英语句法学的论文

英语句法学的论文

随着对 英语 文化 学习的不断深入,随着英语重要地位的不断确立,英语语言学的研究工作也越来越深入。下文是我为大家整理的关于英语语言学论文 范文 参考的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!
关于英语语言学论文范文参考篇1
浅探英语语言学中的幽默话语

幽默是指在人类交际的过程中，能够引人发笑的话语、动作和表情等，其内容丰富多彩，表现形式多种多样，比例幽默话语、幽默动作、幽默音乐等等。因为人们的交际活动多依赖于语言，所以幽默也多来源于话语当中。

一、英语语言学中的幽默话语

在繁忙的生活中，幽默是一剂强力润滑剂。幽默话语是借助于语言手段来表述幽默的。它是以语言为媒介，根据特定的情境下，以轻松诙谐的语调，机智、风趣、戏谑的话语风格，通过讽刺、夸张、映射、双关等手法，来表达话语者自己的思想和观点，并使受话者不知不觉地接受，达到“随风潜入夜，润物细无声”的效果和境界。幽默话语往往带有一些意味深长的色彩，对揭露生活中的丑恶或不公平现象，还可以起到发人深省的作用。而对于受话者来说，要把话语和当时具体的语境线索结合起来，利用自己既有的语言知识和社会认知，去发现说话者的言外之意和要表达的真实意图，才能真正的理解幽默，并从中获得愉悦。

例如，“Mr Zhou have a sharp tongue，look out，it doesn’t cut your throat.”这句话看起来是像是在说舌头，但是，我们把这句话放到语境中，就可以想到，这里的“a sharp tongue”并不是什么锋利的舌头，而是牙尖嘴利、毒舌的意思，是发话者幽默、含蓄、间接的表达方式。

二、幽默话语与合作原则

(一)合作原则

胡范畴认为，所谓幽默话语是语言的各要素通过变异和创造而出来的。而美国语言哲学家Grice则认为，幽默话语的作用是为了确保交际活动顺利进行。Grice认为，在人们运用语言进行交际时，交际的双方(发话者和受话者)还要遵守一些先决条件和原则，例如使用双方都能熟练运用的语言、交谈内容是双方都熟悉的话题，还有最重要的合作原则(cooperative principle，CP)。合作原则包括四个范畴，即数量准则、质量准则、关联准则和方式准则。在合作原则下，要求发话者和受话者者要端正态度，在谈话中做到“一唱一和”，避免造成“鸡同鸭讲”“话不投机半句多”的情况。

(二)合作原则与幽默话语的关系

如果说要遵循“数量准则、质量准则、关联准则和方式准则”的合作原则是一位西装革履、步态稳健的中年人，那么幽默话语就是一位穿着休闲时尚、语态随意轻松的新新人类。合作原则与幽默话语的结合，就是传统沉稳美与时尚活力没的结合，在这种结合中，传统的合作原则难免要接受新的挑战，甚至在一定程度上被打破。以下，本文以数量准则和质量准则为例，对合作原则与幽默话语进行举例分析。

(1)幽默话语与数量准则

合作原则之质量准则要求说话者和听话者之间交谈的内容要包含适当的信息量。但是在实际的语言环境中，我们常常需要打破这一数量原则，来起到幽默话语的喜剧效果。例如：

Jack：I saw Mr Green having lunch with a woman the day before yesterday.

Eason：Oh my god!Is she beautiful?

Jack：Yes，she is not only beautiful，but also young.

Eason：Dose Mrs Green know about it?

Jack：Of was the young and beautiful woman.

在这段对话中，Eason理解的和Mr Green共进午餐的年轻貌美的女人应该是除了Mrs Green以外的其他女人，同时也不是Mr Green家里的其他女性亲戚。而Jack如果不想引起误会的话，应该直接说他前天看到Mr Green和Mrs Green共进午餐，但是为了引起Eason的好奇心，促使他进一步追问，就在第一句话中只说看到Mr Green与一位女性共进午餐，这虽然是违反了数量准则的，但也就此产生体现了幽默话语的有趣、逗乐原则。而Eason心理期待与实际情况之间的落差导致其认知的突然重构，给交谈双方带来乐趣，达到愉悦和反讽的效果。

(2)幽默话语与质量准则

合作原则之质量准则要求说话者不说自知是虚假的话，不说无稽之谈，但是在幽默话语中，说话者经常会采用诸如反语、夸张的休息手法。这样虽然会打破“质量准则”，但是带来的幽默效果也是非常显著的。在上世纪90年代即被引入中国并风靡十几年的美国NBC情景剧《老友记》中就存在很多这样的例子。例如：

Phoebe：You do not want to wine the lottery?

