南北战争论文参考文献怎么写

1 《解放黑人奴隶宣言》《宅地法》2 《解放黑人奴隶宣言》宣布：假如在1863年1月1日以前南方叛乱者不放下武器，叛乱诸州的奴隶将从那一天起获得自由。消息传到南方后，成千上万的奴隶逃往北方。英国工人阶级也展开了支持北方的运动，迫使英国政府放弃了原来的干涉计划 《宅地法》规定：一切忠于联邦的成年人，只要交付10美元的登记费，就可以在西部领取公顷土地，在土地上耕种5年后就可以成为这块土地的所有者。林肯政府严厉镇压反革命分子，清洗军队中南方代理人。1863年开始实行征兵法，以代替募兵制，从而，增强北方的兵力。同时，林肯调整了军事领导机构，实行统一指挥，任命有卓越军事才能的.格兰特为全军统帅。3 。《宅地法》的实施 ，加速了西部的开发，促进农业资本主义发展中美国式道路的胜利。因而19世纪末美国一跃而成为世界上最先进的工农业资本主义大国。黑人在内战后的重建时期仍受到多方面的歧视和种植场主的剥削，但在政治上取得公民权及选举权，从奴隶枷锁下解放出来

The importance of family education Family education on the issue since ancient times by people's concern, but as a subject to study in China in recent years is also the matter. This is the development of the times, the demand, the National necessary to improve the overall quality of the issues involved. Here with the parents of the importance of family education, the aim is to the family and society, the education sector to shoulder the common task of educating the next generation. The education is a system of education works here include a family education, social education, collective (Tuoyouyuansuo, school) education, the three interrelated and organic combination of mutual influence, interaction and mutual constraints The education project from which one can, but in this project, family education is the foundation of all education. The former Soviet Union educators famous Su Huomu Belinsky transferred to a child than marble, he said, to shape this into a marble statue of need six sculptor: 1 family, 2 schools, 3 children of the collective; 4 child; books; 6 occasional factor. From the order, the family was included in the first place, can see the family in shaping children in the course of a very important role in the hearts of the educators occupy a position. For this reason parents understand the importance of family education is very necessary. First, family education is the starting point for education and basic point Family education generally refers to the family of parents and adult children of minors education process. Their educational objectives should be: the child into the community to accept collective education (kindergarten, school education) prior to guarantee the physical and mental health development of children, to accept the kindergartens, schools of education to lay a solid foundation. The child for admission into the school, with kindergartens, schools to moral, intellectual, physical, the United States, the various aspects of comprehensive development. Education is the focus of moral education mainly among children good moral quality and develop good habits mainly habits include: living habits, labor practices, learning habits, the church children how to learn "life." As a result of family education in the family, and kindergartens, schools of education, social education, compared with the following characteristics of these features so that family education to become the starting point for education and basic point is by no other educational advantages. (A) family of early education The family is the cradle of life of children, who are receiving education after the birth of a venue that is the first class life; parents are children's first teachers, that is, the Enlightenment division. Therefore, parents of children by the application of early education the most. Generally speaking, after the birth of a child after three years of development, access to early childhood, from the 3-year-old…… 6-year-old is preschool, which is said in the early stages of education, this is the physical and mental development of an important period. China's Gu Yan: "Cang, with the Cang, with the yellow, yellow." Childhood is gradually nurture life with the beginning of many basic human capacity is a stage of this age, such as language, and some basic moves Living habits, and so on, the character is gradually taking shape. . psychologists Bloom, a person's intellectual development if his 17-year-old regarded as the level reached 100 percent, then 4 years old when it reached 50 percent. 4-8 years old and a 30% increase ,8-17-year-old also won 20 percent. This shows that children in the 5-year-old former intelligence is the fastest growing period, the early intellectual development is the best, if parents in this period by the implementation of good family education, early child will be the key to intellectual development. Since ancient times, many people with lofty ideals, celebrities in the early years of fruitful period by a good family education is their future become an important cause. For example, the German poet, playwright Goethe's become, effective early education in the family. Goethe 2-3 years old, his father hold on to the outskirts of the field visit to observe nature, culture Goethe's observation capability. 3-4 years old, his father taught him to sing, the songs back, said a fairy tale, and we intend to let him in the face of public lectures, training his speaking ability. These are awareness education so that young Goethe optimistic, progressive, happy to think, be good at learning. Goethe-8-year-old can use, Germany, Britain, Italy, Latin, Greek reading books, 14-year-old wrote the script, the 25-year-old with a month's time wrote a famous poem in Europe, "The Sorrows of Young Werther . " Another example of ancient "and his son calligrapher," Wang Xizhi's known for, Wang Xianzhi, there have been a number of 1350 Edison invented the great inventors, the generation of literary star Guo Moruo, Mao Dun and other celebrities of the growth process that the family education in the early intellectual development is very important . Instead, the period of childhood are not good family education and intellectual impact on the normal development of many of the examples is. Such as India, "Langhai" Ka Mala, who was Diao to the wolf, when 8-year-old was found, but their living habits with the same people, their living habits and almost like a wolf, limbs, crawling, eating raw meat, day V Night, Later, a man-made training, two years before standing, after six years can be like walking Xiangren, four years learned to six words, in his 17-year-old, the intellectual level reached only 3-year-old child's level. According to "China Women" revealed that China's Nanjing City Xingma one of the workers suffering from mental and psychological diseases, Shenpa children persecuted by the people, will own three children from small lock at home, people so that they contacts with the outside world, has