城市感受论文英文文献

英文一会给你北京现代化报告2007——北京创新型城市建设评价研究 项目代码 : KT0703 完成单位 : 北京科学学研究中心、北京市统计局 研究人员 : 获奖情况 : 第一章 创新型城市理论 一、创新型城市的含义 课题组认为： “创新型城市”是指以创新为主要动力推动经济社会发展的城市，整个城市的知识创新和技术创新水平达到了一个相当高的水平，而且具备了维持不断创新的人才和投入的动力基础，为创新活动提供了可靠高效的创新保证环境。 简单地说，创新型城市就是一个城市的创新要取得一定的效果，要有足够的动力和良好的保障条件。 其中，创新效果是指知识和技术创新的直接效果及其对经济社会发展产生的间接结果。 创新动力是指创新活动主要依靠人才和财力来推动，人才和财力是推动创新的两个车轮。 创新保障是指创新活动顺利、高效开展所需的硬条件和软环境。 二、创新型城市理论研究 “创新型城市”的概念是在20世纪90年代之后提出来的，但作为 “创新型城市”理论的渊源，最早是在1912年，美籍奥地利经济学家约瑟夫•熊彼特提出“创新”一词。在此之后，学术界对创新及相关问题的研究大体形成了三个主要方向： （1）对技术创新和制度创新的研究(始于1912年) （2）对 “创新系统”的研究（始于20世纪80年代） （3）对“创新型城市”的研究（始于20世纪90年代） （一）技术创新与制度创新 该方向又分为两个阶段。 第一阶段：熊彼特对创新的研究。 创新由美籍奥地利经济学家约瑟夫•熊彼特在1912年出版的《经济发展理论》首先提出。熊彼特认为创新包括五种情况：（1）采用了一种新产品，或者一种产品的一种新的特性；（2）采用了一种新的生产方法；（3）开辟了一个从未进入过的新的市场；（4）控制或“掠取”了新的生产原料和半成品的供给来源；（5）实现了一种新的工业组织形式。 第二阶段：熊彼特之后对创新的研究。 熊彼特之后对创新的研究可以分为两条线路：一条是对技术创新的研究；一条是对制度创新的研究。 （二）创新系统研究 对创新系统的研究主要包括两个方向：国家创新系统和区域创新系统。 1.国家创新系统的研究 国家创新系统（也称国家创新体系）的概念最早是由英国经济学家克里斯托弗•弗里曼在1987年提出的。至今，国家创新体系的研究没有一个完整的理论体系。 （1）弗里曼。在人类历史上，技术领先国家从英国到德国、美国，再到日本，这种追赶、跨越，不仅是技术创新的结果，而且还有许多制度、组织的创新，从而是一种国家创新体系演变的结果。 （2）经合组织。经济合作与发展组织指出：国家创新系统的核心内容是科学技术知识在一国内部的循环流转。国家创新系统的核心是企业，是企业创新、获取外部知识的方式。外部知识的主要来源则是别的企业、公司或私有的研究机构、大学和中介组织。 2.区域创新系统理论的研究 区域创新系统概念最早由英国卡迪夫大学的库克（1992）提出来的。相关研究主要体现以下五个方面： （1）区域创新系统环境研究 （2）区域创新系统组织结构研究 （3）区域创新系统空间结构研究 （4）区域创新系统功能研究 （5）区域创新过程研究 （三） “创新型城市” 理论 1.西方学者对创新型城市的研究 （1）兰德瑞的“创新型城市” 英国的查尔斯•兰德瑞提出：创新型城市必须具备以下条件：高技能劳动力；激励、引导的规制；动态的思想家、创业者和实干家；独立人格的人；充分的智力基础设施；完善的内外通讯联系；企业家文化；创造性的火花冲突；动态和紧张的平衡能力。 （2）詹姆斯•西门的“创新型城市” 英国的牛津大学的詹姆斯•西门指出：知识经济下的城市竞争力的形成根本要靠创新。创新型城市的成功主要依靠两种核心“城市资产”：一是高质量的知识劳动者；二是便利的基础设施和通讯。 2.我国对创新型城市的研究 国内学者对城市创新系统的研究始于20世纪90年代末。目前，我国对创新型城市的研究大都停留在个案的分析上，缺乏系统的理论体系研究。国内对创新型城市的主要相关提法包括：学习型城市、智能型城市、高科技型城市等。 三、结 论 课题组认为： 创新型城市建设的目标就是取得理想的创新成果，即知识创新和技术创新的成果，推动城市的发展，这是创新型城市建设的核心；而创新型城市目标的实现主要依靠创新人才和创新投入两大主要动力来推动，创新人才和创新投入是创新型城市建设的两个车轮；创新型城市目标高效顺利的实现需要有良好的创新硬环境和软环境作为保障。 第二章 创新型城市建设实践 一、国内创新型城市建设的实践 （一）上海：实施“科教兴市”主战略，推动创新型城市建设 1．高校布局调整。重点推进“2＋2＋X”的高校布局结构调整，即以复旦为核心的“杨浦大学城”和以交大为核心的“闵行紫竹科学园区”南北两个高校集聚地建设，“松江大学园区”和“南汇科教园区”东西两个大学园区建设，以及若干个与产业联系密切的高校建设。 2．实施聚焦张江战略。继续实施聚焦张江战略，推进“一区六园”高新技术产业集聚发展。 3．研究中心、实验室建设。抓紧建设一批企业技术研究中心、市级重点实验室和国家工程研究中心， 积极筹建若干国家级实验室 4．创新支持体系建设。推进以五个公共服务平台为主要内容的创新支持体系建设。（ 科技公共服务平台、人力资源服务平台、科技创业投融资平台、知识产权服务平台、信息服务平台） 5．国际化人才战略。推进了“万名海外留学人才集聚工程”， 在CEPA框架下实施“引进千名香港专才”计划，建设国家级留学人员创业园。 （二）天津：实施科教兴市战略，建设创新型城市 1．建设科学研究与高等教育有机结合的知识创新体系。 2．建设以企业为主体、产学研相结合的技术创新体系。 