Rose：Uh surely I do，and I want to be the king of my own country.

通过思考并分析这段对话，我们得出Phoebe问Rose，你是否对有意买彩票，有没有兴趣去试一下自己的运气，通过片中的特点情景和人物关系，我们可以看出Rose对彩票不感兴趣，但是她没有直接了当的说“没兴趣”，而是采用了幽默话语说“想啊，我当然想，我还想当国家元首呢。”因为一个平民是几乎没有可能成为国家元首的，所以Rose的话语是违背了质量准则的。但是，这种“有意违背”和“夸大其词”正是这段对话的笑点所在。

三、幽默话语与指称语

指称语(indexicals)就是具有指称功能的语言结构形式，是日常生活中常见的语言现象。是发话人与受话人，在共同的知识环境、语言环境下，可以彼此理解的，映射出话语的，潜在的指称义和指称关系。当指称语所指示的信息不明确或者出现谬误，发话人的意思就是变得令人费解，幽默话语很可能就此产生。同时，指称语还受到人文背景、社会文化、交际距离、环境等多种因素的影响。指称语可以分为人称指称语、时间指称语、地点指称语等等，其中以人称指称语最为常见。我本文就以人称指称语为例，幽默话语和指称语之间的关系。

人称指称语可以分为第一人称、第二人称和第三人称，是对话参与者角色关系的客观体现。第一人称是发话人、第二人称是受话人、第三人称是话语谈及的对象。在话语中，如果这种规则被打破，就会出现人称指称语不相对应的现象，可能会起到幽默效果。例如：

Jim was down the local pub with his mate Mark.

Jim：Do you know，Mark，I never kissed my wife before we were about you?”

Mark：I don’t know，What was her maiden name?”

这段对话是Jim与Mark之间的酒后之言。Jim的提问，真正的意思是“Have you ever kissed your wife before you were married?” 在指称语中，第二人称是针对受话人而言的，谈及的是隐私或伤痛，所以受话人Mark就采用了幽默话语来回避问题，轻描淡写地将这一问题带过去了，其机智幽默值得我们参照和学习。

四、关联理论与幽默话语

从关联理论的角度来看，受话者会故意曲解发话者的意图，到处与发话者截然相反的信息，产生意外的幽默效果。例如：

Teacher：Tom，there were three peaches，ate one，how many would you have?

Tom：Three，tow outside and one inside.

Tom作为孩子，其对事物的思考方式不同于成人，因为无法认清老师出题的意图，而给出出人意料的答案，起到了幽默的效果。

结语：

从上述讨论中，我们可以看出，在不同语境中，人们会对对话意义、指称语、 语言意义等的理解产生偏差或者错位。幽默话语具有深层次的、含蓄的、深沉的、巧妙的作用，避免交际中的尴尬或难堪，增强语言表达的效果，可以起到愉悦交流、点缀生活的作用。
关于英语语言学论文范文参考篇2
浅谈从建构主义角度探析英语语言学教学

21 世纪 教育 的基点是终身学习，是不断提出问题、解决问题的学习，是敢于打破狭隘的专业界限面向真实复杂任务的学习。在英语课程学习过程中，学生普遍认为英语语言学这门课更加的枯燥，无味和吃力。英语语言学课程涉及面广、内容多、概念多、理论多，理论性和实践性都很强;同时英语语言学课时少，而语言学的发展引起的教学内容不断扩充，暴露出和教学时数有限之间日益严重的矛盾。因而继续沿用传统的教学理念和教学模式进行教学已经不能适应新形势下的教学过程，必须用一种更好的教学方式，使学生和老师尽快适应新形势的要求。

随着建构主义学习理论的出现，提出了建构主义的教学设计。建构主义强调情境、协作、会话和意义建构四大要素，倡导以“学”为中心的理念。将建构主义的教学理论引入到英语语言学教学过程中，进行了许多有益的尝试，取得了显著的效果。

1 建构主义的四大要素

在 学习 方法 上建构主义提倡的是教师指导下的以学生为主体的学习,在学习环境上要求是开放的、充满意义解释和建构性的,理想的学习环境主要有情境、协作、会话和意义建构四大要素构成。