a long Up to 10 years, resulting in the children mental retardation, speech delay, compared with their peers, intellectual capacity and very different life, near idiots, so the family can not be neglected the role of early education, (B) family education continuity of family education second characteristic is the continuity. After the birth of a child, from small to large, almost 2 / 3 of time living in the family, Zhaochaomumu, all the parents in the education. Such education is the intentional and unintentional, planned and unplanned, consciously and unconsciously, are carried out, no matter what, in what time education, parents are in their own words and deeds at any time affect their children's education . Such education of children living habits, moral conduct and behaviour and so on in the style of conversation kept to influence and demonstrations, the subtle influence of the considerable role, accompanied by a person's life can be said to live to old to learn the old, some Parent educator again called for life teachers. This life of the education often reflects a family's Family Style, Family Style is good or bad often have to continue for several generations, or even a dozen, dozens generation, and this Family Style often with family members engaged in the employment-related . Such as: Xinglin family "," Pear Orchard House, "" family education ", etc. At the same time Family Style also reflects a family's style of study, study, good or bad is often the continuation of many generations, a dozen people, several dozens of generations . As in modern China, Wuxi people Yan Gong added-not "countries selected in the Museum", statistics from 2003-Shunzhi Branch to Guangxu 30 years Bing Xu Jia Chen Branch, the champion of 114 people, including his son by the first brothers Shuzhileishi Absolutely not, such as Suzhou Miao, Wu and Pan Sanxing, Changshu Weng, both surnamed Jiang, Chen Haining, Zhejiang, check the two surnames. See, family education is often the continuity of personnel groups have an important impact on the rise. This Situation. Ancient and modern times quite prominent in the contemporary with the development of science, and social needs of the unemployed increased, the broad people's careers, a family member can not have all engaged in the same work, but many see this situation That some family members work frequently appears in the results, be commended, but some family members one after another crime. This is a continuous education and family have great relations. (C) family education authority Family Education is the authority of parents in their children on their elders reflected by the power and power. The existence of the family, parents and children identified the blood relationship, upbringing, emotional, moral and ethical children in the living needs of the elderly parents have great dependence, family members and the fundamental interests of consistency, have decided The father of each of their children a greater role in the constraints. Parent education was easier to accept and submit to the children, parents and reasonable use of this feature, the children good moral character and habits formed the usefulness, for child care, in particular, is the case. Child care and other children in playing the game, when disputes arise when parents are often invoked to confirm their own speech act is right, if they like to say: "My father is saying this." Or "My mother is So do. "And so on. Children of parents in the eyes of the authority decided to accept the child how to treat the nursery schools and community education. The relationship between children and parents, the child is the first to face an important social relations. In this relationship, almost embodies the moral social ethics in all aspects, if such a relationship in the formation of cracks and defects, the children then to the community, in a variety of relationships will be reflected. Therefore stressed the importance of parental authority, but also because the children of parents in childhood has always played a dual role: the safety of children is not only the survival of protected persons, but also a life of the Wizard of Enlightenment. The effects of parental education, depends on the extent to establish the authority of parents, foster parents must be authoritative Built on respect for children on the basis of personality, rather than the feudal patriarchal system, parents are wise to understand the importance of establishing authority, but also know how to establish the authority does not rely on repression and force, subjective assumptions, but the method used Gangrouxiangji. Both parents in the education of their children's attitude on the first concerted and coordinate with each other, should be wide, wide, it should be strict martial law, in front of their children establish a kind of dignity and image, so that parents accept their children's education. (D) of the infected family education Parents with children between the blood relationship and kinship between the natural and close, making the parents of the children have strong feelings on the role of infection. Children on the demeanour of the parents can often Xinlingshenkuai to intelligence-intelligence. In dealing with in and around the side of the relationship between matter and the issue of children on the attitude of parents is very easy to resonate. In the happy parents, the children will take part in joy, the parents showed irritability and Menmenbuyue, the child's emotions can easily be affected, even young children as well. If the parents lack of rational and emotional, hot temper, will enable blind children to absorb its weaknesses. Some parents in dealing with unexpected incidents, show panic anxiety, surprise, the impact on children is not good if the frightened parents the same, steady firm and children in distress will also calm the situation calmly, so the quality of child psychology training Play a positive role. (5) timeliness of family education Family education process, parents are parents of children in the family of the individual acts of education than kindergarten, school education should promptly. As the saying goes:知子莫若父, that women Morrow home. Overnight between parents and children, their situation can be said to be well known to the children was slightly changed, even a look, a smile can make parents Xinlingshenhui, so as parents through their children's