英语报刊阅读能力论文英文文献

英语阅读的认知观论文

摘要： 英语阅读过程中陈述性知识和程序性知识相互依赖、相互作用，对意义理解具有重要作用。文章指出，知识是构成英语阅读能力的认知元素，是学习者解读意义的媒介、技能和策略。信息的编码与解码是学习者运用知识准确理解语言、文化和情感意义的能动的认知过程。

关键词： 知识；意义；英语阅读；理解

引言

哲学家赖尔（Ryle G.）于1949年将知识区分为陈述性知识（declarative knowledge）和程序性知识（procedural knowledge）[1]。后来认知心理学家加涅（Gagne RM.）和安德森（Anderson JR.）等把它们应用于人类的学习理论和认知理论研究。我国学者皮连生教授通过多年研究，提出了广义知识理论。[2]他认为，知识分狭义知识和广义知识。狭义知识仅指陈述性知识；而广义知识包括陈述性知识和程序性知识。程序性知识是技能，是人们运用规则对外办事的程序性知识，（即认知技能，cognitive skills和动作技能，motor skills）以及运用规则对内调控的程序性知识（即策略性知识strategic knowledge），是有关“如何做”的知识。

阅读是一个信息加工过程。人们为研究这些问题进行了大量而富有成效的研究，提出了不同的阅读理论与模式：自下而上模式（the bottom-up model）、自上而下模式（the top-down model）、互动模式（interactive model）和图式理论（schema theory）。[3]本文运用当代认知心理学广义知识理论，从英语阅读过程分析与讨论陈述性知识和程序性知识对学习者理解语言意义、文化意义以及情感意义的认知作用。

1 陈述性知识

阅读是通过视觉感知语言符号后大脑处理、加工与理解信息意义的心理过程。[4]阅读材料一般承载着三方面的信息：语言信息（词汇、语法等语言结构）、文化信息（历史、政治等）和情感信息（作者的观点、态度等）。因此，成功的阅读意味着学习者能正确解读阅读材料中的语言意义、文化意义和情感意义。那么，在英语阅读认知活动中，陈述性知识对语言、文化和情感信息的编码和译码究竟起到了怎样作用？

陈述性知识是人有意识掌握的、以命题（proposition）方式储存在大脑中的事实、概念、或观念构成的信息，是有关世界“是什么”的知识。而命题是人们从事物的知觉信息中抽取出主要意义而忽略其细节特征的一种表征方式[5]。它具有抽象性和概括性。因此，学习者所获取有关英语的陈述性知识反映出他们对英语语言及其文化规律性的认知结果。在英语阅读认知活动中，学习者要理解阅读材料的语言意义，必须提取头脑中储存的英语词汇知识和语法知识（陈述性知识）。心理学的研究表明，在理解某一词语时，学习者会自动检索自己陈述性记忆中的“心理词典”（ mental dictionary ），即首先激活陈述性记忆中的有关该词的知觉以及该词的所有含义，然后根据上下文做出选择。比如：要准确理解“He lost the match and also lost the chance to play in the finals.”句中 “finals”的词义时，学习者会自动激活该词的所有含义：“最后的”、“决赛”、“期末考试”和“报纸每日发行的最后一版”，并能根据语境迅速确定“final”是“决赛”，而不是其他含义。可见，理解词义首先需要具备词汇知识。学习者的心理词典内容越丰富，其提取词义的速度就越快。同理，分析句子结构、理顺词句间复杂的`语法和逻辑关系离不开语法知识。要准确理解“He has built a mansion overlooking Lake Washington that he’s packed with high-tech gadgetry and TV monitors” （徐小贞，《新世纪职高高专英语》，上海外语教育出版社，2005）这个句子，必须对这个结构较复杂的句子进行语法分析，理顺“overlooking Lake Washington”和 “that he’s packed with high-tech gadgetry and TV monitors”与“mansion”之间的语法关系，即现在分词短语和定语从句分别作名词“mansion”的定语。