3．建立以高新技术支柱产业为标志的产业结构。 4．把市场和社会需求作为技术创新的导向。 5．建设有利于中小企业创新发展和科技成果向现实生产力转化的科技服务体系。 6．建设有利于科技资源共享的科技基础条件平台。 （三）深圳：打造“四大高地”，建设自主创新型城市 1．产业高地。以自主创新为特征的高新技术产业持续高速增长，产品产值占规模以上工业总产值的50%以上；高新技术产品出口占全市出口总额超过45%。 2．企业高地。基本形成了以企业为主体的自主创新体系，这集中体现为“四个90%”，即全市90%的研发机构设立在企业，90%的研发人员集中在企业，90%的研发资金来源于企业，90%的职务发明专利出自企业。 3．自主知识产权高地。全市专利申请和授权的数量在全国大中城市中均列第3位；国际专利申请量已跃居全国大中城市首位。具有自主知识产权的高新技术产品产值占全市高新技术产品产值的比重达到50%以上。 4．人才高地。全市拥有61万专业技术人员，人才总量接近100万，形成了敢于冒险、勇于创新、宽容失败、追求成功的创新文化氛围。 （四）西安：建设以自主创新为核心的创新型城市 1．“两区两基地” “三园三中心”的创新格局 基本形成了以西安高新区、西安经开区为主体、以阎良航空产业基地和韦曲航天产业基地为两翼的“两区两基地”创新区域和产业构架；西安电子科技大学、西安交大、西工大三个国家级大学科技园；西安高新区创业服务中心、西安生物医药专业孵化器、西安光电子专业孵化器三个国家级创业服务中心 2．突出一个重大专项，明确三个重点，启动四大创新工程 一个重大专项，即加快高新技术产业发展；三个重点导向，即知识产权能力建设、军民技术融合、科技创新联动；四大创新工程，即企业技术创新工程、科技成果转化工程、新农村建设促进工程、科技平台建设工程 3．整合军工科技资源，探索和实现西安科技产业的新突破 探索军民融合的创新机制和产业化模式，推进军民两用技术产业示范园建设，整合军工科技资源优势，抓好对西安区域经济具有显著影响的军民融合技术项目的培育和推广。 二、 国外创新型城市建设的实践经验 （一）纽约：大力发展生产者服务业，打造世界第一金融中心 积极建立适应知识经济要求的教育体制，同时依托“世界第一金融中心”之优势，大力发展金融、保险、管理咨询等对人力资本及知识资本要求极高的生产者服务业，通过知识来提高产业附加值。 有针对性地为各产业培养专业人才。纽约市几十所高等院校纷纷筹建与知识经济衔接的新专业，为企业界培养业内精英。 重视科技，利用联邦资金，纽约在市区开辟出“高科技产业研究园区”， 联合众多大学、研究机构和企业的科研力量，大力研发高端科技产品。目前纽约高科技含量、高附加值的生产者服务业已经成为这座城市的主导产业。 （二）硅谷：十条经验 （1）良好的游戏规则，包括法律、法规、体制和管理。 （2）知识密集与新的创意能够得到广泛交流。 （3）流动的高质量的劳动力。硅谷是吸引人才的磁石，世界各地的优秀人才不断地涌向硅谷。 （4）成功的风险投资运行机制。 （5）以结果为导向的精英体制，才华与能力主宰硅谷的一切。 （6）鼓励冒险和容忍失败的良好氛围。 （7）开放的创业环境。 （8）产、学、研互动。 （9）企业、政府与非盈利机构的合作。 （10）高质量的生活，吸引各地人才来此创业（11）专业化的创业服务机构，融资、律师、猎头公司、会计师事务所、咨询顾问等。 （三）日本东京：创新型城市政策 东京从2000年起，对高新技术企业采取多种减免税收政策；对信息产业增加25%的科研税务贷款、设立软件研发免税储备金、意外损失储备金制度，免征技术开发资产税7%；建立了振兴地方技术的特别贷款制度，高新技术企业可使用低息长期贷款，贷款年限可长达25年，利息优惠10%。 专门成立了小企业金融公库，对高新技术小企业发放年息仅的特别贷款。此外，政府在选择支持项目时，倾向日本原来薄弱的基础性原创领域；国家资助高校研究者“共同”开发的成果，个人可得专利收入 50－80%；政府还鼓励产业界与高校建立“共同研究中心”，由科技厅专款补贴。设立供高科技小企业上市的OTC股票交易市场，为众多高科技小企业迅速扩张提供了资金支持。 （四）英国伦敦：创意产业和传统金融服务业并举 伦敦成功借助于创意产业而实现了城市的产业结构优化和升级，创意产业每年为伦敦市带来近210亿英镑的产值以及40万个就业岗位，仅排在金融服务业之后，成为带动伦敦市经济发展、提升伦敦城市竞争力的第二大支柱产业。 伦敦市政府特别关注企业创新在构建创新型城市中所起的作用，特别是重点扶持中小型企业。为此，伦敦市构建“知识天使”网络，将创新产品、创新工艺和创新服务的理念提供给中小企业。在企业发展到一定阶段后，“知识天使”会鼓励企业创新者参加或形成网络， 并协助他们申请创新基金。伦敦大力开展“青年展望项目”和“教学公司项目”，以鼓励青年在创建创新型城市中发挥作用。 加强区域创新体系建设，建立起学校-产业-研究所之间的有效创新平台和运行机制。 通过大力发展和提高城市创新品牌，并向各种机构宣传、沟通城市创新战略目标和愿景，来提升市民创新者意识，营造创新文化。 三、国内外创新型城市的实践总结 1．建设以企业为主体的技术创新体系 2．建设以大学和科研机构为主体的知识创新体系 3．重视人才的引进和培养体系 4．建立和完善多元化的科技投入体系 5．重视产学研的有机结合 6．重视政府的引导和支持作用第三章 创新型城市评价体系 一、现有的相关评价体系回顾 1．瑞士洛桑国际管理发展学院《国际竞争力年度报告》中衡量各国科技竞争力的评价指标体系。