every move, his every word and deed can make the best of At this very moment of their psychological state, found the child on the existing problems, timely education, timely corrective, not the problem overnight, so that bad habits in the embryonic stage of the eradication. And kindergartens, schools, teachers faced with dozens of children, only for the children of this age stage for general education, that is, education groups, because of time and energy constraints, it is impossible to take care of each child's characteristics, Prone to the phenomenon of loss, or even to take care of the children of teachers and the poor do not have a sense of trust, and parents could guide their children promptly correct understanding. So parents of children to the correct family education so that children can enter kindergarten before forming a good habit, to accept collective education has laid a good foundation, can make up for the lack of mass education. Second, a good family education is the 21st century created the necessary conditions for personnel "China's 1990s development program for children" in the specified: "Today's children are the masters of the 21st century, child protection and the bottom-up development is to improve the quality of the population base, which is a prerequisite for development. The healthy growth of children Related to the future and destiny of the motherland. Improve the quality of the entire nation, from the start with children. "And:" In 2000 to make 90 percent of children (under the age of 14) of the parents to varying degrees, master conservation, education of children of knowledge. "This Top targeted the parents shoulders for the state created the heavy responsibility of the 21st century talents. Can this generation of children training to become Dezhitimei the all-round development of people, this country is Houjiyouren relationship to the Bainiantaiji. Fu-Lu Bell also said: "The country's fate is not so much lies in the hands of those in power, we might as well have said to be in the hands of his mother." This sentence is very philosophical, it profoundly understand the parents pick in the education of their children in The role played by. Parents should first clear direction of education and national interests, the people's request in line with the principle, the child can not be regarded as private property, it is necessary to establish the idea of the country, correct educational purposes. China's 21st century is what the situation, with the words of Comrade Deng Xiaoping, to make our country in the middle of the 21st century to achieve the level of moderately developed countries, per capita income reached 4,000 . dollars, in gross national product amounted to 6 trillion . dollars. The 21st century should be a good ideologies and noble moral character, and improve the psychological quality, positive spirit of cooperation with others, strong adaptability, Chikunailao the comprehensive development of the new generation. If the 21st century do not have such a group of high-quality builders is very difficult to complete this great, with such a quality is not overnight can do, and a good family education training is a prerequisite for high-quality people. Third, a good family education is a catalyst to optimize the children hearts Children from infancy into childhood, with age, from the family environment will eventually enter the small community, contact with the crowd outside the home, things. Lee Jia Choue those in society from time to time to enter the child's perspective, adults take isolation tactics will not work, because in the family video from different angles will continue to reflect the reality in today's society, issues both positive and negative have The. Children, especially young children lack a rational ability to distinguish right from wrong, but sensitive than adults have the feeling of capacity. They occurred around the kind of terrible things, sensitive, and this sensitivity training is the ability to rationally distinguish between a good basis, as parents should take advantage of this extension, help the children feel in this capacity on the basis of , The development of the social life of the ability to identify and psychological capacity, social filter information, optimize the hearts of young children. If parents in their daily life can be for young children is not strong capacity to accept the characteristics specific to seize the day-to-day chores, help children understand the community in identifying the Shishifeifei, specifically so that they feel Lee's bright side, Experience to the ugly despicable, can help children enhance the Yangshan Chuxie sense of justice, thus resist the dark side of the ugly soul of the child erosion. For example, today's video into the urban residents in almost every family, the children almost every day to deal with them, it can be said is not out of their homes, Bianzhi the world. Which can be received from all over the world all kinds of information. There are political situation, scientific and technological progress, ordinary people of Sushi, from which you can learn a lot of knowledge and understanding of major domestic and international events, both within and outside small home. It is inevitable that some homicide violence, obscene absurdity of the lens Yingru child's eyelid. Parents should address these issues timely guidance, to improve their children's ability to identify, we need to keep their own perceptions of behaviour, for their children establish a positive image, optimizing the hearts of children, the prevention of child make mistakes, and even violations of law and discipline. Family to work in this area, help small and stability of the environment. The family is society's cells, with healthy cells, can we have a sound body, the sick cells, the body will cause disease. As an ancient saying goes: "body repair and then home-and-then-State governance, rule of the then-world", "Qijia, the country, the world-the" point of view is that this truth. For this reason parents do a good job in optimizing the work of children's mental stability and social, stability and national power in ages. In short, as parents to the importance of family education fully and conscientiously do a good job in their children's education, make good parents responsibilities and obligations for the country to train qualified personnel in the building.

