小苹果花苑
Too-big-to-fail: Bank failure and banking policy in Jamaica J. Daleya, , , K. Matthewsb and K. Whitfieldb aDepartment of Management Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston 7, Jamaica bCardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Colum Drive, Cardiff, CF10 3EU Wales, UK Received 7 October 2005; accepted 16 December 2006. Available online 22 December 2006. Abstract Research on the causes of bank failure has focused on developed countries, particularly the United States of America. Relatively little empirical work has examined developing countries. We examine the total population of banks in Jamaica between 1992 and 1998 and find that real GDP growth, size, and managerial efficiency were the most significant factors contributing to the failure of banks. Bank failure is defined to include bailout and regulator-induced or supervised merger. Our results suggest that there were implicit ‘too-big-to-fail’ policies during this period. Keywords: Bank failures; Too-big-to-fail; Developing economies; Jamaica JEL classification codes: G21; G28 Article Outline 1. Introduction 2. Bank failure in Jamaica 3. Bank failure literature 4. Data and methodology 5. The likelihood of failure 6. Failure and bail-out 7. Conclusion Acknowledgements Appendix A. Pool of variables References 1. Introduction The last decade of the 20th century was unprecedented in Jamaica's financial history. Of a population of 37 banks, 21 were classified as failed, with 14 being so classified in 1 year—1998. However, few outright closures occurred. Most problem banks were merged with other banks, or continued to operate through financial support from the government. More than a half of domestic banks received some kind of financial support from the government, initiated voluntary bankruptcy proceedings or surrendered their licences. Explanations for such banking problems vary. Empirical research on bank failures separates the causal factors into bank-specific, industry-specific, macroeconomic and other. However, much of the debate on developing countries has neglected banks at the individual level, and has focused on the problems faced at the sector or industry level. Moreover, the (often conflicting) results of existing studies do not offer inferences about the factors that are particularly significant in developing countries, or to those that are significant to the failure of individual banks, or to the fate of problem banks. This paper addresses the following questions: what factors were significant in the banking crisis in Jamaica? What factors influenced how the crisis was handled and was there an implicit too-big-to-fail (TBtF) policy? What are the lessons for bank regulators in developing economies that can assist in better preparedness for the future? To address these questions, the within-sample performance of a panel of Jamaican banks is examined. Some of the factors identified as contributing to failure include deterioration in the macroeconomic environment, rapid expansion and weakness in a range of bank-specific factors: capital, management, and liquidity. The size results are particularly significant and point to the operation of implicit ‘TBtF’ policies. Larger banks are more likely to fail, but are also more likely to be bailed out rather than closed. The next section discusses the banking crisis in Jamaica. Section 3 reviews the literature on bank failures. Section 4 discusses data and methodology. Sections Sections 5 and 6 present the results, and Section 7 concludes. 2. Bank failure in Jamaica The term ‘bank failure’ has been interpreted varyingly. The more precise definitions have focused on accounting factors (for example, [Martin, 1977] and [Benston and Kaufman, 1995]), economic factors ([Bell et al., 1990] and [González-Hermosillo et al., 1997]), or legal factors (Meyer and Pifer, 1970). Conversely, more general definitions have attempted to be all-inclusive and have applied a ‘catch-all’ combination of specific definitions (for example, Thomson, 1992). Using a general definition of ‘bank failure’ embracing closure, bankruptcy, supervised merger, or direct government assistance, we assess the population of banks in Jamaica over the period 1992– Table 1 shows a comparative profile of the Jamaican banking sector before and after the crisis. Table 1. Banking system profile: pre- and post-banking crisis Jamaican banking sector
hsxshirley
Make Every Document a Marketing Document Every scrap of paper that leaves your business is performing a marketing 's idea is not earthshattering, but it is one that many businesses, large and small, send invoices, fax covers, memo, notes, request and all other manner of "non-marketing" related correspondence to - you guessed it, your clients, referral sources and 's a pretty simple thing to A) make sure that these documents also conform to the image you project in your marketing materials and B) make them sell a no harm in introducing a new product in every communication, regardless of how mundane.