序号 具体指标 序号 具体指标 1 R&D支出 12 科技论文 2 人均R&D支出 13 学校科学教育状况 3 R&D支出占GDP比重 14 青年对科技的兴趣 4 企业R&D支出 15 诺贝尔奖 5 企业人均R&D支出 16 人均诺贝尔奖 6 全国R&D总人数 17 授予国民专利件数 7 全国每千人中R&D人员数 18 授予国民专利件数增长率 8 企业R&D总人数 19 国民在国外获取专利件数 9 企业每千人中R&D人员数 20 专利和版权保护 10 基础研究 21 有效的专利数 11 理工学士学位 22 专利生产率2．大连舰艇学院教授杜辉提出的评价创新型城市的指标体系 （1）区域技术对外依存度），权重20%； （2）技术进步对经济增长的贡献率，权重20%； （3）发明专利占全社会专利申请量的比重，权重15%； （4）高新技术产业产值占工业总产值的比重，权重15%； （5）研发投人（R&D）经费占GDP的比重，权重15%； （6）企业研发投入占销售收入的比重，权重15%。 3．美国理佛罗里达教授提出的评价城市创新程度的指标体系指标 具体指标 创造性劳动力排名 专业人才占就业人口比重 高科技排名 高科技产出的比重 创新排名 人均专利数 多样化排名 当地同性恋家庭数4．科技部提出的全国科技进步统计监测指标体系一级指标 二级指标 三级指标 标准 科技进步环境 科技人力资源 万人专业技术人员数（人/万人） 500 平均受教育年限（年/人） 12 科研物质条件 每名R&D活动人员新增仪器设备费（万元/人） 8 科研与综合技术服务业新增固定资产占全社会新增固定资产比重（%） 3 科技意识 万名就业人员专利申请量（项/万人） 100 科研与综合技术服务业平均工资与全社会平均工资比例系数（%） 200 万人吸纳技术成果金额（万元/万人） 200 科技活动投入 科技活动人力投入 万人R&D科学家和工程师数（人/万人） 10 企业R&D科学家和工程师占全社会R&D科学家和工程师比重（%） 70 科技活动财力投入 R&D经费支出与GDP比例（%） 地方财政科技拨款占地方财政支出比重（%） 5 企业R&D经费支出占产品销售收入比重（%） 6 企业消化吸收经费与技术引进经费比例（以技术引进为100） 300 科技活动产出 科技活动产出水平 万名R&D活动人员科技论文数（篇/万人） 5000 获国家级科技成果奖项数（项） 5 万名就业人员发明专利授权量（项/万人） 3 技术成果市 场 化 万人技术成果成交额（万元/万人） 200 万名R&D活动人员向国外转让专利使用费和特许费（万美元/万人） 500 高新技术产业化 高新技术产 业 化水 平 高技术产业增加值占工业增加值比重（%） 30 高技术产品出口额占商品出口额比重（%） 40 新产品销售收入占产品销售收入比重（%） 40 高新技术产业开发区技术性收入占全部收入比重（%） 100 高新技术产业化效益 高技术产业就业人员劳动生产率（万元/人） 14 高技术产业增加值率（%） 50 高技术产业增长占经济增长份额（%） 20 高新技术产业开发区总收入利税率（%） 50 科技促进经济社会发展 经济增长方式转变 就业人员劳动生产率（万元/人） 8 亿元投资新增GDP（亿元/亿元） 综合能耗产出率（元/千克标准煤） 42 环境改善 空气质量指数（%） 100 环境污染治理指数（%） 100 社会生活信 息 化 百户居民彩色电视机拥有量（台/百户） 100 万人国际互联网络用户数（户/万人） 2500 百人固定电话和移动电话用户数（户/百人） 675．国家统计局提出的创新型国家指标体系领域 指数 监测指标 2020年目标值 创新资源领域 100 1．经济活动人口中受过高等教育人数所占比重（%） 2．20－29岁人口中新毕业的理工科学生所占比重（%） 3．20－24岁人口中受过中等教育人数所占比重（%） 4．人均国内生产总值（美元） 3000 知识创新领域 100 1．R&D经费支出占GDP的比重（%） 2．中高技术和高技术产业R&D经费支出所占比重（%） 3．基础研究支出占R&D经费支出的比重（%） 15 4．信息通讯产业投资占GDP的比重（%） 技术创新领域 100 1．开展创新活动的企业所占比重（%） 2．创新费用投入强度（%） 3．企业研发经费中对大学和科研机构支出所占比重（%） 4．享受政府创新资助的企业所占比重（%） 创新水平领域 100 1．百万人口发明专利授权数（件） 2．百万人口工业设计授权数（件） 3．百万人口商标注册数（件） 4．国际科技论文引用率（次/篇） 8 创新影响领域 100 1．高技术产品出口占世界市场的份额（%） 16 2．高技术产业增加值率（%） 35 3．新产品销售收入占全部产品销售收入的比重（%） 20 4．高技术服务业就业人员占全部就业人员的比重（%） 创新型国家总指数 100二、创新型城市评价的定位及体系结构 1．创新型城市评价定位 课题组对创新型城市的评价是对某一个城市在某一时点所达到的创新水平的一种状态评价，而不评价建设创新型城市的过程，这也是创新型城市评价指标体系建立的出发点。 2．创新型城市评价体系结构 通过对创新型城市理论和实践的研究，课题组认为创新型城市建设评价应从创新效果、创新动力和创新保障三个方面进行评价。 ——创新效果是指技术创新和知识创新的效果。创新型城市要在技术创新和知识创新两个方面取得相应的成果 ——创新动力主要是指创新人才和创新投入。创新型城市的创新活动主要依靠人才和投入来推动。 ——创新保障包括创新硬条件和软环境。创新型城市的创新活动要高效、顺畅的进行，必须要有良好的环境为保障。