历史上的美国南北战争 1、“一国两制”在美国的实践 美国历史上曾经实行过“一国两制”，只是没有明确地提过这种说法。美国的奴隶制度存在于南方。在殖民地时期，美国南方从非洲进口了大批黑人奴隶，建立了奴隶制基础上的种植园经济。在南方，广大的黑人被视为奴隶主的财产，没有独立人格，没有人身自由，过着悲惨的生活。这种状况在美国建国后仍然得到继续。美国的建国者们尽管提出了人人平等和自由的思想，但是并没有将之应用于美国南方的黑人。为了获得南方奴隶主阶级的支持，美国的开国者在建国时采取了默认奴隶制在南方存在的事实。这样就造成了美国在立国后60年的时间里存在的“自由人”与“奴隶制”这两制并存的“一国两制”的现象。 2、南北战争的起因 美国“一国两制”的状况维持了60年。到了1850年左右，南部和北部之间为奴隶制的争执开始白热化。但是，争论的焦点不是美国南方是不是应该废除奴隶制，而是新加入的一些州里是不是允许奴隶制，这关系到自由州同奴隶州在联邦政府内的权力分配上的平衡。1850年的协议暂时维持了联邦内自由州与奴隶州数目上的平衡，从而继续了“一国两制”的局面。 然而，这一局面很快就受到冲击。1850年后，美国共和党在北方崛起。共和党希望美国辽阔的西部新边疆能够避免奴隶制，实行自由劳工制度，因此坚决反对奴隶制向西部各州扩张。因此，南北矛盾尖锐化。1860年，共和党人林肯第一次当选美国总统。 林肯的当选沉重地打击了美国南方人士。他们失去了对联邦的信心，觉得南方的利益已经不可能得到联邦的保护。于是，脱离联邦，自立政府的主张获得响应。 为了平息南方人的愤怒和担心，林肯总统在演讲中多次向南方递出橄榄枝。他声明，他希望南方人士要认识到限制奴隶制的区别。他的目的不是要废除南方的奴隶制。他要求南方各州不要脱离联邦，而是在联邦内解决问题①。既然林肯总统已经保证不会废除南方的奴隶制，那就意 味着“一国两制”的政策将会继续。那么，南方就不应该再有独立的理由。 然而，南方各州因此不再愿意受“一国两制”的限制，断然决然地宣布自组南方邦联政府。南方人坚信自己有脱离联邦，寻求独立的权利。而在这一点上，正是南北方的最大分歧所在。 南方人士认为，美国联邦是当初各州自由加入而组成的。现在各州仍然有权利自由退出。而北方人士则认为，各州既然已经加入联邦，就已经形成了一个不可分隔的整体。加入时需要全体联邦成员的同意，退出时也必须经过同样的程序②。对这一统一与分裂权利的认知不同，就成了分别南方人士与北方人士的分界线而不是对奴隶制的认识。所以，美国南北战争不是为了消灭奴隶制，而是分裂与统一两股势力之争。 3、南北战争的结果 由于北方的实力超过南方，所以南方最后遭到失败的命运。南方不接受“一国两制”，战争的结果是一国两制不再实行。成了一国一制。最终吃亏的还是南方。奴隶制被废除。奴隶主阶层在许多年内受到压制。北方发动的保卫国家统一的战争受到人民的拥护，维护国家的统一，从而保证了战争的胜利。美国内战的损失是巨大的。60多万青壮年死亡。南方首府里士满市被夷为平地③。但是，长远来看，美国内战的结果是奴隶制的废除，联邦政府的强化，国家经济一体化的形成，为美国成为下一世纪的世界强国奠定了基础。统一则强，分裂则弱。

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我找到一篇大学的作业 给你好了。但是注没法给你复制进来。或者你留个邮箱 给你发去。这论文是我当年的美国史作业 经不起推敲，呵呵。简论二战后美国黑人民权运动兴起的原因摘要：美国是一个移民国家,对美国来说,种族问题是一个与生俱来的问题。对有色人种的歧视,使现实的美国与其所宣称的“人人生而平等”的国度存在着巨大的差距。黑人为了争取自己的平等权利，进行了反对种族歧视和压迫的长期不懈的斗争，在二十世纪五六十年代期间，由于国际环境和国内状况发生的变化，这种斗争发展到了新的阶段，即“民权运动”。