1.1“情境”：学习环境中的情境必须有利于学习者对所学内容的意义建构。这就意味着在建构主义学习环境下，要把为学生创设建构意义的情境问题看作是教学设计的主要内容之一。“在课堂教学中播放有助于理解教学内容的录像、录音、参与 社会实践 、向学生提供网络的丰富的学习资源等等，凡是有助于学习者理解掌握学习内容的情境，都属于情境创设的范畴。”

1.2“协作”：协作发生在学习过程的始终。协作在一定意义上是协商的意思。协商主要有自我协商和相互协商。

1.3“会话”：会话是协作过程中的不可缺少环节。学习小组成员之间通过会话来商讨如何完成规定的学习任务达到意义建构的目标，怎样更多地获得教师或他人的指导和帮助等等，推进学习进程。在会话的过程中，每个学习者的思维成果(智慧)为整个学习群体所共享 ，因此会话是达到意义建构的重要手段之一。

1.4“意义建构”：这是整个学习过程的最终目标。在学习过程中帮助学生建构意义就要帮助学生对当前学习的内容所反映事物的性质、规律以及该事物与其他事物之间的内在联系达到较深刻的理解。

2 建构主义环境下对英语语言学教学启示

2.1强调以学为中心的设计

在建构主义学习环境下，师生的地位、作用与传统的教学发生了很大的变化。学生由知识的被动接受者转变为信息加工的主体、知识意义的主动建构者。教师也不再是知识的灌输者，而是教学环境的设计者、学生学习的组织者和指导者、知识的管理者，是学生的学术顾问。因此，教师要从前台退到幕后，从“演员”转变为“导演”。在建构主义的语言学教学中，学习环境中要充分发挥学生的主动性，教师要为学生创设尽可能真实的情境去应用他们所学的知识。具体来说,英语英语语言学课程教学应该激发教学主体的主动性和积极性,强调教学任务的适合性和针对性,注重教学环境的互动性和趣味性。

2.2强调学习环境的设计

建构主义教学设计的重心便是学习环境的设计。这里的学习环境是一个支持和促进学习者自主探索、自主学习的场所。学习环境的设计应围绕支持学习者开展有意义的学习来创设支持条件。它主要包括基于问题的学习环境的设计、合作学习环境的设计、真实情境的设计等。建构主义学习环境的设计的宗旨是通过支持学习者的有意义学习，促进学习者的发展。

例如，在讲授语言的任意性时，不少学生对于语言中音和义之间没有必然的联系这一属性存在疑惑，原因是在语言中的确存在一些音和义有一定联系的语言现象，如拟声词，对于这种问题，教师可以在深入讲解之前，给学生布置一些任务，让他们课前收集英语中的拟声词，并让其与汉语中对应的拟声词相比较，然后以 报告 的形式在课上做出来，教师则在这一过程中起着引导、监督、组织的作用，在学生做完报告后，教师做出归纳 总结 。

2.3教学任务的适合性和针对性

语言教学中任务的设置必须以学生的实际情况为前提,任务太困难或太容易都不利于学生主动建构知识。在选择英语语言学课程教学内容时，应适当减少课堂教学内容的广度和深度。所选课堂教学内容如下:语言、语言学、语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学、二语习得、语言与文化。明确学习任务,选择训练方式,使学生有足够的机会进行练习。教师应懂得如何控制自己的情绪,并通过积极的语言来激励学生。应及时地对正确回答问题,出色完成学习任务的学生进行表扬。如:Well done!Very good!Good job! Excel lent!这些词语看似简单,却能给学生以信心和动力。同时,对学生的缺点和不足要多指导,少批评少责备。

3 建构主义的教学评价

建构主义评价观具有几个方面的特征。首先，诊断性和 反思 性是建构主义学习评价的重要组成部分。这就意味着，学习者必须从事自我监控、自我测试、自我检查等活动，以诊断和判断他们在学习中所追求的是否是自己设置的目标。其次，建构主义评价观认为评价是评价者和被评价者“协商”进行的共同心理建构过程，评价受“多元主义”价值观所支配。因此，建构主义注重评价主体的多元化和评价方式的多样化。再次，建构主义认为，评价是学习者活动过程中的一个必然组成部分，而不是教学后的评价，它是一个持续性和实时性的镶嵌过程。因此，建构主义强调过程性评价，倡导“质性”的方法。所谓过程性评价是在某项教学活动的过程中，为使活动效果更好而不断进行的评价，它能及时了解阶段教学的结果和学生学习的进展情况、存在问题等，以便及时反馈，及时调整和改进教学工作。可见，建构主义评价观提倡以学为中心的理念，更加关注学生的发展。