Urban, city, or town planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed key role of urban planning is urban renewal, and re-generation of inner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering from long-term infrastructural decay.[1]Contents [hide]1 History of Planning 2 The Sustainable City 3 Aspects of Planning Aesthetics Safety Slums Reconstruction and Renewal Transport Suburbanization Natural environment 4 Actors in the planning process 5 Books Seminal to Urban Planning 6 References 7 Further reading 8 See also 9 External links[edit] History of PlanningUrban planning as an organised profession has existed for less than a century, however most settlements and cities have displayed various degrees of forethought and conscious design in their layout and agriculture replaced a nomadic existence, permanent human settlements, and larger settlements began to appear. These early cities became centres for trade, defence, and politics and as centres for distributing the agricultural surplus a settled farming society laid out with forethought and design permeate antiquity. Perhaps the earliest of these were those of the ancient Mesopotamian and Harrapan civilizations of the third century located near the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in modern day Iraq and some ancient cities of the Indus Valley in modern day India are perhaps the earliest examples of deliberately planned and managed cities in history. The streets of these early cities were often paved and laid out at right angles in a grid pattern. There was also with a hierarchy of streets (commercial boulevards to small residential alleyways). In Harrapan settlements, archaeological evidence suggests the houses were laid out to protect from noise, odours, and thieves, and had their own wells, and sanitation. Ancient cities often had drainage, large granaries, and well-developed urban sanitation[2]The Greek Hippodamus (c. 408 BC) is widely considered the father of city planning in the West, for his design of Miletus; Alexander commissioned him to lay out Alexandria, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the Mediterranean world, where regularity was aided in large part by its level site near a mouth of the ancient Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defence and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact rectilinear grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defence. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges.[citation needed] Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in idea of rational planning collapsed with the idea of the res publica in the European Early Middle Ages. Round a fortress or fortified abbey or next to a Roman nucleus — sometimes itself abandoned— urban growth occurred "like the annular rings of a tree"[3] whether in an extended village or the center of a larger city. Since the new center was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of elevation contours like the shapes that result from agricultural ideal centrally-planned urban space: Sposalizio by Raphael, 1504The ideal city resurfaced in the Early Renaissance in Florence, where the star-shaped city plan was adapted from the new cannon-resistant star fort. The star-shaped fortification had a formative influence on the patterning of Renaissance urban planning: "The Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half— from Filarete to Scamozzi— was impressed upon utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city"[4] Radial streets extend outward from a defined center of military, communal or spiritual power. Only in ideal cities did a centrally-planned structure stand at the heart, as in Raphael's Sposalizio of 1504 (illustration); as built, the unique example of a rationally-planned quattrocento new city center, that of Vigevano, 1493-95, resembles a closed space instead, surrounded by arcading. Filarete's ideal city, building on hints in Leone Battista Alberti's De re aedificatoria, was named "Sforzinda" in compliment to his patron; its twelve-pointed shape, circumscribable by a "perfect" Pythagorean figure, the circle, takes no heed of its undulating terrain in Filarete's manuscript.[5]The true heirs of Greek rational planning were the Muslims, who are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise),[citation needed] although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture cities in Central American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including sewage systems and running water. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, built on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height, Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants.[citation needed]During the last two centuries in the Western world (Western Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia) planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general consensus. Firstly there was the industrialised city of the 19th century, where control of building was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around the turn of the 20th century there began to be a movement for providing people, and factory workers in particular, with healthier environments. The concept of garden cities arose and some model towns were built, such as Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City the world's first garden cities, in Hertfordshire, UK. However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand residents.[6]It wasn't until the 1920s when modernism began to surface. A modernist city was to be a sort of efficient, workable utopia. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as Paris in France, though nothing major happened until the devastation caused by the Second World War. After this, some modernist buildings and communities were built. However they were cheaply constructed and became notorious for their social problems.[7]Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than making everything uniform and perfect, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.[8][edit] The Sustainable CitySustainable development has become some sort of a 'buzz-word' in the planning industry, with the recognition that present ways of consumption and living have led to problems like the overuse of natural resources, ecosystem destruction, pollution, growing inequality in cities, the degradation of human living conditions and human-induced climate change. Planners have, as a result, taken to advocating for the development of sustainable cities.[9]However, the notion of sustainable development can be considered as rather recent and evolving, with many questions surrounding this concept.[10] That said, it is often not difficult to recognise what are 'unsustainable' forms of lifestyles, and urban planning is recognised to play a crucial position in the development of sustainable Wheeler, in his 1998 article, suggests a definition for sustainable urban development to be as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns."[11]He goes on to suggest a framework that might help all to better understand what a 'sustainable' city might look like. These include compact, efficient land use; less automobile use yet with better access; efficient resource use, less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; sustainable economics; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom.[12]The difficult challenge facing planners comes with the implementation of sustainability visions, policy and programmes, and in the midst of doing so, the need to modify institutions to achieve these goals. This is still being worked out by urban planners.[edit] Aspects of Planning[edit] AestheticsThis article does not cite any references or help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any article has been tagged since June 2006. Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in Bath (England), 18th century private sector development was designed to appear developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the environment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings.[13] Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate.[14]Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity, respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or "townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood argue that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities of Siena and Bologna[citation needed].While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch, planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged using the contemporary term, smart are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. (See List of planned cities)[edit] Safety The medieval walled city of Carcassonne in France is built upon high ground to provide maximum protection from within the Middle East, Europe and the rest of the Old World settlements were located on higher ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources[citation needed]. Cities have often grown onto coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then the affected regions can be made into parkland or Greenbelt, often with the added benefit of open space weather, flood, or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centres. These are relatively inexpensive and unintrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianisation" as ways of making urban life more planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories such as socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of Newman’s defensible space theory cites the modernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas, which are hard for residents to identify with. As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no individual feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder SourceJane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist and is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving ‘natural surveillance’ of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal "broken-windows" theory argues that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment[citation needed].Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. Haussmann's renovation of Paris created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the construction of barricades in the streets and eased the movement of military troops. In Rome (Italy), the Fascists in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. Robert Moses' developments in New York were intended to limit the effectiveness of public transit; bridges over parkways were built too low to accommodate buses, in order to restrict access to the beach by racial minorities and the social theories point out that in Britain and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.[edit] SlumsMain article: Slums The rapid urbanization of the last century has resulted in a signifcant amount of slum habitation in the major cities of the world, particularly in the Third World. There is significant demand for planning resources and strategies to address the issues that arise from slum development, and many planning theorists and practitioners are calling for increased attention and resources in this area, particularly the Commonwealth Association of Planners.[15]The issue of slum habitation has often been resolved via a simple policy of clearance, however more creative solutions are beginning to emerge such as Nairobi's "Camp of Fire" program, where established slum-dwellers have promised to build proper houses, schools, and community centers without any government money, in return for land they have been illegally squatting on for 30 years. The "Camp of Fire" program is one of many similar projects initiated by Slum Dwellers International, which has programs in Africa, Asia, and South America.[16][edit] Reconstruction and RenewalMain article: Urban Renewal The overall area plan for the reconstruction of Kabul's Old City area, the proposed Kabul - City of Light devastated by war or invasion represent a unique challenge to urban planners: the area of development is not one for simple modification, nor is it a "blank slate". Buildings, roads, services and basic infrastructure like power, water and sewerage are often severely compromised and need to be evaluated to determine what, if anything, can be salvaged for re-incorporation. There is also the problem of population; more often than not, people are also still living in these areas, displaced but not removed, and their issues need to be addressed. Historic areas and religious or social centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into the new city plan. A prime example of this is the capital city of Kabul, Afghanistan, which after decades of civil war and occupation has regions that have literally been reduced to rubble. Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out of whatever can be salvaged. Any reconstruction plan proposed, such as Hisham Ashkouri's City of Light Development, needs to be sensitive to the needs of this community and its existing culture, businesses and Reconstruction Development plans must also work with government agencies as well as private interests to develop workable designs.[edit] TransportMain article: Transportation Planning Very densely built-up areas require high capacity urban transit, urban planners must consider these factors in long term plans. Although an important factor, there is a complex relationship between urban densities and car is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban environment, and the need to travel within it[citation needed]. Good quality transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density can quickly overcrowd transport[citation needed].Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away[citation needed].Densities can be measured in several ways[citation needed]. A common method, used is the Floor area ratio, using the floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios below could be considered low density, and plot ratios above five very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centres are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or authorities may try to encourage lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provi