关键词：黑人 民权运动 中产阶级 二战黑人在美国历史上起过非常重要的作用,也对美国经济、文化的发展作出了巨大的贡献。尽管如此,黑人却一直处于美国社会的底层,南北战争后,虽然奴隶制被废除,黑人争得了公民权,但是,他们并没有享受到作为美国公民应有的平等权利。相反,他们仍然生活在种族隔离的樊篱之下。1896年,美国联邦最高法院确定了“隔离但平等”的原则,使种族隔离具备了法律依据,各州遂在居住、交通、教育等方面对黑人实行公开隔离。长期以来，黑人问题是困扰美国政府的一大难题。托克维尔在《论美国的民主中》曾这样预言：“在威胁美国的未来一切灾难中,最可怕的灾难是黑人在这个国土上的出现．一些观察家虽然出发点不同,但他们在考察美国的目前困境和未来危险的原因时,几乎总是归结于这一主要事实”。 黑人为此进行了顽强的抗争,但是种族隔离和种族歧视问题一直没有得到有效的解决。二战后,尤其是20世纪50、60年代,黑人民权运动风起云涌,成为当时美国重大的社会运动,最终促使联邦政府从法律上废除了种族隔离制,从而书写下黑人历史上光辉的一页，本文就二战后民权运动兴起和高涨的原因进行初步探究与分析。 一、教育是黑人夺取选举权的基础 黑人要拥有选举权，自身素质的提高是非常重要的，而教育是衡量一个人、一个民族乃至一个国家民族素质的重要尺度。南北战争后，随着似有身份的降临，黑人渴望接受教育，许多黑人学校建立起来，遍及美国的黑人教育制度就是在这个时候开始的。但是教育并非朝夕之事，长达两个多世纪的奴隶制留给黑人的只能是无知和愚昧。进入20世纪以后，黑人的教育状况有了改善，19世纪后期培养出来的学生开始走向社会，而学校里的黑人学生数量仍有增无减。1910年时，在南部10个州里，在校黑人学生增加到1426102人，1930年达到1893068人。1930年时，美国黑人中的文盲率下降到16%。黑人教育发展最迅速的时期是在第二次世界大战以后，此时黑人受教育的水平，是美国历史上各个人口集团中上升最快的。到1970年，黑人所受教育年限和白人相比只相差半年左右。战后黑人教育还有这样的特点：层次提高、黑白人同校。1960年，黑人攻读学位的有22．7万。1970年增长到55．2万。黑人还进入白人大学学习，1970年，大约有378000名黑人在这样的大学或学院接受教育。这一切，表明战后的黑人已具备了“文明交往的基本条件”。再也不用“文化测验”等手段来阻止他们行使选举权了。用知识武装起来的黑人。再也不满足于二等公民、被剥削选举权，因为他们懂得：“只有黑人拥有选举权时，才能学会保护自己。”随着黑人教育水平的提高，他们在为选举权抗争时，能进行有理论、有策略、有组织的斗争。因而，黑人在自身素质普遍提高的五六十年代赢回选举权是不足为奇的。二、中产阶级是黑人争取选举权运动的领导力量有人认为，第一批黑人中产阶级产生于南北战争后。但够得上中产阶级条件的黑人，在当时是属凤毛麟角。主宰着当时黑人社会的事谷物成分农，在南部390万黑人中，谷物成分农占到85．6%，他们生活水平和地位十分低下，无力自拔。在这种情况下，20世纪初一部分黑人开始离开南方农村，进入北方大城市寻求新的机会。在激烈的竞争中，少数黑人站稳了脚跟，上升为中产阶级。1910年，“在一千万的黑人人口中，有工作的男子共3178554人。其中做牧师的有17427人，做医生的有3077人，做律师的有796人，做教师的有7035人。在同一年间，妇女做学校教员的有22450人。 第二次世界大战以后，黑人中产阶级人数增加，力量增强。1950-1970年，黑人平均收入由占白人收入的54%上升为64%，其中，黑人妇女平均收入由占白人主妇的40%上升为92%。 到70年代中期，已有1/3的黑人家庭上升为中产阶级。 中产阶级的产生与壮大，对黑人在20世纪五六十年代取得选举权具有重要的意义。