解读语言意义需要语言知识；理解文化意义必须依赖文化背景知识。陈述性知识作为世界知识，它涉及英语语言知识和英语文化背景知识。认知心理学的研究发现，图式（schema）是陈述性知识的综合表征形式，是对范畴（category）中的规律性进行编码的一种形式（nderson R.C. & D. P. Pearson，1984）[6] 。图式既是一种知识表征形式，又是相互关联的知识构成的完整的信息系统，它是建立在个体经验基础上的、有层次的动态结构。比如，“打电话”的行为图式包括摘机、拨号、问好、交谈、告别和挂机一系列的动作程序。即便电话内容有所不同，但打电话的动作程序是大致相同的。图式的这种结构性与程式性为读者加工新信息提供了认知模式（cognitive model）和理解框架。安德森（Anderson，A.）和利恩奇（Lynch，T.）的听力理解研究表明，听者的意义建构是通过更广泛的信息资源所获得的，这种信息资源既包括图式（schematic）知识又包括情境（contextual）知识[7]。这表明我们并不仅仅依赖于传入耳中的语音性质来获得意义，还必须运用大脑中储存的图式知识对输入信息进行加工和意义建构。此外，图式还可以解释话语中词汇的多义（polysemy）现象（Lehnert W.G.）。读者读到 “ The royal proclamation was finished. The king sent for his seal.” 这个句子时，之所以不会将句中的“seal ”（印章）误解为 “海豹 ”；是因为句中的“seal ”、“the royal proclamation”和“king ”属于同一图式。可见，图式能帮助读者消除歧义（ambiguity）、准确地提取词义。就文体图式而言，论说文有论说文的文体图式；记叙文有记叙文的文体图式，等等。英语新闻的编辑图式（who、when、where、 what、why、how）无疑有助于学习者更迅速、准确地理解新闻的内容。安德森（Anderson .R. C.）认为，在阅读理解中，图式具有为同化新信息提供信息框架的作用。[8]让我们看一段文字材料：

The procedure is quite simple. First，you arrange things into different groups. Of course，one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step，otherwise youare pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is，it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first，the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon，however，it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future，but then one can never tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will have to be completed. However，this is part of life.[9]

一般读者看完后会觉得这段文字难以理解。为什么会这样呢？这主要是因为读者没有将新信息与自己头脑中的图式知识建立起有机联系。如果将这段文字加上标题“Washing Clothes”， 这时读者有关“洗衣服”的图式就被激活，理解起来也就更容易、更准确。

另一方面，文化背景知识有助于学习者更好地理解阅读材料的内容，准确把握阅读材料的文化意义。不同的阅读材料涉及不同的内容，如政治、哲学、历史、地理、教育、体育，民俗，等等。因此，我们难以想象一个对哲学知之甚微的读者能看懂有关哲学的文章或书籍。从认知意义上说，学习者获取的陈述性知识越丰富，在认知英语的过程中形成的英语语言与文化图式就越多，其理解事物的能力就越强。语言学家努南（Nunan D.的研究也发现，在阅读理解中，背景知识比语法知识起的作用更大。[10]

在解读文本情感意义的过程中，陈述性知识以语言形式所承载的概念、命题的方式为学习者提供了分析、概括、综合和推理的文字依据。学习者通过运用这些概念和命题来分析与理解作者的观点或态度。比如，阅读 “Two Kinds of Football”（李观仪.《新编英语教程》上海外语教育出版社，1999）这篇文章后，要求学生分析作者对足球运动的态度，并作出正确评价。要理解作者的态度，学生必须从文章的字里行间找出作者对足球运动态度方面的信息，如“American football … is the American national sport”，“It excites tremendous enthusiasm”，“American football has a reputation of being a brutal and dangerous game. This reputation is not really deserved”，“Soccer games can now draw crowds of over 70 thousand in cities where baseball attracts a mere 20 thousand spectators”，“Soccer is being brilliantly promoted，like any other promising American product”；然后进行分析、整合、概括和推断；最终对作者的态度作出客观、正确的评价：作者对足球运动持“赞成”态度。

