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Isaac NewtonFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently Such users may discuss changes, request unprotection, log in, or create an Sir Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newton at 46 in Godfrey Kneller's 1689 portraitBorn 4 January 1643 [OS: 25 December 1642][1]Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, Lincolnshire, EnglandDied 31 March 1727 [OS: 20 March 1727][1]Kensington, London, EnglandOccupation Physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopherSir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and natural philosopher, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of [2] His treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural The unifying and predictive power of his laws was integral to the scientific revolution, the advancement of heliocentrism, and the broader acceptance of the notion that rational investigation can reveal the inner workings of In mechanics, Newton also markedly enunciated the principles of conservation of momentum and angular In optics, he invented the reflecting telescope and discovered that the spectrum of colors observed when white light passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as Roger Bacon had claimed in the thirteenth century) Newton notably argued that light is composed of He also formulated an empirical law of cooling, studied the speed of sound, and proposed a theory of the origin of In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of He also demonstrated the generalized binomial theorem, developed the so-called "Newton's method" for approximating the zeroes of a function, and contributed to the study of power French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that he was also "the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to "[3] English poet Alexander Pope was moved by Newton's accomplishments to write the famous epitaph:“ Nature and nature's laws lay hid in night;God said "Let Newton be" and all was ”Contents[hide] * 1 Biography o 1 Early years o 2 Middle years + 1 Mathematics + 2 Optics + 3 Mechanics and Gravitation o 3 Later life * 2 Religious views o 1 Newton's effect on religious thought * 3 Newton and the counterfeiters * 4 Enlightenment philosophers * 5 Newton's laws of motion * 6 Newton's apple * 7 Writings by Newton * 8 See also * 9 Footnotes and references * 10 Resources o 1 References o 2 Further reading * 11 External linksBiographyThe life ofIsaac NewtonEarly lifeMiddle yearsLater lifeWriting PrincipiaReligious viewsOccult studiesEarly years Main article: Isaac Newton's early life and achievementsNewton was born at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, a hamlet in the county of L He was born to a family of farmers who owned animals and land, thus making them fairly The location he was born at was about seven miles from Grantham, where he later attended By his own later accounts, Newton was born prematurely and no one expected him to live; his mother Hannah Ayscough said that his body at that time could have fit inside a quart His father, also named Isaac Newton, had been a yeoman farmer and had died three months before Newton's birth, at the time of the English Civil W When Newton was three, his mother remarried and went to live with her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery AAccording to ET Bell and H Eves: Newton began his schooling in the village schools and was later sent to The King's School, Grantham, where he became the top boy in the At Kings, he lodged with the local apothecary, William Clarke and eventually became engaged to the apothecary's stepdaughter, Anne Storey, before he went off to Cambridge University at the age of As Newton became engrossed in his studies, the romance cooled and Miss Storey married someone It is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but Newton had no other recorded "sweet-hearts" and never [4]However, Bell and Eves' sources for this claim, William Stukeley and M Vincent (the former Miss Storey - actually named Katherine, not Anne), merely say that Newton entertained "a passion" for Storey while he lodged at the Clarke From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill) He was removed from school, and by October 1659, he was to be found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother attempted to make a farmer of He was, by later reports of his contemporaries, thoroughly unhappy with the It appears to be Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, who persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his This he did at the age of eighteen, achieving an admirable final In June 1661, he was admitted to Trinity College, C At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of Aristotle, but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers such as Descartes and astronomers such as Galileo, Copernicus and K In 1665, he discovered the generalized binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in 1665, the University closed down as a precaution against the Great P For the next 18 months Newton worked at home on calculus, optics and the law of Middle years Main article: Isaac Newton's middle yearsIsaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K Famous Men of S NY: Thomas Y Crowell & C, 1889)Isaac Newton (Bolton, Sarah K Famous Men of S NY: Thomas Y Crowell & C, 1889)MathematicsNewton and Gottfried Leibniz developed calculus independently, using their own unique Although Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, he published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until Meanwhile, Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in Moreover, Leibniz's notation and "differential Method" were universally adopted on the Continent, and after 1820 or so, in the British E Newton claimed that he had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared being mocked for Starting in 1699, other members of the Royal Society accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in Thus began the bitter calculus priority dispute with Leibniz, which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in This dispute created a divide between British and Continental mathematicians that may have retarded the progress of British mathematics by at least a Newton is generally credited with the generalized binomial theorem, valid for any He discovered Newton's identities, Newton's method, classified cubic plane curves (polynomials of degree three in two variables), made substantial contributions to the theory of finite differences, and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to Diophantine He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power He also discovered a new formula for He was elected Lucasian professor of mathematics in In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or Oxford had to be an ordained Anglican However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder not be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science) Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was needed, accepted this Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was OpticsFrom 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the Royal SA replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the Royal SHe also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties, by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same Thus the colours we observe are the result of how objects interact with the incident already-coloured light, not the result of objects generating the For more details, see Newton's theory of From this work he concluded that any refracting telescope would suffer from the dispersion of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today known as a Newtonian telescope) to bypass that By grinding his own mirrors, using Newton's rings to judge the quality of the optics for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the