凡为中产阶级，都是受过良好教育的人，经济上也有相当的地位。这些人有知识与才干，懂得自尊与自信，也有参与美国社会和政治的要求。他们已超越了对基本生存的需求，而进入了更高的对政治权力与平等权利的要求阶段。因而，他们要求选举权的迫切程度大大超过了别的阶层，正如美国史学家所说：“大多数具有进取精神的黑人，都来自具有‘中产阶级’背景的那些人中，是摆脱了贫困的黑人”。 1909年成立的全国有色人种协进会，就是由中产阶级组成与领导的一个影响深远、颇有力量的组织。著名黑人领袖布克•华盛顿和马丁•路德•金也是中产阶级的典型代表。在20世纪五六十年代争取黑人选举权的斗争中，黑人中产阶级义不容辞地承担起运动领导的责任，从而为这一斗争提供了训练有素的领导力量。三、黑人在地理分布上的比的变化 我们已经知道，19世纪后期的黑人，主要从事的是农业劳动。他们集中在南部地区，分散在农村中。至于北部地区，少有较大规模的黑人迁徙。数目众多的城市，居住者主要是白人。地理分布上的这种特点，不利于黑人获得选举权。第一，南部是民族矛盾尖锐，种族实力强大的地区，正是在这一地区，种族主义者处心积虑地要剥夺黑人选举权。第二，农村相对闭塞落后，黑人长期生活于此，觉悟和意识比较低下，不利于组织与领导。 20世纪初，这种情况开始改变，黑人开始了向北部和西部城市的迁徙。第一次世界大战后，这种迁徙速度加快。战火燃起时，大批白人青年应征入伍，许多工厂劳动力缺乏，芝加哥、克利夫兰、底特律及其他北方城市的工厂主，纷纷到南方去招募工人，这就给南方黑人提供了机会。 黑人的大规模迁徙发生在第二次世界大战后。1950年时，住在城市的黑人人口已经超过了居住在农村的黑人人口。1970年，纽约、华盛顿、底特律、费城、芝加哥、洛杉矶等城市，黑人居民超过50万。伯明翰、亚特兰大、新奥尔良、纽瓦克、加里等城市，黑人人口占全市人口的一半以上。从布局看，黑人迁出南部后分布在全国各地，北部中央地区占26%，东部占22%，西部占19%， 其余则分布在南部。 黑人迁出南部，分布于全国各大、中城市，对于五六十年代黑人获得选举权有着重要的意义。黑人集中于城市，为现代文明耳濡目染，开始变得见多识广，富有朝气，对于体现他们政治地位的选举权格外看重起来，他们毅然投入到五六十年代为恢复自己权利而进行的斗争中。另外，黑人集中在城市，便于动员和组织，也便于形成强大的力量，五六十年代能出现如此声势浩大的民权运动，这也是其中一个重要的原因。四、美国政府在一定程度上的干预二战后,随着美国国际地位的提高,出于维护其国际形象的需要,美国政府开始正视几个世纪以来竭力回避却仍然无法回避的黑人问题。与此同时,20世纪50、60年代的黑人民权运动对联邦政府也造成了巨大的压力。马丁•路德•金明确指出：“黑人已组织成强大的力量,这使得政府无法回避他们的要求,他们已从实力出发来发展形势,使政府感到同他们合作是明智和深谋远虑的”。 此外,二战后世界民族解放运动的蓬勃发展,特别是非洲的独立运动,对美国黑人也产生了深远影响。面对这一形势,美国政府只能顺应时代发展潮流,一改压制黑人斗争、维护白人利益的做法,采取了一系列支持、推动黑人斗争的措施。首先,美国总统发表言论支持黑人斗争。肯尼迪总统说：“这个国家是建立在人人生而平等原则基础上的……如果一个美国人,因为其皮肤是黑色的,就不能在对公众开放的餐馆就餐,就不能送子女去最好的公立学校读书,就不能投票选举能代表他的人出任公共官职,一句话,就不能享受充分的自由生活,那么,这个国家就不是一个完整的国家,除非全体公民都得到自由。“ 约翰逊总统继承了肯尼迪的政策,并进一步支持黑人争取平等权利的斗争,称“他们(指黑人)的事业也应该是我们的事业“,认为“我们大家应该战胜(种族隔离制)这一并非完美的顽固不化和不正义的遗产”。 其次,联邦政府采取一系列民权立法措施。