参考文献加标注一般是在引用文字的末尾点击插入引用——脚注和尾注，选择尾注就可以了，参考文献应该属于尾注，在菜单里选“插入---引用----脚注和尾注”，脚注是在文章的某一页下面的注解，而尾注就是在文章最后了，打开后就可以选编码，即角码。可以自己设定类型、格式。双击编码就可以在文章和参考文献间转换。

在英文输入法状态下输入[1]，选中[1].按ctrl+shift++号键

把光标放在引用参考文献的地方，在菜单栏上选“插入|脚注和尾注”，弹出的对话框中选择“尾注”，点击“选项”按钮修改编号格式为阿拉伯数字，位置为“文档结尾”，确定后Word就在光标的地方插入了参考文献的编号，并自动跳到文档尾部相应编号处请你键入参考文献的说明，在这里按参考文献著录表的格式添加相应文献。参考文献标注要求用中括号把编号括起来，至今我也没找到让Word自动加中括号的方法，需要手动添加中括号。 在文档中需要多次引用同一文献时，在第一次引用此文献时需要制作尾注，再次引用此文献时点“插入|交叉引用”，“引用类型”选“尾注”，引用内容为“尾注编号（带格式）”，然后选择相应的文献，插入即可。不要以为已经搞定了，我们离成功还差一步。论文格式要求参考文献在正文之后，参考文献后还有发表论文情况说明、附录和致谢，而Word的尾注要么在文档的结尾，要么在“节”的结尾，这两种都不符合我们的要求。解决的方法似乎有点笨拙。首先删除尾注文本中所有的编号（我们不需要它，因为它的格式不对），然后选中所有尾注文本（参考文献说明文本），点“插入|书签”，命名为“参考文献文本”，添加到书签中。这样就把所有的参考文献文本做成了书签。在正文后新建一页，标题为“参考文献”，并设置好格式。光标移到标题下，选“插入|交叉引用”，“引用类型”为“书签”，点“参考文献文本”后插入，这样就把参考文献文本复制了一份。选中刚刚插入的文本，按格式要求修改字体字号等，并用项目编号进行自动编号。到这里，我们离完美还差一点点。打印文档时，尾注页同样会打印出来，而这几页是我们不需要的。当然，可以通过设置打印页码范围的方法不打印最后几页。这里有另外一种方法，如果你想多学一点东西，请接着往下看。选中所有的尾注文本，点“格式|字体”，改为“隐藏文字”，切换到普通视图，选择“视图|脚注”，此时所有的尾注出现在窗口的下端，在“尾注”下拉列表框中选择“尾注分割符”，将默认的横线删除。同样的方法删除“尾注延续分割符”和“尾注延续标记”。删除页眉和页脚（包括分隔线），选择“视图|页眉和页脚”，首先删除文字，然后点击页眉页脚工具栏的“页面设置”按钮，在弹出的对话框上点“边框”，在“页面边框”选项卡，边框设置为“无”，应用范围为“本节”；“边框”选项卡的边框设置为“无”，应用范围为“段落”。切换到“页脚”，删除页码。选择“工具|选项”，在“打印”选项卡里确认不打印隐藏文字（Word默认）。

参考文献格式：

作者.题名[D].所在城市：保存单位，发布年份.

李琳.住院烧伤患者综合健康状况及其影响因素研究[D].福州：福建医科大学，2009.

其他的：

作者.题名[J].刊名，年，卷（期）：起止页码.

沈平，彭湘粤，黎晓静，等.临床路径应用于婴幼儿呼吸道异物手术后的效果[J].中华护理杂志，2012,47(10):930-932.

