关于无形资产侵权的论文参考文献

一、无形资产的概念 “无形资产”这一术语，在不同的学科，不同应用环境中，有不同的定义。我国《企业会计准则--无形资产》中将无形资产定义为：“企业为生产商品、提供劳务、出租给他人，或为管理目的而持有的、没有实物形态的非货币性长期资产”。[1]此定义与国际会计准则第38号[2]的定义基本一致，所不同的是国际会计准则将商誉排除在外，而我国会计准则则包括商誉。但国际会计准则第22号----企业合并[3]中，对商誉的会计处理作了规定，也就是说国际会计准则实际上也认为商誉是可以确认的，美国正在修订中的无形资产准则则将商誉作为无形资产的一种。 我国《资产评估准则--无形资产》中将无形资产定义为：“特定主体控制的，不具有实物形态，对生产经营长期发挥作用且能带来经济利益的资源。”[4]并且也将商誉作为无形资产的一种。《国际评估准则--国际评估指南四--无形资产》中的无形资产定义为：“无形资产是以其经济特性而显示其存在的一种资产，无形资产无具体的物理形态，但为其拥有者获取了权益和特权，而且通常为其拥有者带来收益。”[5]它也将商誉列作无形资产的一种。 在会计准则中，主要从会计确认、计量和报告角度来界定无形资产。一般认为财务会计报告应提供会计主体各项资产的可用资源的信息，那么，对无形资产这一特定资产进行单独计价就是必须的。但是，由于无形资产的未来效益有极大的不确定性，而且缺乏活跃的市场，则可行的计量属性应是历史成本，或是根据一般购买力变动进行调整后的成本。这就要求必须要有交易或事项的发生，并且每项无形资产的成本能够单独辨认，所以会计上单独确认的单项无形资产必须是可辨认的。对于商誉，只能在企业整体转让时，也就是有交易发生且成本可以可靠计量时才可能确认。这样，在国际评估准则中明确提到的关系类无形资产，如工作人员的组合，与顾客的关系等则不能作为无形资产在会计上单独确认。这种关系类的无形资产是非契约性的，短期存在的，难以控制的，我国从谨慎的角度出发，在资产评估准则中将无形资产限定在长期发挥作用的范围内，会计准则将无形资产也限定为长期资产，可以说都将关系类无形资产排除在外。理论上讲，资产的价值在于其未来的经济利益，有形资产的取得成本可认为是对该资产未来经济利益流入的现值的现时估计。无形资产尤其是自创无形资产，由于其取得支出是长期的、不易确指的，会计上只把一小部分认定为取得成本，因此，取得成本与其未来的经济利益是弱相关的。而会计上又是以取得成本来计量无形资产的，很多情况下是低估了无形资产。因此，借助于科学的无形资产评估，对会计确认的无形资产进行调整在理论上是必要的。 资产评估准则侧重于强调无形资产的未来经济利益，而并不注重其取得成本是否可确指。尽管评估无形资产有时可采用成本法，但一般认为成本与无形资产的价值在多数情况下是不相关的。资产评估准则对无形资产的定义更接近于其经济学中的含义。在经济方面而言，无形资产是某类价值的代表。这种价值是企业盈利的剩余(即，所得利益超过其资本应得的利息及企业家应得的报酬的部分)。按照一定的利率折现后的现值。它强调的是无形资产能够带来超额收益，而不去区分它能否单独辨认。 上述种种关于无形资产的阐释，各有所侧重，各自考虑本学科的特点，无所谓孰是孰非。从资产评估角度来说，有两个主要问题需要解决：第一，什么样的经济现象可以作为无形资产加以评估，也就是说资产评估中的无形资产应具备什么属性；第二，什么样的经济现象能够表明或显示无形资产的价值，从而为评估无形资产的价值提供依据。 二、无形资产的属性 (一)无形资产应是财产，应具有财产权利和责任 作为一项有财产权利的财产，应该是可以描述和确切辨认的，也就是说它应具有明显的边界。商誉在企业正常的经营中，无法单独辨认，因此，是否把商誉作为无形资产尚存在争议。 作为一项财产，其财产权利应能够得到法律保护，也就是说财产所带来的经济利益能够被企业所控制。从这一角度考虑，关系类无形资产不符合财产要求。虽然它可以给企业带来经济利益，但这种经济利益是无法控制的，具有非常大的不确定性，因为关系本身不受法律保护。资产评估对于无形资产带来的经济利益，是指它的预期未来利益，而不是指它的现实或过去的实际利益。这就要求企业能够合法控制无形资产的未来经济利益，而关系的未来不确定性很大，因此作为无形资产不是很合理。从评估风险角度来说，对那些不受法律保护的所谓无形资产进行评估也是不可取的。 作为目标无形资产不一定要拥有所有的法定财产权，如处置权。有些无形资产如政府给予的特许经营权，它所带来的经济利益是显而易见的，并且能够被企业所控制，受法律保护。但是这种权利却不能任意转让。资产评估中对于能否作为目标无形资产，主要看它能否给企业带来可以控制的预期经济利益，不能因为无处置权而否定其作为目标无形资产的资格。会计上也并不要求拥有所有法定财产权利，才能作为企业的资产，它着眼于某项资产的风险和报酬是否被企业所控制。从这一点上看，资产评估与会计对资产的界定是基本相同的。 当然无形资产和其他资产一样，其控制者也应当承担相应的责任，如纳税、接受政府监管以及对无形资产给他人造成的损失承担法律责任等。 (二)无形资产不具有实物形态 这是无形资产区别于有形资产的一个明显特征。有形资产应该有物质形式，具有可触性和可视性，如你可以触摸并看到厂房、设备、存货等。但是无形资产的证明文件也是可触、可视的，如你也可以触摸并看到专利证书、特许经营权协议等；另一方面，有形资产和无形资产的价值，实质上都来自其财产权利，而这种财产权利都是无形的。从形式上看，有形资产和无形资产的区别并不明显，要区分有形资产和无形资产应从本质上考察。有形资产和无形资产的本质区别在于；有形资产的价值是由它的有形性质所创造的；而无形资产的价值是由它的无形性质所创造的，也就是说，有形资产的可触的、有形的和可视的因素赋于其价值。有形资产的价值来自于它的物质特征，尽管其财产权利是无形的，但它来源于其物质特性。而无形资产的价值或来自于某些权利如许可权、抵押权等，或来自于一些无形因素影响，如竞争优势，独一无二性等，这些无形资产的价值来源都是无形的。 正是由于无形资产价值来源于其无形特性，要想作为一种可确认的、受法律保护的财产，必须能够提供无形资产存在的有形证明。有些无形影响因素如神秘性，市场潜力等对企业来说是有价值的，但它们并不能作为无形资产，它们缺乏有效的有形证明。它们的价值是随着与之相联系的特定财产而产生的，这一特定财产可以是无形资产，也可以是有形资产。 (三)无形资产应该是在可确认的时间内或作为可确认事件的结果而产生或存在的，同时也应该在可确认的时间内作为可确认事件的结果而被破坏或终止 同其他资产一样，无形资产是在某一特定时刻产生的，也许此前要经过很长一段时间的酝酿才得以创造和开发出来。这样就需要提供证明无形资产产生的依据，往往这一依据是它的有形证明文件。也就是说，一种存在状态，如果没有能够证明其产生或存在的可辨认证明，则不能作为无形资产。 同它在特定的时刻产生一样，无形资产也应该在某一特定的日期消亡。有的无形资产有确切的有效期，则它将在有效期满消亡；有的无形资产并无确切的有效期限，并不能在开始时就清楚它的确切消亡时间，但它将在某一特定时刻消亡是勿庸置疑的。认识无形资产使用寿命的有限性对于资产评估来说是非常有意义的，在评估其价值时应充分考虑其贬值的程度和可使用的程度。无形资产使用寿命的有限性，也为会计上对无形资产的摊销提供了依据。 三、无形资产价值的表明或显示 无形资产具有经济价值的表现之一，是它本身能够带来可计量的经济利益。这种经济利益可以表现为增加收入、降低成本或提高管理效率等。有时这种经济利益的量化较为困难，但它必须能够量化。如果直接量化不可行，可以采用间接方法，如可以通过把使用目标无形资产时产生的经济利益与该无形资产不存在时的经济利益相比较来计量该无形资产的价值。如果无法量化其价值，则无论是资产评估还是会计都不能将其确认。有必要区分一下无形资产的经济存在形式和它的经济价值，作为目标无形资产仅仅具有经济存在形式是不够的，它还必须具有经济价值，二者缺一不可。如一个企业设计了一个商标并将其注册，则它已具备商标权的经济存在形式，但如果企业将其永远锁在抽屉，而不准备用于任何目的，则它不具有经济价值，当然它就不能作为目标无形资产。 无形资产具有经济价值的另一种表现是，能够潜在地增加与之相联系的其他资产的价值。也就是说如果将目标无形资产加入到一个资产组合中，它能够产生积极影响。无形资产本身可以产生经济价值，如出租无形资产的收益；有时，无形资产需要借助一些有形资产才能实现或充分实现其经济价值，但不论哪种形式来实现，都可说明无形资产是具有价值的。 无形资产领域的争论很激烈，认识差异较大。笔者认为，作为目标无形资产，具备合法的经济存在形式并且具有可量化的经济价值这一点应该是必须的。