艾森豪威尔政府于1957年颁布了第一个非常重要的民权法,该法令禁止干预黑人投票。肯尼迪政府在司法部专设一名民权助理部长,在三年内,该助理部长共向国会提交了几十个民权方面的议案。约翰逊政府颁布了1964年的《民权法》、1965年的《投票权利法》和1968年的《防止住房歧视民权法》。最后,联邦政府对违抗民权法令者采取强硬措施。1957年9月,阿肯色州小石城地方法院根据1954年联邦最高法院判决,宣布该市中心中学接纳9名黑人学生入学,但此举遭到种族主义者的坚决反对。州长法布斯以“防止暴乱”为名,派出200名武装的国民警卫队员,在小石城中心中学周围布岗,阻止这9名黑人学生入学。已注册的黑人学生被赶出校门,暴徒还殴打黑人,在市内煽风点火,从而引发严重骚乱。艾森豪威尔政府迫于世界舆论的压力,派兵开往小石城,以军管措施平息了阻止黑人学生进入白人学校的小石城事件。1962年9月,黑人梅雷迪思申请入密西西比大学就读,引起该州一场地震级的哗变。在肯尼迪总统的支持下,梅雷迪思最终在联邦政府的“伴护”下入校注册。1965年,约翰逊政府采取保护措施,压制亚拉巴马州州长华莱士,使从塞尔马到蒙哥马利的黑人进军得以顺利进行。联邦政府的上述措施推动了黑人民权运动向纵深方向发展。从某种程度上来讲,没有美国联邦政府的有力支持,美国黑人的斗争也就不可能取得如此大的成果。五、二战的影响作用不容忽视 1939年，希特勒挥师偷袭波兰，挑起了第二次世界大战。美国虽未举全力出战，但大力发展国防工业，充当了“民主国家的兵工厂”，需要大量的劳动力和兵役。广大黑人群众对此做出积极响应，他们怀有满腔热忱准备报效国家，但是却遭到种族歧视的挫伤和打击。在复苏的国防工业中，他们受到严重的歧视；在军队里也受到各样的限制，黑人只能参加完全由黑人组成的军队；各种支援战争的社会活动，也将黑人排斥在外。当报国热情和希望与白人“并肩作战”的美好愿望被现实打击后，黑人在痛心之余，也对真正实现民主平等原则产生了强烈的要求。二战对此来说，正是一个良好的机遇。 众多黑人确信，他们必将从战争中获益。如专栏作家乔治•斯宾勒认为“和平意味着……当前地位的延续……如果黑人想要获得自由，就必须结束这种状况”。因此，二战持续得越久越好，因为有一天“或许我们会发现自己已从长期受压迫的地位中翻了身”。黑人们之所以对二战抱有如此厚望，是因为他们逐渐认识到，战争给黑人提供了一个让美国百人的良心受到谴责和震撼的绝好机会。“是战争让我们有机会……来劝说、强迫我们的政府和国家，并让其感受到尴尬和羞耻……从而对占其人口十分之一的黑人采取更加开明的态度！”美国黑人在二战民主宣传的激励下，开始从新审视自己在美国的社会位置。米尔多指出：“毫无疑问，美国各阶层黑人的精神与几十年前已大不相同。”美国黑人中间的却出现了一种新的精神。这种精神的基本特征就是战斗性增强，用于大声抗议，强烈表示不满。二战则是为黑人进行提供了更多的理由和机会。上述黑人的思想和行动的所有倾向——不满、希望、增强的种族意识和战斗精神，都在“向华盛顿进军”等运动中体现出来。这些活动，显示了黑人的抗议行动已经逐渐向有组织的大规模运动方面发展。虽然在战争这种非常时期，此类斗争形式不可能持久，也不可能形成全国性运动，但是这些小范围的活动已经为民权运动的兴起作了组织上的准备，其所开创的群众性抗议活动形式为后来的民权斗争所广泛采用。 战争危机为美国黑人认清并指出美国所宣称的民主信条与其实践之间的反差提供了绝佳的机会。二战期间黑人种族意识和黑人群众战斗性的增强及战争所全力维护的民主思想意识和观念，使黑人重新看到了希望。他们确信，二战已将旧有的种族结构永远地摧毁了。当美国白人拒绝承认这种变革的存在时，广大黑人便行动起来。这颗斗争的火种几经孕育，不断壮大，终于在50年代中期形成燎原之势，发展为声势浩大的民权运动。