外的美国子公司包括使用美国专利生产的外国公司对苏实行石油 天然气 备禁运⋯⋯直至下令抵钼莫斯科奥运会。强硬到极点。冷战时代的最后一次转折出现在80年代中期．1985年11月里根和戈尔巴乔夫首次会晤，标志新一轮缓和的开始．新缓和是美苏两国综合国力长期争斗的结果，也是当代和平和发展两大潮流推动的结果．80年代以来，国际角逐的主战场已从军事领域转移到经济顿域，处理国与国之鸸关系的方式和手段不再是以军事、政治、意识形态的对抗为主，而是以发展经济、文化等交流合作为主．美国在这个时期再次拥有优势。在信息革命的大力推动下，美国经济逐渐积累起实质性变化的基础，率先进入知识经济时代。但困难与问题也很多，尤其是此前的经济遏制战略未见大的成效，反而使财政、贸易赤字和债务不断增加，国际经济地位严重削弱． 但它的问题远不如其对手苏联严重，是相对衰落中占据‘第一 的问题． _】【5 里根政府全面总结了以往对苏经济战略，认为僵硬对抗、高压遏制和盲目发展对苏经济关系以换取其克钼退让都是不可取的。于是一种貌似折衷的。诱压结合 的经济外交方针取而代之． 诱压结合 的主要内容是：利用发展经济关系为诱饵，同时附加政治、军事、文化、意识形态等各种条件，迫使苏联全面退却，最终使其政治、经济体制和意识形态全面倒向西方．1989年5月，布什政府推出 超越遏制战略 ，对战后四十余年的对苏政策作了显著调整，公开提出美国现在的目标远不仅仅是限制苏联的扩张．而是使 苏联重新成为国际社会的一员 ． 由此可见， 超越遏制战略 并不是超越了经济遏制，而是实际遏制、彻底遏制、最终遏制，直至实现和平演变． 因此无论是里根第二任期还是布什时期，美国的援苏计划多为 口惠而实不至 ，并常附带诸如削减军备．建立资本主义市场体系、推进政治的西方民主化、改变对持不同政见者的88 宁波大学学报(人文科学版) 2001燕政策以及民族政策等等条件，几乎包括苏联对内对外政策的所有方面．对此美国国务卿贝克直盲不讳： 直到有迹象表明苏联已经进行了民主和自由市场经济改革之后，华盛顿才会不再阻止对苏联的经济援助 ．而戈尔巴乔夫时期的苏联，经济衰退到崩溃的边缘．国民收人持续负增长，1990年达到3％．而同期通货膨胀率却高达86％。据西方材料，1990年苏联国民生产总值已降到只及美国的1，3～l，4。” ”” 严峻的形势迫使苏联将主要注意力转向国内经济，并前所未有地把希望寄托在美国等西方国家的经济援助上．作为新的外交战略的理论依据．戈尔巴乔夫提出对外关系 新思维 ，完成了苏联外交史上第三次重大改变，结束了赫鲁晓夫以来的 争霹外交 ，开始进人一个新的同时也是最后一个时期。 新思维 外交战略的首要任务是为国内经济建设创造和平的国际环境。以垒面收缩、放弃对抗换取美国的经济援助．新缓和时期。美苏经济关系有了实质性进展。在1989年老布什和戈尔巴乔夫会晤中破天荒地讨论了苏联的经济困难，美国表示愿意提供经济援助，并同意给予苏联最惠国待遇．支持苏以观察员身份参加关贸总协定．并调整了对苏贸易政策：延长经济、工业和技术合作协定；举行副部长级贸易会谈；重组美苏商业委员会：提供各种贷款和紧急援助等等．双方从缓和对话进而建立起某种台作和 伙伴关系 。贸易颧也有较大回升。到1989年底增至55亿美元．然而，伴随经济关系的不断缓和。一边是美国的垒方位步步紧逼，一边是苏联的节节退让。美援并未挽救苏联经济的崩溃，反而戒了一剂鸦片，在苏联的制度演变和国家解体过程中起了致命的作用。1991年底，'苏联解体了，冷战结束了，经济冷战也随之结束了．由于一个对手的突然退出．冷战的结束比它的开始更为突兀。然而正如汤因比所言： 敌对状态的结束远不是故事的终结 ．它留给人们的思索和启迪是远比过程更为重要的东西。