无形资产投资(Intangible- assets Investment/ Investment of Intangible Assets) What is the investment in intangible assets? Intangible assets refer to investments of investors in order to have the patent rights, non-patent technology, trademarks, land-use rights as an investment. The two sides should agree to determine the amount of the value of intangible assets, but also the need to deal with the document as a basis. Intangible assets to invest, according to the amount of its investment in China's financial system, enterprises should not exceed 20% of registered capital; case the special needs of more than 20% by the relevant departments for examination and approval should be the maximum not more than 30%. Business investment in intangible assets received, debit, "intangible assets" accounts, credit "paid-up capital" account. Intangible asset investment is feature: non-investment entities, a long payback period, investment risk, higher return on investment. What is the intangible asset? Intangible assets: refers to the business did not have the kind of shape will enable the companies to obtain long-term over-income assets. (1) and intangible characteristics: 1, there is no physical shape. Usually pass special rights. 2, to bring excess profits. 3, for a long time to play a role. Because it can have long-term. (2), intangible assets, including: 1, according to the validity of the points: (1), a period of intangible assets: the law provides for a maximum validity period, not extended to protect the (2), no period of intangible assets 2, according to whether or not there may refer to: (1), there may be referring to the intangible assets: to identify the individual, separate access. If the patent (business) and so on. (2), does not refer to the intangible assets: alone can not identify, can not be achieved separately, together with the enterprise can only be purchased net assets. Such as goodwill. 3, according to whether or not protected by law: (1), the right to assets: protection of the law, such as patents, copyrights and so on. (2), the rights of non-assets: protected by law, such as goodwill, know-how. Analysis of intangible investment: Investment is the largest investment in intangible assets, long, multi-link, the risks of systems engineering. In a knowledge-based economy under the conditions of intangible assets represent over profitability would be to create a source of competitive advantage. According to statistics, some of the OECD-the-art enterprise tangible assets and intangible assets ratio has reached 1:2 to 1:3. The United States in 1995, many enterprises intangible assets ratio of 50% to 60%. An enterprise has a number of intangible assets of how much value is high or low technical