咖喱小周
Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a required shape and heating them to high temperatures in a kiln to induce reactions that lead to permanent changes, including increasing their strength and hardening and setting their shape. There are wide regional variations in the properties of clays used by potters and this often helps to produce wares that are unique in character to a locality. It is common for clays and other minerals to be mixed to produce clay bodies suited to specific to some shaping processes, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished by a machine called a vacuum pug or manually by wedging. Wedging can also help to ensure an even moisture content throughout the body. Once a clay body has been de-aired or wedged, it is shaped by a variety of techniques. After shaping it is dried before firing. There are a number of stages in the drying process. Leather-hard refers to the stage when the clay object is approximately 75-85% dry. Clay bodies at this stage are very firm and only slightly pliable. Trimming and handle attachment often occurs at the leather-hard state. Clay bodies are said to be "bone-dry" when they reach a moisture content at or near 0%. Unfired objects are often termed greenware. Clay bodies at this stage are very fragile and hence can be easily is believed that the earliest pottery wares were hand built and fired in bonfires. Firing times were short but the peak-temperatures achieved in the fire could be high, perhaps in the region of 900 degrees Celsius, and were reached very quickly. Clays tempered with sand, grit, crushed shell or crushed pottery were often used to make bonfire-fired ceramics, because they provided an open body texture that allows water and other volatile components of the clay to escape freely. The coarser particles in the clay also acted to restrain shrinkage within the bodies of the wares during cooling, which was carried out slowly to reduce the risk of thermal stress and cracking. In the main, early bonfire-fired wares were made with rounded bottoms, to avoid sharp angles that might be susceptible to cracking. The earliest intentionally constructed kilns were pit-kilns or trench-kilns; holes dug in the ground and covered with fuel. Holes in the ground provided insulation and resulted in better control over earliest known ceramic objects are Gravettian figurines such as those discovered at Dolni Vestonice in the modern-day Czech Republic. The Venus of Dolní Věstonice (Věstonická Venuše in Czech) is a Venus figurine, a statuette of a nude female figure dated to 29,000–25,000 BCE (Gravettian industry). The earliest pottery vessel found to date was excavated from the Yuchanyan Cave in southern China and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2009 reports that the ware dates back to 18,000 years ago. Pottery vessels made by the Incipient Jōmon people of Japan from around 10,500 BCE have also been found. The term "Jōmon" means "cord-marked" in Japanese. This refers to the markings made on clay vessels and figures using sticks with cords wrapped around them. Pottery which dates back to 10,000 BCE have also been excavated in China. It appears that pottery was independently developed in North Africa during the tenth millennium . and in South America during the seventh millennium earliest history of pottery production can be divided into 4 periods namely; the