4 结束语

建构主义教学观为课堂教学提供了新模式,为习惯于被动式接受的学生阐释了学习的新理念,从而为英语语言学课堂的教与学带来了新的启示和体验。在英语语言学课堂教学中教授学习策略,引导学生自主学习及改进 教学方法 。这些方面有助于学生建构知识,形成能力。

参考文献

[1]陈莉.社会建构主义与外语教学[J].外语论坛, 2003(1).

[2]胡壮麟.对中国英语教育的若干思考[J].外语研究, 2002(3).

[3]盛群力、__强.现代教学设计论[M].浙江教育出版社，2000

英语歧义句研究的论文

英语歧义句研究的论文

摘要：在语言交流中，常常有人会因为歧义现象而造成误解；也有人因为很好地利用歧义句（AmbiguousSentence）而妙语连珠。从句法学的角度按照歧义的类型对歧义举例进行句法分析，以避免误解，更好地发挥歧义的积极作用。

关键词：英语歧义句；句法学

1英语歧义的类型

在生活中，人们主要通过语音，语调，语气，词汇，以及特定的语法结构（structure）等语言的不同层面来表达。因此，人们在语言的实际使用中，常常会在这些方面产生歧义现象。

英语中大家比较熟悉的歧义类型主要有五种：

（1）一词多义：Iwenttothebank.（银行/河岸）；

（2）词类不同：Pleasemakeherdressfast.（名词/动词）；

（3）层次不同：［beautiful（girl’sdress）］/［（beautifulgirl’s（dress）］；

（4）语法关系不同：Flyingplanescanbedangerous.（定语—中心语/述语—宾语）；

（5）语义关系不同：theshootingofthehunters（thehunters为shooting的施事/受事）。

歧义类型中的一词多义和不同的语义关系属于语义范畴，本文不作详论。这里，我们主要讨论：词类不同、层次不同、语法关系不同这三种歧义类型。

2英语歧义的句法分析

2.1词类不同的歧义类型

一个词兼属不同的词类叫兼类词。句子里有兼类词，句子就兼属不同的句式。这是引起这种类型歧义的主要原因。例如：

（1）Theywererelieved.

本例中relieved可以理解为两种词性：形容词“感到宽慰的”和被动形式的动词“被救济”。因此，句子就兼属不同的句式。翻译为：①“他们感到宽慰。”②“他们被救济。”

（2）Johnwasoffended.

同样，本例中offended可以理解为两种词性：形容词“感到生气的”和被动形式的动词“被冒犯”。因此，句子就兼属不同的句式。翻译为：①“约翰感到生气。”②“约翰被冒犯了。”

这种类型歧义比较容易理解和辨认，只要留意一个词在词类上的不同而引起的意义上的差异就可以。

2.2层次不同的歧义类型

结构层次不同就是直接成分（immediateconstituents）的划分不同。这类歧义在英语中最典型的主要有两种：偏正型和并列偏正型。借助树形图，识别这种歧义就不是很困难。

（1）偏正型。

偏正型主要是多个修饰成分与中心语的.不同划分而引起。

例如：Anoldman’sbicycle.

本例可以理解为：一辆老人的车。

树形图为：

（2）并列偏正型。

并列偏正型主要是并列成分与中心语之间修饰关系的不同划分而产生的歧义。

例如：oldmanandwomen.

本例可以理解为：老的男人和老的女人们，其结构关系为：［old（manandwomen）］；

本例又可以理解为：老人和女人们，其结构关系为：［（oldman）andwomen］。

又例如：Hisobjectisnottoeat.

本例可以理解为：他的目标是不要吃。其结构关系为：Hisobject［is（nottoeat）］.

本例又可以理解为：他的目标不是吃。其结构关系为：Hisobject［isnot（toeat）］.