六、黑人自身的斗争以及国际国内的推动力量 弗雷德里克•道格拉斯说：“没有斗争就没有进步”，黑人争取自己政治权利的斗争也是如此。当重建结束，保护黑人选举权的大环境不复存在时，在贫困线上苦苦挣扎的黑人，再也无力为选举权抗争了。黑人的斗争在总体上处于低谷时期。加上当时的资本主义社会尚处于无序阶段，人们的文明程度还有待于提高，对于剥夺黑人选举权的行为，以及三K党屠杀黑人的野蛮行径，很难引起全国舆论的关注与谴责。这些都为剥夺黑人选举权又添一筹。 二战以后，黑人们掀起了震动整个美国社会的民权运动，他们向种族制度的各个方面发起了冲击。据美国史学家和社会学家布赖恩特•道勒斯的统计，1963年到1968年的5年中，爆发各种族骚乱的城市有265个，骚乱总次数341次，骚乱总日数703天，被捕人员53409人，受伤人数8459人，死亡221人。 正是在如此激烈的冲突中，黑人赢回了选举权。黑人著名活动家查尔斯•希尔伯曼说：“在美国过去和现在的历史上，没有那件事情能说明，没有直接的对抗，黑人就能在美国社会获得正当的地位。” 二战后，白人的种族观念也发生了变化，他们对于黑人的苦难不再熟视无睹。1964年，三位民权工作者在密西西比州的内肖巴县给黑人选民登记时被暴徒杀害，这激起了全国舆论的愤怒，从而推动国会于1964年7月通过了重要的民权法。在1965年亚拉巴州塞尔马市的黑人示威活动中，维奥拉•利厄佐夫人于3月9日被暴徒杀害，消息传出，举国震惊，北方许多城市举行了声援示威。副总统对利厄佐夫人的家属表示慰问，总统发表了电视讲话，并于3月15日向国会提交了投票权利法案，8月，国会通过了这一法案。国际社会的支持也对黑人争取选举权起了推动作用。例如，小石城事件发生后，许多国家的报纸质问道：“从小石城事件看来，美国到底是怎样一个国家？”对于迫害黑人的行径，周恩来总理也曾发表措辞严厉的声明：“美帝国主义对黑人的法西斯暴行，揭穿了美国的所谓民主和自由的本质，暴露了美国政府在国内的反动政策和在国外的侵略政策的内在联系。”在同声谴责的世界舆论面前，美国政府必须有所交待。战后的几个民权法和投票权立法也可以看作是对国际社会做出的反应。道格拉斯说，黑人选举权“对于那个曾长期被奴役的人民来说是生死之权”。重建时期的参议员桑门腊说：“黑人没有选举权，就等于没有自由……光有自由是不够的，一个公民既需要自由又需要平等……这两者对于构成一个完整的美国公民的资格是缺一不可的。” 二战后美国黑人的“民权运动”，是一种对种族歧视与压迫的直接回击，是历史沉积下，时代条件与社会现实综合作用的结果。经历了10余年的斗争，使形形色色的种族隔离制被消除，黑人的斗争迫使美国政府通过许多有关民权的法律和命令，黑人的选举权在各州基本上得到保障，在一定程度上改善了自己的处境，为美国社会注入了活力。但是美国的种族问题有根深蒂固的渊源，并不可能一蹴而就，不过，只要美国黑人坚持不懈地斗争，在美国社会的不断发展下，几百年来黑人梦想的平等与权力就能最终实现。[参考文献][1]（法）托克维尔著、董果良译,《论美国的民主》,商务印书馆。[2] 布罗莱,《美国黑人简史》〔M〕，纽约。[3] 威廉•伊塞尔，《美国社会的变化1945-1983》〔M〕，纽约。[4] 哈利•A•波罗斯基，詹姆斯•威廉，《美国黑人历史》〔M〕，纽约。[5] 威廉•伊塞尔，《美国社会的变化1945-1983》〔M〕，纽约。[6] （美）乔安•妮格兰特改编，郭瀛、伍江、翟一我等译，《美国黑人斗争史》，社会科学出版社，1987版。[7] 何章银，《肯尼迪政府民权政策成因探析》，载《学海》，2002年第3期。[8] （美）阿瑟•林克 、威廉•卡顿著，刘绪贻、王锦瑭、李世洞、胡志宽等译，《1900年以来的美国史》。[9] 卡罗•林罗斯，《少数民族问题》〔M〕，纽约，1972 年版。[10]格瑞德•迈克维尼，《重建与自由之人》〔M〕，芝加哥。