level and competitiveness of the mark. In our country, not only in the corporate intangible assets in the proportion of the total assets on the low side, but also in the composition of intangible assets, technology assets, in particular low. Investment management of intangible assets: Intangible asset investment decision-making methods and decision-making investment in fixed assets the same way. Also need to calculate the decision-making targets. However, it is more complex than the investment in fixed assets. Because: 1, intangible assets are invested in various forms. 2, intangible assets and the investment period has been over-time earnings is difficult to predict. 3, intangible assets increased over the proceeds of uncertainty there. The day-to-day control of intangible assets: include the following: 1, an increase of intangible assets management Whether purchased, the self-built, or other inputs, for all legal procedures, according to the actual cost, or by the rating agencies to assess valuation. 2, amortization of intangible assets management (1) the effective useful life of intangible assets: ① law and the provisions of the contract are valid in accordance with the principles of the short side. ② no legal provisions of the contract, according to the provisions of the contract determine the number of years. ③ not provided for by not less than 10 years to determine the validity. 3, the calculation of the amount of amortization of intangible assets: = Amortization in the amount of the original price / effective service life 4, the use of intangible assets management: (1) potential to improve the utilization of intangible assets. (2) to implement centralized management at different levels. Such as patents, technology must be managed by the technology sector, the franchise, the right to use the site to the production and marketing departments. Sales by the trademark management, in order to clear responsibility to enhance the effectiveness of the use. Intangible assets investment accounts and tax-related issues to deal with: According to the intangible assets to obtain a different way, namely by the following provisions to deal with. "Enterprise Accounting System," the 44th article stipulates: "The business acquired intangible assets, measures should be based on actual costs. Made at the time of the actual cost should be determined in the following way: (A) acquired intangible assets, according to the actual price paid for the actual cost. (B) investors into the intangible assets, investment by the parties identified as the value of the actual cost. However, for the first time to issue shares and investors to accept the input of intangible assets, intangible assets should be in the investor's book value as the actual cost. (C) the business of the debtor to accept non-cash assets to cover liabilities of the acquired intangible assets, or debt-for-entry due to intangible assets, according to the book value of accounts receivable claims to be paid together with the related taxes and fees, as the actual cost. Involved in premium, according to the following provisions of the transferee to determine the actual cost of intangible assets: 1. Receipt of the