作者.书名[M]. 版次.出版地：出版者，出版年：起止页码.

胡雁.护理研究[M].第4版.北京：人民卫生出版社，2012:38.

作者.题名[N].报纸名，出版日期（版次）.

丁文祥.数字革命与国际竞争[N].中国青年报，2000-11-20(15).

作者.题名[EB/OL].网址，发表日期/引用日期（任选）.

世界卫生组织.关于患者安全的10个事实[EB/OL].

其他： [R]、[P]、[A]、[C]、[Z]等。

文中引述 正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节；既要注意引述与论文的有机统一，即其逻辑性，又要注意引述格式（即英语论文参考文献）的规范性。

引述别人的观点，可以直接引用，也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式，论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。

美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况，将部分规范格式分述如下。

若引文不足三行，则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如：The divorce of Arnold's personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”。

被引述的文字如果超过三行，则应将引文与论文文字分开，如下例所示：Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”is an admirable and characteristic And if one is sorry that in it Whitman is unable to conceive the extreme crises of society, one is certain that no society would be tolerable whoses citizens could not find refreshment in its buoyant democratic ideali *** 。这里的格式有两点要加以注意。

一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格，即应从第十一格打起；二是引文不需加引号，末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。若引文出自一部多卷书，除注明作者姓和页码外，还需注明卷号。

如：Professor Chen Jia's A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”。圆括弧里的1为卷号，小写罗马数字i为页码，说明引文出自第1卷序言（引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码）。

如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品，除注明引文作者及页码外，还要注明作品名。如：Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”。

Farrington points out that Aristotle's father Niachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine。扩展资料 基本要求 Clear：思路清晰、概念清楚、层次清楚、表达清楚 Complete：内容完整、结构完整匀称，切忌虎头蛇尾，有始无终 Correct：科学内容正确（不出错）、资料数据正确（数据可靠、可信）、语言正确（无语法错） Concise：论述深刻、充分揭示其科学内涵、使用定量方法 只有克服心理障碍，建立自信心， 熟悉SCI文章的思维方式及语言风格，勇于尝试，才能取得成功！注意事项 撰写英语教学论文要有务实的精神。

作者要沉得住气、耐得住寂寞，做到严谨、细致、认真，切忌浮躁、冲动、急功近利。要实事求是，深入实际，将教学研究植根于日常教学中。

在教学中研究，在研究中提高，不搞闭门造车、坐而论道。我们有些英语教师工作十分勤恳，但平时缺乏积累、疏于动笔，对论文写作望而生畏，不能用大纲、用先进的教育、教学理论武装自己的作品，不注意吸纳他人的成果，使作品成为单纯的经验、感受；或者只谈理论，不能用宝贵的实践经验来证明自己的论点，使作品缺乏说服力。

理论与实践相结合是英语教学论文写作应遵循的一项基本原则。第六、英文毕业论文摘要各部分的写作 根据《EI》对英文摘要的写作要求，英文摘要的写作并没有一成不变的格式，但一般来说，英文摘要是对原始文献不加诠释或评论的准确而简短的概括并要求它能反映原始文献的主要信息。

第七、英语毕业论文——目的（What I want to do？） 目的。主要说明作者写作此文的目的，或本文主要解决的问题。

一般来说，一篇好的英文摘要，一开头就应该把作者本文的目的或要解决的主要问题非常明确地交待清楚。必要时，可利用论文中所列的最新文献，简要介绍前人的工作，但这种介绍一定要极其简练。

在这方面，《EI》提出了两点具体要求：) Eliminate or minimize background information（不谈或尽量少谈背景信息）。) Avoid repeating the title or part of the titlein the first sentence of the abstract（避免在摘要的第一句话重复使用题目或题目的一部分）。

第八、英语毕业论文——过程与方法（How I did it？） 过程及方法。主要说明作者主要工作过程及所用的方法。

在英文摘要中，过程与方法的阐述起着承前启后的作用。开头交待了要解决的问题（What I want to do）之后，接着要回答的自然就是如何解决问题（How I did it），而且，最后的结果和结论也往往与研究过程及方法是密切相关的。

大多数作者在阐述过程与方法时，最常见的问题是泛泛而谈、空洞无物，只有定性的描述，使读者很难清楚地了解论文中解决问题的过程和方法。因此，在说明过程与方法时，应结合（指向）论文中的实例、实验框图等来进行阐述，这样可以既给读者一个清晰的思路。

第九、英语毕业论文——结果和结论（What results did I get and what conclusionscan I draw？）结果和结论部分代表着论文的主要成就和贡献，英语毕业论文有没有价值，值不值得读者阅读，主要取决于你所获得的结果和所得出的结论。因此，在写作结果和结论部分时，一般都要尽量。

英语毕业论文格式规范：A Contrastive Study beeen English and Chinese Idioms（题目：二号，黑体，加粗，居中，除了英语小词外，其他单词首字母都要大写；另外：除了题目外，论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”）（学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名（小四号宋体字，加粗），依次排印在论文题目下，上空二行，居中）【Abstract】 This paper centers on the different expressions of …… （英文摘要：上空二行；题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用其他任何标点符号；采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗；单倍行距。）