2.3语法关系不同的歧义类型

所谓语法关系就是常说的主谓、述宾、偏正等结构关系。由于语法关系不同引起的常见歧义类型主要包括：

（1）述语—宾语/定语—中心语、述语—宾语结构与定语—中心语结构之间的混淆是结构方面引起歧义的主要类型之一。一个经典例子可以说明这一点。

例句：Flyingplanescanbedangerous.树形图为：

例句中Flyingplanes作“正在飞行的飞机”解释时是定语—中心语结构，可以理解为：“正在飞行的飞机是危险的。”

转贴于中国论文联盟中国论文联盟例句中Flyingplanes作“驾驶飞机”解释时是述语—宾语结构，可以理解为：“驾驶飞机是危险的。”

（2）述语—宾语/状语—中心语。

述语—宾语结构与状语—中心语结构之间的混淆可以由下面的例子加以说明。

例句：Thestatisticianstudiesthewholeyear.

树形图为：

例句中studiesthewholeyear作“一年到头进行研究”解释时是状语—中心语结构，可以理解为：“统计员一年到头进行研究。”中国论文联盟

（3）双宾语/宾语—补足语/同位语/定语—中心语。

下面举两例说明这些结构成分之间容易造成的歧义。

例句：TheycalledJohnateacher.

此例句有三种理解：

第一种，例句中John和ateacher之间作双宾语关系时，可以理解为：“他们为约翰叫了一位老师。”

第二种，例句中John和ateacher之间作宾语—补足语关系时，可以理解为：“他们称约翰是一位老师。”

树形图为：

另外，定语—中心语结构关系与宾语—补足语关系易造成的歧义混淆可以举下例说明。

例句：Johnhadabookstolenfromthelibrary.

此例句可以理解为：stolenfromthelibrary可以是abook的宾语补足语（had可以理解为sufferedthelossof）；stolenfromthelibrary也可以是abook定语（had可以理解为possess）。

3英语歧义句的应用

歧义现象只是客观的语言现象，它的效果主要取决于语言使用者的应用情况。英语歧义句的应用效果主要包括：无意识的消极应用和颇具匠心的巧妙运用。

日常生活中对歧义句的无意识的运用就可能带来一些消极的效果。生活中，我们在菜市场买猪肉时常常听到因为歧义而造成的误解。有的顾客说：“Boss，howmuchisyourpork?（老板，你的肉多少钱？）”老板反击道：“kisyourflesh.（你才是猪呢，这是你的肉。）”这里“yourpork”在所属上有两层解读：一是老板所拥有的猪肉；二是暗指这猪肉是老板身上的肉。英语歧义句也有其巧妙运用。人们常利用歧义的双关功能在一定的语境之中达到讽刺，幽默等修辞效果。

参考文献

［1］@AndrewRadford，Syntax：：CambridgeUniversityPress，2000，8.

［2］@Fromkin，V.&Rodman，k：Holt，RinehartandWinston，1983.

［3］@张克礼.英语歧义结构［M］.天津：南开大学出版社，1993.

［4］@谢莉洁.英语幽默中的双关［J］.河南纺织高等专科学校学报，2003：62.

［5］@沈家煊.英语中的歧义类型［J］.现代外语，1985，（1）：26-351.

［6］@李国南.双关语翻译初探［J］.外国语，1988，（1）：60-65.