缘来是你69
论文文献资料【篇名】---银行危机的社会学解释【相关摘要】本文主要从社会学角度来研究系统性的银行危机。 银行危机内生于银行的构建，其承担的储蓄转投资的功能决定了银行的脆弱性。随着银行业的发展，其在社会经济中的地位逐步提高，银行危机对政治、经济、社会的冲击和影响也加大。 中国作为一个转型国家，整个金融体系是从大一统的银行体制变革开始起步，到目前为止，银行仍居金融业的主导地位。四家国有独资商业银行在我国经济和社会发展中居于举足轻重的地位，维系着国民经济命脉和经济安全。由于四行在我国转轨过程中，把不断增加的储蓄转投给了国有企业，在国有企业亏损面扩大和增加的情况下，形成和出现了大量不良资产。东南亚危机后，由于我国经济金融与发生国的诸多相似，国际上一些著名的机构和学者主要依据四行超过20％的不良资产率和不足8％的资本充足率，纷纷预测中国很快就会发生严重的金融危机，有些学者甚至设计好了危机爆发的过程，就等中国实际的验证。然而，事实与预言相距太大，四行不仅没有遭到挤兑而倒闭，而且存贷款仍保持高增长。东南亚风暴没有登陆比邻的中国，而是刮到俄罗斯、巴西。为何中国能抵御这场危机?四行为何没有出现典型的银行危机——挤兑存款，甚至还排队存款呢?这说明，在关心中国的机构和学者看到中国与东南亚国家，或历史上危机发生国类似情况的同时，中国还有许多与危机国不同的因素在体内发挥作用，这些不同的因素是什么?全文围绕此展开分析和研究。本文认为银行作为储蓄转投资的中介，实际形成了以银行为中心的信任链。这个信任链由两段构成，一段是存款人与银行，一段是银行与借款人。银行把从存款人那里得到的信任集中后，转给了借款人。短存长贷、债权约束是这个信任链的特征。任一段信任链的断裂都可能使整个信任链无法维持。这样，就可以清楚银行危机为何既可能是存款人集中挤兑造成，也可能是贷款人违约造成。四行为中心的信任链已经出现了相当大比例的断裂，但危机没有发生。从信任链数量对比上看，是由于存 款大于贷款的增长拉得住部分断裂的信任链。其根本原因在于决定这 些变化的社会系统。 全文由绪论和七章组成。 绪论部分主要说明了为什么进行此研究；综述了已有的研究和介 绍了本文的研究。从社会学角度研究银行危机，从学科领域看，本文 具有一定的前沿性。 第1章，主要回顾了20世纪以来国际上发生的不同国家的银行 危机，主要是：发生在美国的两次危机，阿根廷两次时间相隔不长的 危机，俄罗斯的危机，东南亚国家的危机，以及中国在1998年关闭 海南发展银行。这些史实，是本文实证分析时的主要资料。 第2章，研究了银行为中心的信任关系，从科尔曼对信任的研究 出发，构建出以银行为中心的信任链。导致银行危机的原因很多，但 结局只能是银行无法维持信任链的运转。聚集到信任链上后，就可以 发现信任链的存在与维持不是仅从信任链上摘取几个指标就能做出 危机是否发生的判断，政治、经济、社会中一些难以量化的因素左右 着这个信任链。借助 AG模式解释银行危机将有效克服原有银行金 融危机理论在解释危机时以偏概全的缺陷，具有较强的说服力。 第3章，分析了四行的特殊信任结构，这种结构正是我国与危机 发生国的不同。不良资产率高，资本充足率低确是严重的问题，但国 有独资性质使得社会公众相信国家信用支撑国有银行，从而使存款人 与银行信任链的稳定和扩大拉住了因扭曲银企关系而造成损失的银 行与借款人的信任链。 第一章，主要研究货币稳定问题，这实际是中国防范东南亚危机 的第一道防火墙。人民币互动的制度选择，对内对外都成功地保持了 币值的稳定。 第5章，具体分析了东亚危机后居民储蓄增加的原因，因为信任 的存在并不代表信任的增加。教育、住房、社会保障制度等在党的十 五大和新一届政府成立后集中出台，改变了居民心理预期，导致储蓄 因预防性动机增强而增长。储蓄的增长和存差的扩大保证了四行不会 回流动性不足而导致危机。 第6章，分析了东南亚危机后政府的救助措施和效果，以及中国 政府强有力的控制，这是吸取东南亚危机教训，在危机末公开化时的 抢先行动，表明了政治系统在包括银行系统在内的社会系统整合中时 机把握、手段运用都比较成功。 第7章，研究对未来银行危机的防范措施，加入们 将引致中国 银行业和其它社会系统的深刻变化，原先存在的有利因素可能失去， 不利因素逐渐增加。借鉴罗斯福新政和韩国的成功经验，中国完全可 以把事后的行为转为事前的防范，从而减轻危机发生可能造成的巨大 代价。银行安全网和社会保障安全网是两个最为重要的，可以减轻或 控制危机成本的制度构建。
Miss乔大小姐
银行类论文参考文献
在各领域中，大家最不陌生的就是论文了吧，论文是指进行各个学术领域的研究和描述学术研究成果的文章。那么一般论文是怎么写的呢？以下是我整理的银行类论文参考文献，仅供参考，大家一起来看看吧。
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ritafanfan
Interest rate marketability and our country State-owned Commercial bank countermeasureInterest rate marketability connotationThe so-called interest rate marketability, is refers to the money market fund supply and demand both sides independent determination interest rate level interest rate decision mechanism vicissitude process 。Says specifically, the interest rate marketability is refers to the Central Bank to need to regulate the datum interest rate according to the monetary policy, various commercial bank saves the loan interest rate according to the fund market supply and demand change independent adjustment, Finally forms take Central Bank datum interest rate as the guidance, multi-level, can manifest fund supply and demand condition and the reflection Central Bank monetary policy intention interest rate operational mechanism fully。The interest rate marketability emphasis interest rate really reflected the fund cost and the supply-demand relation, effectively display its economical leverage nimbly。一. Our country interest rate marketability reform existence questionIs opposite says in the Chinese economic reform and the opening to the outside world overall step, the interest rate marketability reform progresses slowly. Looked on the present situation that, our country not yet completely realizes the interest rate marketability, the interest rate control creates the interest rate this important price release lever to receive the serious restraint in the resources disposition aspect function, the interest rate structure distortion. Our country interest rate system marketability degree quite is also low, mainly displays in following several aspects:1. The interest rate control degree is high, the interest rate level and the structure are incompatible, and the bank independency is restricted. The current our country interest rate policy movement environment controls the interest rate primarily, the interest rate level decision, the difference interest rate policy making and so on the related interest rate each aspect policy all by the government strict control, displays the high planning and . The interest rate level determination has certain subjective blindness; the rate adjustment flexibility is insufficient. At present our country interest rate level decision is makes by the monetary policy committee, the interest rate decision-making power high degree of concentration in the central authorities, the interest rate formulation and the adjustment has the serious time lag . Lacks the effective market datum interest rate. On November 1, 2003, the NAP Standing Committee Cheng Sewer, vice chairman of the Forum, said: "The market-oriented interest rates, the key is to set the benchmark interest rate. The benchmark interest rate is determined, in order to determine the interest rate structure, risk structure. No established the benchmark rate, the interest rate market is a empty sentences. "Benchmark rate in the entire interest rate system has played a core role and prevents other interest rates, in a sense, the benchmark interest rate options and determine the interest rate market is the core of the reform steps.