综上所述，在阅读理解中，陈述性知识对学习者理解阅读材料中的语言意义、文化意义和情感意义都起着重要的媒介或“桥梁”作用。然而，在意义理解的过程中，学习者仅有陈述性知识是不够的，还需运用必要的阅读技能与策略。

2 程序性知识

程序性知识对学习者阅读技能与策略的形成与发展具有重要意义。程序性知识是运用规则做事的技能。就英语阅读而言，这些“规则”主要指阅读技能和阅读策略（策略性知识）。程序性知识的产生式“条件---行为”规则告诉我们，“规则支配行为”。只有满足用规则做事的条件，才能实施与之相符合的行为。这说明在阅读理解过程中，陈述性知识和程序性知识是相互依赖、相互作用的。要充分理解文本意义，学习者必须掌握有关英语阅读技能与策略方面的陈述性知识，并能根据词、句、篇不同层面的信息加工的需要灵活选择与运用与之相符合的词义提取技能、语句理解技能、篇章理解技能。如理解段落大意通常使用“主题句”（topic sentence）阅读技能。就英语阅读词义理解技能来说，有构词法、同义词、反义词、上下义、上下文、定义、解释、重述、识别指代关系等。英语教学实践证明，经过大量实际练习，这些技能不仅会日趋熟练，而且能有效地促进学习者对词义的理解。

另一方面，作为阅读策略，程序性知识的作用主要体现在帮助学习者有效地设定阅读目标、选择阅读技能等，以调节与监控他们分析、综合、判断、概括思维活动，提高意义理解的速度与质量。学习者知道英语阅读技能方面的陈述性知识，但如果不能根据阅读材料的性质和阅读目标的需要灵活选择合适的阅读技能，这无疑会影响其阅读理解。假如学习者的阅读目标只是了解文章大意，那么应选择略读（skimming）策略，然后对自己的略读过程进行监控，即有意识地按照略读的三个步骤进行阅读——首先通读文章的起始段和结尾段；然后细读其他段落的主题句；最后浏览与主题句相关的信息词。[11

通过以上分析我们可以看出，英语阅读能力是由陈述性知识、程序性知识和策略性知识构成的（这里的‘能力’指学习者通过获取和运用知识所形成的能力，不包括能力的先天因素）。陈述性知识、程序性知识和策略性知识在阅读认知活动中扮演着不同的“角色”，但它们互相依赖、互相作用，共同促进学习者对语言、文化和情感意义的理解。

3 结语

本文运用广义知识理论阐明了英语阅读的认知观：英语阅读能力是由陈述性、程序性和策略性知识构成的。意义理解是一个互动的过程。词义的理解离不开句子；语篇理解又以词句的理解为支撑。意义理解的过程既有自下而上（bottom-up）的信息加工，又有自上而下（top-down）的信息加工。在英语阅读认知活动中，知识既各司其职，又相互联系、相互作用，对学习者解读文本意义起到了媒介、技能与策略的作用。广义知识理论认为，英语阅读理解不仅是学习者接受信息的过程，而且是他们运用知识主动加工信息、准确解读文本的语言、文化和情感意义的认知过程。

参考文献：

[1]赖尔，刘建荣译.心的概念[M].上海译文出版社，1988.

[2]皮连生.智育心理学[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1996.

[3]Grabe，W.Currentdevelopment in second language reading research. TESOL，Quarterly 25（3），pp.375-406，1991.

[4]朱纯.外语教学心理学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1994.

[5]Anderson，JR.1983.The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge，MA:Harvard University Press.

[6]Anderson，R.C. & Pearson，D.P.1984. A Schema-theoretic View of Basic Processes in Reading Comprehension. In Carrell，Devine & Eskey（ed.）Introductive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

[7]Anderson，A.and Lynch，T.1988.Listening.Oxford: Oxford University.

[8] 同 [5].

[9]Carroll，D.1986. Psychology of Language. Monterey，California：Brooks/Cloe Publishing Company.