法律方面的英语论文

The theory of criminal law of shallow understanding errors
1. irrtumslehre
Legal irrtumslehre, namely, refers to the illegality mistake for own behavior in law, whether what crime constitutes a crime shall be punished by, or what is wrong, is to oneself the legal nature of the action of meaning or misunderstandings. Legal irrtumslehre usually includes three conditions: (1) the actor's behavior in law does not constitute a crime, the offender and constitutes a crime for which imaginary guilty, (2) the behavior in law constitutes a crime and does not constitute a crime, the offender mistaken assumptions that innocent, (3) for his act constitutes a crime shall be convicted and punishment in light of the existing errors, misunderstanding or punishment. Due to the legal irrtumslehre, only to the behavior of the offender is not correct understanding of the legal assessment, and for their actions in fact correct understanding of the situation is still there, so its act constitutes a crime shall be investigated for criminal responsibility is and how it is not usually occurs.
（1）Imaginary innocent treatment principle
The principles for imaginary innocence, whether it involves a deliberately elements. Foreign criminal law theory basically has the following kinds:
1）Should know that don't speak, just for criminal facts have understanding. Canada criminal code article 19 regulation: "the ignorance of the law excuses and crime can be ShuZui reason." Motto: "Roman law and legal disclaimer" somehow also expressed a principle, namely: "in the crime as subjective FanYi established condition, not request to recognize his behavior of richtswitrig".
2）Should know the reason, according to two: moral responsibility theory, personality responsibility theory. Moral responsibility theory emphasizes on the rationality of free will blame illegal conduct, is considered to be objective stance.
3）That said, the possible illegality of responsibility for deliberately, at least to the possibility of understanding illegality. While in China mainland, the introduction of the concept of crime has another concept -- social consciousness that harm to discuss richtswitrig already meaningless. Because the deliberate crime according to law condemn the illegality of the offender is not known, the law itself is not damaged, the law of the social consciousness is harm. Social harm consciousness is the essential contents of the crime, illegal consciousness is the legal form of social consciousness. Therefore, our country law more emphasis is on the rationality of essence, which is harmful to the society values.
Just because of its social harmfulness, with a social moral evaluation colour, easier for people to grasp and observe. Therefore, the author thinks that, in general, the person need to recognize his behavior may be the result of inevitable or harmful to the society, and has already know. With intentionally But in fact, the forbidden by law and mass that is harmful to the society in our country nowadays the behavior under the constitution should be consistent, in other words, know the social harmfulness also know the possibility of illegal, but know the possibility of illegal is inevitable should also realize social harmfulness, both are unified. Therefore, it is generally thought that the law is no excuse, the reason of law does not exclude the misunderstanding in principle, but can be culpable for deliberately discretion.
（2） Misunderstandings treatment principle. Punishment
We might as well so the essence of blame for his due: the crime in the subjective should blame or blame, for the intent or negligence performance. If the offender because of misunderstanding that legal person feels very innocent, lack of this should blame or condemning sexual, from the fundamental measure, blame is absolutely not consider disclaimer. Especially in the modern society, the legal category SAN marino, legal entry in different fields and different levels of books, recognized, comprehend legal apparently endless and same, so the person of law and misunderstandings, not inexcusable. Now, both in theory and practice, the method not cling to forgive "seems to have in shake. Therefore, to a certain extent, can also think admits exceptions excusable is legal misunderstanding of criminal law is an important symbol of humanity. In addition, it was not in the act of which is prohibited by the laws and regulations, especially after a circumstance, should have knowledge of richtswitrig actor, constitute the understanding of deliberate point of view, with the attitude of this understanding, of course, that is not the illegality or by the simple statement actor. The author thinks that the only when the legal establishment of may, FangKeZu but intentionally.
2. The fact mistake
That mistake, is to determine its subjective behavior nature and the criminal responsibility of the relevant facts wrong understanding. From the wrong reasons and phenomenon of angles, generally known that there are several mistakes:
（1） Object irrtumslehre
The object is known for errors, whether there is objectively error object. It includes actor in the implementation of the existing criminal behavior of the hazards for the object and actually does not exist, or for criminal object and actually does not exist, or infringe a criminal object and actually invaded another crime object. The object of objects is usually known errors caused by mistake, but the object of different social relationship reflects different. Evil doer of objects and actual expected in fact not only harm object does not agree, and in the nature of law is not consistent. Therefore, the object irrtumslehre may affect the form of sin, crime accomplishment, and may even attempted to influence the crime. For example, in view of the circumstances, not a thought before the enemy, and a party came to stick, afterwards just know the ox was wounded. A thought of damage is "people", and the actual wounded is "cow", do not belong to the same laws of the object. Similar situation and will generally be mistaken for drug trafficking items, Actor will stolen items in the theft of guns in stealing together. This object from the subjective errors, see, is a kind of mistake, From the objective, because the mistake crime to no avail, where the criminal attempted belongs.
1）Object mistake