二．Implements the interest rate marketability state-owned commercial bank significanceFirst, is advantageous to the expansion state-owned commercial bank right of autonomous management, the enhancement competitive power. After the interest rate lets loose, the bank had the independent fixed price power, may use this kind of right to independence and its flexible full display fully. The various countries' reform experience indicated that, after the interest rate marketability, the deposit real interest rate all has the different scope raise. The real interest rate rise will have the positive influence to the deposit, the attraction fund from bank systems and so on the stock market, black market accepts the human bank system, the enhancement commercial bank's competitive power. Next, is advantageous in raises the state-owned commercial bank management level. The interest rate marketability causes the fund price to let loose truly. Price competition between the banks presents the new ball game from this. But the price competition must rise take the low cost fund as the backing. In order to gain the low cost capital source, various bank in the financial product, the marketing strategy, service method general unfolds manager respectively, this will intensify inevitably the competition intense degree, will urge the bank change management way, who will grasp is initiative who to be able to obtain market (In the new situation, the commercial bank guild cared about the interest rate market change situation and the international interest rate undulation tendency, and according to own situation, determines the cost scientifically, formulates the price reasonably, the enhancement economic accounting, strengthens its profit ability. It can be said that, the interest rate marketability reform, the interest rate production mechanism transformation, is to a commercial bank management and operation from inside to outside comprehensive forging. Is once more advantageous in creates a relatively fair competition environment. The interest rate marketability and the money market consummation is a process which complements one another. The developed money market is the interest rate marketability reliable guarantee. Because in the developed consummation money market, the financial tool type is rich, financial main body multi-dimensional, the financing way is diverse, the competition is full, the interest rate can reflect fully the fund price, can guide the resources reasonable disposition, enhances the resources use efficiency. Otherwise, the interest rate marketability can promote the money market development consummation; The money market is the interest rate marketability advancement beginning, also will be carries on the risk management to the interest rate the place, the interest rate system change promotes the money market development. Finally, is advantageous in speeds up the microscopic main body the property right reform, interest rate marketability important condition is the state-owned enterprise and the state-owned commercial bank's property right must be clear. The property right is not clear, is not strong to the interest intrinsic budget restraint, exceeds the time limit the risk responsibility to attenuate, and cannot be keen to the interest rate reflection. At present, our country State-owned Commercial bank and very big part of state-owned enterprise's property right slurred, the interest rate market changed into its reform to provide the power, on objective impelled their property right reform.三．The interest rate marketability causes the state-owned commercial bank faced with to challenge sternlyThe interest rate marketability, is the historical stage which our country Commercial bank must pass through, can impel our country State-owned Commercial bank enormously the reform. But after the interest rate marketability, the interest rate level change does not decide, Our country Commercial bank which survives under the control possibly can develop the new financial tool for a long time to dodge the interest rate risk without enough time, will certainly to face the stern challenge, this displays in:1．