【Key Words】 idiom; parison; English; Chinese （英文关键词：题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，两个单词的首字母要大写，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用任何其他标点符号，采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗，除了专有名词外，其他单词的首字母不大写，各单词之间用分号“；”隔开，分号之后空一格；最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号；单倍行距。）1. Introduction （顶格，除了第一个单词及专有名词外，其他单词首字母都不要大写；标题最后不用任何标点符号，上空两行）In both English and Chinese， …. So, this essay is trying to focus on the differences beeen Chinese and English idoms in terms of their essential meaning, customary usage and typical expression (Chang Liang, 1993:44; Li Guangling, 1999). （段落第一行缩进4个英文字符；夹注的标注法：出现在夹注中的作者必须与文后的参考文献形成一一对应关系；注意一个或多个作者间的标点符号，时间、页码等的标注法；另外，汉语参考文献的作者要以拼音形式出现，不能出现汉语姓氏；夹注出现在标点符号之前）2. The similarities beeen English idioms and Chinese idioms In English， …. And it can be clearly seen in the below examples:(1) I don't know。

我不知道。 （2） I am not a poet. 我不是诗人。

（正文中的例子以（1）,(2)…为序号排列，直至最后一个例子；而①， ②…则为脚注或尾注的上标序号）3. The differences beeen English idioms and Chinese The characteristics of English idioms（正文章节序号编制：章的编号：1. ,2., 3.，…；节的编号：…，…；小节的编号为：, …。小节以下层次，采用希腊数字加括号为序，如（i）,(ii)…；之后再采用字母加括号，如（a）, (b)，…；每章题目左顶格，小四号字，加粗；每节（及小节以下）题目左顶格，小四号字，不加粗但要斜体；所有章节的题目都单独一行，最后不加任何标点符号）….In conclusion， …. The characteristics of Chinese idioms….Feng (1998) found some problems as shown in the following examples （注意此句中夹注的另一种写法）：（9） We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.(10) People take no thought of the value of time until they lose it.…. The *** ysis of the differences beeen English and Chinese idioms… （i） ….….（ii） ….…. 4. Conclusion….Bibliography (References) （小四号，加粗，后面不加任何标点符号） Sanved, ed. The Oxford book of American literary anecdotes[C]. New York: OUP, 1981.常亮，“关于英语的偏离否定”[J] 。

《外国语文》，1993,4:44。 冯树健，“否定之否定新说”[J] 。

《英语辅导》，1998,6:11。 李光陵，“不完全否定浅析” [J] 。

《大学英语》，2000,30:30。 （论文最后的参考文献中所有文献的排列顺序：尾注：按照编号顺序。

夹注：英文文献----网络文献----汉语文献，各个文献的先后以作者的姓氏字母或拼音为序，不用单独加序号或编号；每个参考文献的第二行起必须缩进4个英文字符；倍行距；另外，与文中的夹注一一对应；不同类型的参考文献写法请参照写作指南中附件2的内容）。

学校一般有格式的，按照格式标注。

驳论文是议论文常见的论证文体，在对一些社会丑陋现象的批判与揭露上价值尤为突出，但学生在写作中往往感到不知从何驳起，无从下笔。其实，这类文章写作有一个思路，那就是：1、列现象，2、示弊端，3、探根源，4、指出路。本文适宜高中课文，鲁迅先生的名篇《拿来主义》为例，对驳论文的这一特征予以探析。

列现象

对现实中不合道德、有碍社会健康发展的现象进行列举。事例选取的典型性，以求警醒人们；罗列的丰富性，以求引起读者共鸣；修辞的多样性，以求彰显行文文采，增强气势。例：

单是学艺上的东西，近来就先送一批古董到巴黎去展览，但终“不知后事如何”；还有几位“大师”们捧着几张古画和新画，在欧洲各国一路的挂过去，叫作“发扬国光”。听说不远还要送梅兰芳博士到苏联去，以催进“象征主义”，此后是顺便到欧洲传道。

论文中引用他人的文献应当按照参考文献的国家标准格式依次进行引用和标注。

格式为： [序号]主要责任者.文献题名[文献类型标识].出版地：出版者，出版年.起止页码（可选）。 例如： [7]金显贺，王昌长，王忠东，等. 一种用于在线检测局部放电的数字滤波技术[J].清华大学学报（自然科学版），1993,33⑷：62-67. [4]冯西桥. 核反应堆压力管道和压力容器的LBB分析[R]. 北京：清华大学核能技术设计研究院，1997. 扩展资料： 以毕业论文为例，论文正文版面格式： 1、正文部分与“关键词”行间空两行； 2、汉语正文文字采用小四号宋体；正文英语正文文字采用Times New Roman12号，标题汉语采用四号黑体，标题英语采用Times New Roman14号，每段首起空两格，倍行距； 3、段落间层次要分明，题号使用要规范。