Objects can be generalized mistake, including object mistake to belong to the object know mistake is inevitable object irrtumslehre. These include, is known to be wrong object of legal property of the same object mistake and legal properties of different objects, namely the object irrtumslehre irrtumslehre. In order to distinguish with the object mistake here, the cognition to the same object only mean error between the different objects, namely the misunderstanding of the evil doer expected objects and actual harm to the object, but not in fact in the legal nature of the same situation. This object mistake again say things on purpose mistake not criminal responsibility. As a reserve, killing b shall be killed as b and c, do not affect a rap. This is the need to consider that a kill b behavior "mistake" cause others (c), belong to an intentional crime (b) "death", for the excess result, according to the results, which determine the ordinary mail of death was deliberately recognized for deliberately, to the death of the fault is propylene, identified as negligence, according to the intention or negligence of the general mark recognized FanYi or state of mind, not applicable rules of the mistake.
2） Behavior irrtumslehre
Behavior mainly includes two kind of mistake: first, the behavior nature irrtumslehre. That actor has to its social harm nature, such as understanding not imaginary defense. Behavior nature mistake might affect the form of sin, and may also affect crime. Second, the behavior tools (methods) irrtumslehre. That person to use when the conduct of tool (methods), which affects not correct understanding of harm results, behavior tools (methods) mistake can affect crime or attempted was founded, also can affect crime or belongs to the incident, a typical for murder on hazardous substances, because the drug failure and failed to kill people, can think method or tools for error doer of consciousness beyond reason not to succeed. And as actor see armour, second coming together, hence shot to play, but can't hit by the party and. Look, this is from the phenomenon of an object, or the final results for the mistake, but this error is based on the fact that the wrong doer identify offender is carefully identify to begin, can think recognize is accurate, errors in ChaWu itself. The solution to this situation, "said", its legal with qualitative and recognize wrong object is consistent, namely directly recognized as an intentional homicide accomplishment. The death of a person is directly intentionally to b, death is the indirect intentional, just for a to b is attempted, accomplished. Additionally, if in daily life because misidentification object and damage of consequences, the crime itself is not just any criminal negligence because of problems.
3)Causality irrtumslehre
Causality mistake, is on his behavior and harmful results of actual connection between errors. Generally include: first, not some harm result, as has happened actor. This generally constitute a crime. Second, has certain harm result, but not for actor or for his behavior is caused, and does not affect crime accomplishment. Third, really happened, the offender is aware of its behavior, but with the actual development between the harm to the process or a mistake, general to punish crime accomplishment. In theory, the offender is not only a crime, but continuous movement, this several continuous action is not a few crime, but a crime. In this sense, doesn't exist on the results of the sack.
irrtumslehre and facts mistake and procedures
Domestic scholars in fact know mistakes and errors between the issue legal representative views mainly include:
（1）For own behavior whether in law constitutes a crime, criminal or what kind of criminal punishment shall be under the incorrect understanding is legal irrtumslehre for his behavior on the implementation of the incorrect understanding is the fact that mistake,
（2）The objectivity of crime is a false understanding of crime, that mistake of objective facts have clear understanding, only to act in the evaluation of existing laws on the concept of law is not correct mistakes。
（3）Actor known facts and actual fact don't agree is wrong, the person that judgment and objective law is law of illegal inconsistency errors.
These ideas basically could in theory and legal irrtumslehre fact distinguish mistakes, it is important to emphasize that：
1) With the conviction that the so-called irrelevant, as this mistake to hit each other, the shooting head caused the death of heart, without vision of research into our.
2) Study of the theory of error, error occurs when the purpose, but whether to intentionally resistance, reduce plots affected only the wrong cognition, natural sentencing nor will it into the error theory category.
3) This does not constitute a crime and actor for crime, and for their behavior in the criminal law on the crimes and how to apply for criminal punishment on such specific knowledge error, conviction according to law. Based on this, the author thinks that, at the fact that criminal law is only to know wrong doer of elements to know the so-called objective facts constituents of mistake is the fact that the legal irrtumslehre error refers to the legal action is illegal and the evaluation of the mistake. From the theory of facts and legal irrtumslehre error, but the problem is in the law, criminal elements to the facts and law closely combined circumstances (like some administrative crimes and economic crimes), or is in a fact itself contains certain laws of evaluation content, to distinguish with a mistake is the fact that mistake or legal wrong, is often difficult. If the property of his humanity and obscenity obscenity, administrative rules and regulations, JinYuOu, disrupt public until its precondition of the legitimacy of the public, and legal irrtumslehre facts wrong intertwined, and this is what we distinguish facts and legal irrtumslehre errors will solve the problem.
In some cases, the defendant should know that because of the lack of knowledge, and not to the behavior of social harmfulness, so that the defendant is not "knowledge they will entail harmful consequences to society, and hope or allows such results" and deliberate crime, the burden of proof is only FanYi prosecution, in addition, prosecution without proof the defendant not normal, but normal mental and spiritual normal presumption defendant directly if the defendant that his spirit is not normal, it shall provide necessary evidence by himself to prove. Thus, the author, on legal irrtumslehre processing, can adopt the presumption of ways to handle. Which country presumption every normal citizens are known, unless the law can put forward defense "advantage prove" above, or the evidence rebut these presumption is established. From the efficiency of lawsuit, said the country is impossible to prove the defendant is known of the law.