Has enlarged the bank rate risk. After the interest rate marketability, the interest rate level ascension and the irregular undulation enlarge, intensified the bank vulnerability, ha have enlarged the bank rate risk. After the interest rate marketability, the interest rate level ascension and the irregular undulation enlarge, intensified the bank vulnerability, have the possibility to cause the bank crisis extremely the occurrence. As a result of our country long-term interest rate control, the interest rate by artificial force down, after the interest rate is let loose, the interest rate level can elevate inevitably. The analysis indicated that, in the credit activity, along with the real interest rate enhancement, the risk borrower more will become the bank by chance the customer, But loathes the risk originally the enterprise borrowers also favor in change oneself project the nature, enable it to have a higher risk and the income level. The cause property average horizontal drop in quality, the credit risk , from looked for a long time that, the interest rate change the fund supply and demand real-time influence, can undulate frequently, but the interest rate undulation namely meant risk existence. How forecast accurately the interest rate change tendency, the reasonable determination has the competitive advantage price water; how assigns scientifically saves, the loan deadline layout, maintains the best advantage bad level;How forecast accurately the interest rate change tendency, the reasonable determination has the competitive advantage price water � How assigns scientifically saves, the loan deadline layout, maintains the best advantage bad level; How adjusts the property debt structure nimbly,Enhances prepares pays the level, the active control interest rate forms fluid wind �? How will supervise perfectly restricts the mechanism, prevented has human sentiment interest rate risk and so on, these will all cause the commercial bank faced with the stern ．Leads the service to the commercial bank to have the huge impact. Along with the interest rate marketability, various bank launches the intense contention superiority customer to save the loan war inevitably, the keen competition will cause to save the loan advantage difference large scale deflation. At the same time, the interest rate marketability impetus money market development, the massive enterprise temporary fund no longer rises in value through the deposit form, but is in the capital market, the money market puts in obtains the short-term to receive；Whether there is does the inhabitant also no longer excessively regard as important only contains the risk value deposit interest rate, pays attention contains the risk value the money market to receive �? The bank leadership service will be under the huge can be said, after interest rate marketability, bank true competition magic weapon instead outside interest rate method. Because the monetary fund is highly the homogeneity commodity, the grade of service is more important, highly effective, the low cost manages finances the service enable the customer to have a higher income, has the attraction to the ．Proposed the challenge to the bank management and interest rate control system, regardless of is the interest rate level or counts the rest method all to have the country to decide, regardless of how the country does adjust saves the loan interest rate, all fully considered commercial bank actual situation, maintains the reasonable advantage bad level throughout. Commercial bank's interest rate management is extremely simple, so long as gives according to the People's Bank the fluctuation scope carries out the national interest rate level then, the interest rate change is limited, the interest rate risk is controllable. In such situation, the bank management is inevitably passive. But in under the interest rate marketability condition, the intense market competition forces the bank either to use the price method, through raises the deposit interest rate, reduces the loan interest rate to attract the customer; Either depends upon the high quality service, through the function innovation, the product innovation, the technological innovation satisfies the customer. But this request commercial bank changes present the management, the method and the organization ．Proposed the challenge to the commercial bank staff quality. Along with interest rate marketability reform advancement quickening, the interest rate risk enlarge, will strengthen to the future interest rate trend analyzes and forecast oneself will be very urgent. The state-owned commercial bank seeks the financial professional who needs one batch of this aspect high quality, not only these people must have the deep theory foundation of basic skills, but also must have the rich commercial bank practice experience, Both must thoroughly understand the domestic interest rate change the undulation condition, and must be skilled in the forecast interest rate change tendency. But the present state-owned bank lacks generally can promptly effectively the control and the circumvention interest rate risk tool and the interest rate risk management professional, to the interest rate trend development forecast, the risk recognition and control is weak.