premium, according to the book value of the debt receivable less the premium, plus related taxes and fees should be paid, as the actual cost; 2. To pay the premium, according to the book value of the debt receivable plus the premium paid and to pay related taxes and fees, as the actual cost. (D) to non-monetary transactions for the entry of intangible assets, according to the assets of the combined book value should pay the relevant taxes and fees, as the actual cost. Involved in premium, according to the following requirements for entry to determine the actual cost of intangible assets: 1. Receipt of the premium, according to the assets of the combined book value should be recognized in the income and pay less taxes and fees related to the balance of payment of a premium, as the actual cost; 2. To pay the premium, according to the assets of the combined book value should pay the relevant taxes and fees and premium, as the actual cost. (E) to accept donations of intangible assets, the following provisions shall determine the actual costs: 1. Donation to provide relevant evidence, according to the evidence indicating the amount to be paid together with the related taxes and fees, as the actual cost. 2. Donor did not provide such evidence, according to the following order to determine the actual costs: (1) the same or similar intangible assets of the existence of an active market, according to the same or similar intangible assets is estimated that the amount of market prices, together with the related taxes and fees should be paid, as the actual cost; (2) the same or similar intangible assets no active market, according to accept the donation of intangible assets is expected to present value of future cash flows, as the actual cost. " The 45th article stipulates that: "in accordance with legal procedures to apply for self-developed intangible assets acquired, according to the law made when the registration fee, lawyer fees, as the actual cost of intangible assets. Occur in the course of research and development of materials Cost of personnel directly involved in the development of wages and welfare, development occurred in rent, the cost of borrowing, and so on, into direct current profit and loss. Periods have been included in the cost of research and development costs, and the success of the intangible assets in accordance with the law The right to apply, no longer have been included in the original cost of the capitalization of research and development costs. " The 47th article stipulates: "The corporate purchase or sell gold to cover the cost of land acquisition of land use rights, not yet in the development or use of the construction project, accounting for intangible assets in accordance with the present system of the period provided for a phased amortization. Room Real estate development companies to develop real estate, land-use rights should be the book value into all development costs; business as a result of the use of land for the construction of a project for their own use, land-use rights to the book value into all-in-progress costs. " Enterprises with investment from outside of intangible assets, the same non-monetary transaction regulations.