[10]Nunan，D. 2001.Second Language Teaching and Learning.Beijing：Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

[11] 程晓堂等.英语学习策略[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002.

Structure Features and Rhetorical Devices of English Newspaper HeadlinesAbstract: With the development of mass media, newspaper is one of the major media for us to get information all over the world. Nowadays English newspaper is very popular and read all over Chine. However, many people still have difficulty in understanding English newspaper headlines even for some English majors. This is because English newspaper headlines have their own special features, culture backgrounds and different from the daily English we used in many aspects. This paper will then focus on the lexical, structure features and rhetorical devices of English newspaper headlines, which can help us to have a better understanding when we are reading newspapers.Key words: Newspaper headline, Lexical features, Structure features, Rhetorical devices.摘要：随着传媒的发展，报纸逐渐成为我们获取世界各地的信息主要媒介。现在，英文报纸的阅读更是非常流行。然而，许多人仍是很难理解英文报纸的标题，即使是英语专业的学生。这是因为英语报纸的标题有着它们自己独有的特点，文化背景和日常英语与我们在很多方面的不同。本文将重点放在词汇，结构特点和修辞在英语报纸中的特点，当我们在读报纸，它可以帮助我们有更好的理解。关键词：报纸的标题，词汇特征，结构特点，修辞。1. IntroductionEvery time we pick up a newspaper, what come into our sight will be lots of news headlines. A headline has become an indispensable part of newspaper. The editor means to attract the reader’s attention through headlines. As a result, news paper headlines are usually specially designed to be short, concise, and informative to convey different kinds of information. We may be confused by the headlines like “Cater’s War on Waste”, “UFO Sighted”, “Smugglers Get Jail and Fines”, “Weekly Mag for Stamp Lovers to Be Launched”, ect. Yet without some knowledge of news headline features, it is not easy for us to read English newspaper. This paper has summarized the study of newspaper development in recent years and presents the lexical features, structure features and rhetorical devices of English newspaper headlines in details.2. Lexical Features of English Newspaper HeadlinesLexical features of English newspaper headlines can mainly include four parts. They are exemplified as follows.[1] AbbreviationAbbreviation, which is used in a large quantity in English newspaper, means “A shortened form of a word or phrase used chiefly in writing to represent the complete form”. Generally speaking there are 3 kinds of Abbreviations used in the newspaper.① Abbreviation for organizationsExamples: UNESCO = Uinted Nations Educational, Scientific and Culture OrganizationPLO = Palestine Liberation OrganizationIOC = International Olympic CommitteeNASA = National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationAPEC = Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation ConferenceFIFA = Federation Internationale de Football Association② Abbreviation for profession and careerExamples: MP = member of parliament PM = prime ministerGM = general manager PA = personal assistant③ Abbreviation for our familiar thingsExamples: UFO = Unidentified Flying Object DJI = Dow-Jones IndexAIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeGMT = Greenwich Mean TimesLaser = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of RadiationRadar = Radio Detection and RangingSonar = Sound Navigation RangingTOEFL = Test of English as A Foreign LanguageIELTS = International English Language Testing System[2] ShorteningShortening of different words in newspaper aims to spare more space or to cut down the length of the headlines.Examples: grad – graduate hosp – hospital cig – cigaretteCell – cellular Sec – second Reps – representativesInfo – information Int’l – international Deli– delicatessenHi-fi – high fidelity Hi-tech – high technology 3-D – three dimensionalG-7 – Group of seven A-bomb – atom bomb V-day – victory day[3] CompoundCompound words in English newspaper are usually formed by two or over two words. By compounding, we can make complicated structure simpler, what’s more, save space.Examples: ① “Plan to aid school dropouts extended” ( China Daily, Feb.5.1998 ). Here “school dropouts” refers to “the student who drops out of school”.② “Li stresses corruption fight” (China Daily, Feb.6.1998). Here “corruption fight” refers to “fight against corruption”.