四．The state-owned commercial bank should to strategyAlong with the interest rate marketability advancement, the interest rate is more and more big to the state-owned commercial bank's influence, in this situation, the state-owned commercial bank should seek positively should to the ．Establishment finance product fixed price system. In the interest rate marketability situation, whether does the commercial bank draw up a science reasonable fixed price system, has the nimble effective quoted price ability, the realization risk �? Between 20 income balances,Is key which whether it does develop continually. In this process, must establish the effective comprehensive income reckoning system, the overall evaluation customer comprehensive income which brings to the commercial bank，The customer credit risk size, the loan deadline length is the interest rate risk size, as well as commercial bank's collection fund cost and the operation cost share and so on the aspect questions。2．Increases the middle service product development ability, the adjustment profit structure. After the interest rate marketability, the bank saves, the loan favorable difference reduces, the profit level reduces, and this request state-owned commercial bank must develop the middle service vigorously. The bank may while develop positively receives on another's behalf, pays on another's behalf and so on service, uses the commercial bank market main body qualifications fully, positively provides the proxy for other financial organ to distribute the bond, the silver card account transfer, the proxy insures, the fund trust, the broker manages finances, The property management, financial consultant, the investment consultation and so on, enhances the middle service to buy a girl child, on own initiative develops the low risk, the high income middle service new variety positively, promotes the bank large scale by this profit ability, promotes the bank sustainable ．Establishes nimbly, the highly effective interest rate management organization, trains the interest rate managerial talent vigorously. According to the Bethel bank supervising and managing committee about the bank effective supervising and managing core principle request, under the interest rate marketability environment, various commercial bank must set up the specialized interest rate risk management department, manages and instructs the entire good interest rate work, Coordinates and coordinates inside and outside the bank to be connected the work. The interest rate control section's most important task is carries on the comprehensive interest rate sensitive tube on the bank asset debt level ; Exterior determination, internal advantage � The definite general headquarters to branch office's interest rate authorization, are responsible for staff interest rate risk management training and so on. In addition, but also should establish the high interest rate information communication channel, after the interest rate marketability, the commercial bank interior enhances greatly about the interest rate information transmission effectiveness, guarantees can transmit promptly general headquarters formulation each interest rate to commercial bank's any business mesh point, guarantees the commercial bank interest rate policy the ．Speeds up the state-owned commercial bank the property right reform. Stipulated according to "Law of corporation" that, the commercial bank belongs to the competitive profession, does not need to adopt the state-owned sole ownership property right, and does not have the legal barrier to its joint stock system transformation. To the state-owned commercial bank's property right reform, its concrete transformation form establishes the joint stock system commercial bank. The reality in China, in accordance with international practice, and gradually achieve solely by the state to transform the state-owned holding company, and ultimately joint-stock limited companies, and establish corporate system of corporate governance institutions, the establishment of the right to operate, ownership and the right to supervise the separation of the framework, China's commercial banks to become real significance of commercial banks, do business operations.字太多，发布下，你再见个问题吧，我回答。率市场化与我国国有商业银行对策利率市场化的内涵所谓利率市场化，是指金融市场资金供求双方自主确定利率水平的利率决定机制的变迁过程。具体讲，利率市场化是指中央银行根据货币政策的需要调控基准利率，各商业银行根据资金市场的供求变化自主调节存贷款利率，最终形成以中央银行基准利率为引导，多层次、能够充分体现资金供求状况和反映中央银行货币政策意图的利率运行机制。利率市场化强调利率真实地反映资金成本与供求关系，灵活有效地发挥其经济杠杆作用.
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