In 1671 the Royal Society asked for a demonstration of his reflecting Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his O When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public The two men remained enemies until Hooke's Newton argued that light is composed of particles, but he had to associate them with waves to explain the diffraction of light (Opticks B II, P XII-L) Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for Today's quantum mechanics restores the idea of "wave-particle duality", although photons bear very little resemblance to Newton's corpuscles (, corpuscles refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium)In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between The contact with the theosophist Henry More, revived his interest in He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that "Newton was not the first of the age of reason: he was the last of the "[5] Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to [6] (This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and ) Had he not relied on the occult idea of action at a distance, across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of (See also Isaac Newton's occult )In 1704 Newton wrote Opticks, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another,and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?"[7] Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional electrostatic generator, using a glass globe (Optics, 8th Query)Mechanics and GravitationNewton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second Further information: The writing of Principia MathematicaIn 1679, Newton returned to his work on mechanics, , gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets, with reference to Kepler's laws of motion, and consulting with Hooke and Flamsteed on the He published his results in De Motu Corporum (1684) This contained the beginnings of the laws of motion that would inform the PThe Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (now known as the Principia) was published on July 5, 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Edmond H In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred He used the Latin word gravitas (weight) for the force that would become known as gravity, and defined the law of universal In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on Boyle's law, of the speed of sound in With the Principia, Newton became internationally He acquired a circle of admirers, including the Swiss-born mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until The end of this friendship led Newton to a nervous Later life For more details on this topic, see Isaac Newton's later Isaac Newton in 1712Isaac Newton in 1712In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the B Henry More's belief in the universe and rejection of Cartesian dualism may have influenced Newton's religious A manuscript he sent to John Locke in which he disputed the existence of the Trinity was never Later works — The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728) and Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of S John (1733) — were published after his He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above)Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but his only recorded comments were to complain about a cold draft in the chamber and request that the window be Newton moved to London to take up the post of warden of the Royal Mint in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the E He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Master Lucas (and finagling Edmond Halley into the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch) Newton became perhaps the best-known Master of the Mint upon Lucas' death in 1699, a position Newton held until his These appointments were intended as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retiring from his Cambridge duties in 1701, and exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and As Master of the Mint in 1717 Newton unofficially moved the Pound Sterling from the silver standard to the gold standard by creating a relationship between gold coins and the silver penny in the "Law of Queen Anne"; these were all great reforms at the time, adding considerably to the wealth and stability of E It was his work at the Mint, rather than his earlier contributions to science, that earned him a knighthood from Queen Anne in Newton's grave in Westminster AbbeyNewton's grave in Westminster AbbeyNewton was made President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French Académie des S In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal, by prematurely publishing Flamsteed's star catalogue, which Newton had used in his Newton died in London on March 20th, 1727, and was buried in Westminster A His half-niece, Catherine Barton Conduitt,[8] served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on Jermyn Street in London; he was her "very loving Uncle",[9] according to his letter to her when she was recovering from Although Newton, who had no children, had divested much of his estate onto relatives in his last years he actually died His considerable liquid estate was divided equally between his eight half-nieces and half-nephews (three Pilkingtons, three Smiths and two Bartons (including Catherine Barton Conduitt)[10] Woolsthorpe Manor passed to his heir-in-law, a John Newton ("God knows a poor representative of so great a man"), who, after six years of "cock[fight]ing, horse racing, drinking and folly" was forced to mortgage and then sell the manor before dying in a drunken [11]After his death, Newton's body was discovered to have had massive amounts of mercury in it, probably resulting from his alchemical Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity in late [12]Religious views Main article: Isaac Newton's religious views See also: Isaac Newton's occult studiesAlthough the laws of motion and universal gravitation became Newton's best-known discoveries, he warned against using them to view the universe as a mere machine, as if akin to a great He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in God governs all things and knows all that is or can be "[13]His scientific fame notwithstanding, Newton's study of the Bible and of the early Church Fathers were among his greatest He devoted more time to the study of the Scriptures, the Fathers, and to Alchemy than to science, and said, "I have a fundamental belief in the Bible as the Word of God, written by those who were I study the Bible "[14] Newton himself wrote works on textual criticism, most notably An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of S Newton also placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ at 3 April, AD 33, which is now the accepted traditional He also attempted, unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible (See Bible code) Despite his focus on theology and alchemy, Newton tested and investigated these ideas with the scientific method, observing, hypothesising, and testing his To Newton, his scientific and religious experiments were one and the same, observing and understanding how the world Newton may have rejected the church's doctrine of the T In a minority view, TC Pfizenmaier argues that he more likely held the Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, and most P[15] In his own day, he was also accused of being a Rosicrucian (as were many in the Royal Society and in the court of Charles II)[16]In his own lifetime, Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the hylozoism implicit in Leibniz and Baruch S Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed universe could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason, but this universe, to be perfect and ordained, had to be Newton's effect on religious thought"Newton," by William Blake; here, Newton is depicted as a 'divine geome

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