[4] Informal and Small WordsNewspaper headlines are likely to use informal and small words because small words have more meanings than big words and can be used in many cases. In news English these words are refered to as “synonyms of all work”.Examples: aim——purpose, design, object intention, etc.meet——assembly, convention, congregation, exam,etc,pact——compact, contract,agreement,conventiondeal——negotiationm,transaction,bargain,etc.3. Structure Features of English Newspaper HeadlinesStructure features of English newspaper headlines can be divided into two aspects. They are as follows:[1] OmissionOmission is one of the major features of English newspaper headlines. Generally speaking, omission can be classified 4 types.① Omission of articlesExamples: Italian Ex-mayor Murdered ( = A Italian Ex-mayor Was Murdered )Tenth of British Mackerel Catch Ground into Feed(= A Tenth of the British markerel Catch Ground into Feed )② Omission of conjunction and pronounExamples: USA, Vietnam Resume Talks ( = USA and Vietnam Resume Talks )Have Dollars, Will Sell ( = If You Have Dollars, Will Sell )③ Omission of “be ” and auxiliary verbsExamples: Three Dead after Inhaling over Gas ( = Three Are Dead after Inhaling over Gas )Married Women to Get Care Allowance( = Married Women Are to Get Care Allowance )PNC’s world views praised ( = PNC’s world views were praised )④ Omission of verbsExamples: Ballots, Not Bullets ( = Algerians Want Ballots, Not Bullets )Pom peii Reported Seriously Damaged( = Pom peii Reported to Have Benn Seriously Damage)[2] Use Noun to Replace Adjective, Phrase, and VerbNouns are frequently used in newspaper Headlines to replace different words to form various structures. So nouns are the most animated words in news headlines.Examples: Yugoslav pianist stirring music world( “music world” = “musical world” )Corruption Reports Against Police Rise( “corruption reports” = “reports on corruption complaints ”)Female axe murderer executed( “female axe murdered” = “ a female murderer who killed with an axe ” )Export growth to beat crisis( “growth” is used to replace “grow” )4. Rhetorical Devices Of English Newspaper HeadlinesRhetorical devices of English newspaper headlines mainly have six kinds. They are as follows.[1] ImitationExamples: The Son Also Rises To Save or Not to SaveThe Road That Must be Taken Do as Maoris DoThe Great Mall of China Candidate in the WindiPod, therefore, i am[2] MetaphorExamples: A Dove Taking WingWhitewater May Drown DemocratsTrouble Brewing[3] AlliterationAlliteration is the repetition of initial identical consonant sounds in successive or closely associated syllables, esp. stressed syllables.Examples: Pride and Prejudice Sense and SensibilityKill or Cure? Carrots and Clubs?Solitary Soldier Tiger Tied Virtual Villains[4] RhymeRhyme is the repetition of an identical stressed vowel sound, followed by identical consonant sound but preceded by different consonantsExamples: Masculine rhyme: Foe/toe meet/fleet make/brakeFeminine rhyme: Revival/arrival mountain/fountainEye rhyme: Brain Gain/Drain Dream Team Wheels and DealsBubble, Bubble, Toil and Trouble It’s More Than a War[5] PunPun is an expression that achieves emphasis or humor by contriving an ambiguity, two distinct meanings suggested either by the same word or by two similar sounding words.Examples: Why is the river so rich? It has two banks.Why are monkeys as talkative as women? Each monkey has a tail(tale).Why is that female movie star so cool? She has many fans.Which can run faster, heat or cold? Heat, because everyone can catch cold.What is the worst weather for mice?When it rains cats and dogs.Why is the bride always unlucky on her wedding day? Because she can never marry the best man.What is mind? It doesn’t matter.What is the matter? Never mind.[6] IdiomExamples: Rome is not built in a day.Third time lucky.The seven-year itch.ConclusionTo sum up, English newspaper headlines can use different kinds skills of lexical features, structure features and rhetorical devices to create many effects. Besides the features mentioned above, there many other features in English newspaper headlines for us to analyze. Understanding the headlines of the news is a gateway to understand the whole news, so news headlines is an area worthwhile for us to go deep into.