Hassuna period (5000 - 4,500 BCE), the Halaf period (4,500 - 4000 BCE), the Ubaid period (4000 - 3000 BCE), and the Uruk period (3,500 - 2000 BCE). The invention of the potter's wheel in Mesopotamia sometime between 6,000 and 4,000 BCE (Ubaid period) revolutionized pottery production. Specialized potters were then able to meet the expanding needs of the world's first cities. Pottery was in use in ancient India during the Mehrgarh Period II (5500 - 4800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4800 - 3500 BCE), known as the ceramic Neolithic and chalcolithic. Pottery, including items known as the ed-Dur vessels, originated in regions of the Indus valley and has been found in a number of sites in the Indus valley the Mediterranean, during the Greek Dark Ages (1100–800 BCE), artists used geometric designs such as squares, circles and lines to decorate amphoras and other pottery. The period between 1500-300 BCE in ancient Korea is known as the Mumun Pottery quality of pottery has varied historically, in part dependent upon the repute in which the potter's craft was held by the community[citation needed]. For example, in the Chalcolithic period in Mesopotamia, Halafian pottery achieved a level of technical competence and sophistication, not seen until the later developments of Greek pottery with Corinthian and Attic ware[citation needed]. The distinctive Red Samian ware of the Early Roman Empire was copied by regional potters throughout the Empire. The Dark Age period saw a collapse in the quality of European pottery which did not recover in status and quality until the European Renaissance[citation needed.这是平行文本相关翻译：陶器，是用黏土或陶土经捏制成形后烧制而成的器具，陶器的英文"pottery"可以同时指土器（earthenware）、陶器、石陶器（stoneware）及瓷器的集合。陶器历史悠久，在新石器时代就已初见简单粗糙的陶器。陶器在古代作为一种生活用品，在现在一般作为工艺品收藏。一般认为最早的陶器是手制的，并在篝火（bonfires）烧制。烧制时间短但火达到的最高温度可以很高，约在900℃左右，而且达到的速度很快。黏土与沙、砂砾、打碎的贝壳或打碎的陶器调合后会被用来制造篝火烧制陶瓷器，这是因为它们提供了一个开放的坯体质地令水及其他挥发性成分可以轻易离开。黏土中较粗糙的粒子亦会发挥在冷却时限制陶器坯体内部收缩的作用，此过程以缓慢速度进行，并减低热应力及破裂的危机。早期以篝火烧制的陶器主要是圆底的，用意是避免尖锐的角令破裂容易发生。最早有目的而建设的窑是穴窑（pit kiln）或沟窑（trench kiln），即在地面掘一个洞再在上面铺满燃料。在地面的洞提供了隔离层，令烧制过程可以有更佳的控制。中国最早的陶器出现于新石器时代早期。大约在距今15000年左右，首先在中国南方可能已经开始制陶的试验，到距今9000年左右大致完成了陶器的发明和探索。1962年于江西万年县仙人洞遗址发现的圆底罐，其年代据放射性碳素测试为公元前6875±240年，为夹砂红陶，外表有绳纹。裴李岗文化（公元前5500～前4900年）中的陶器则多为泥质或夹砂红陶，亦有少量灰陶。在接下来的磁山文化（公元前5400年～前5100年）、大地湾文化（公元前5200年～前4800年）、仰韶文化、马家窑文化、大汶口文化、龙山文化可以看出古代中国人的制陶工艺不断发展，品质提高，种类增多。在中国，彩陶出现在公元前4000年左右。"半坡彩陶"为仰韶文化的一部分，在1953年首先于陕西西安市半坡村被发现，主要包含水壶及碗等。一开始它们上面纯粹为红色，但陶器上渐渐有独特的符号，称为半坡陶符，纹饰有动物纹、几何纹、编织纹等。此后在临近各省也发现了类似的陶器。在公元前2500年至2000年的龙山文化中，出现了黑陶，这是中国制陶工艺的一次高峰。 在商朝，有理论认为是当时印欧语系的游牧民族带来陶轮的技术，令陶器量产化。在周朝，以陶轮制作的陶器会以更高温烧制，令其硬度增加，同时亦会使用绿色的釉料。秦朝的陶俑兵马俑成为当时最具代表性的陶器，而在此时陶器的描绘主题由动物转变为人。在汉朝，陶器的描绘主题由为佛教的传播而出现了佛的形象。到了唐朝，中国出现了白色的陶瓷，而同时亦出现了其他陶像，唐三彩成为当时艺术精华的代表。到了宋朝，因为瓷器技术开始成熟令中国的陶器的辉煌被瓷器完全盖过。此后中国的陶瓷器重点便落在瓷器上。然而明清的紫砂壶等陶器乃至近代的江苏宜兴、广东石湾的陶器工艺仍然有非常高的水准。
天道酬勤1212
"陶瓷"是一种通称,"陶"和"瓷"在质地上、物理性能上有很大区别。中国是最早制造陶器的国家之一,是最早发明瓷器的国家。 陶器的出现大约在距今1万年左右,中国进入新石器时代,开始了定居生活,盛水、蓄物等日常生活的需要,促使了陶器的发明。中国陶器的分布比较广泛,主要集中的在黄河流域和长江流域。其中仰韶文化是新石器时期比较有代表性的文化类型,以彩陶为特点,也称"彩陶文化",它派生出半坡和庙底沟两个类型,装饰图案有很高的艺术价值。马家窑文化是新石器晚期的文化类型,比仰韶文化略晚,距今约5000年。黑陶是继彩陶之后的又一伟大创造发明,距今约4000年的龙山文化时期,出现了工艺独特的蛋壳陶。近些年来,山东、河北一带多有仿制,有较高的收藏价值。秦汉时期的陶俑,是我国古代人物雕塑的高峰,使制陶技术和艺术达到了很高的境地。此外,唐代的三彩器、明清两代的紫砂器等,都是中国陶器文物的重要内容,很值得深入收藏和研究。 陶瓷(Ceramics),陶器和瓷器的总称。陶瓷的传统概念是指所有以粘土等无机非金属矿物为原料的人工工业产品。它包括由粘土或含有粘土的混合物经混炼,成形,煅烧而制成的各种制品。由最粗糙的土器到最精细的精陶和瓷器都属于它的范围。对于它的主要原料是取之于自然界的硅酸盐矿物(如粘土、长石、石英等),因此与玻璃、水泥、搪瓷、耐火材料等工业,同属于"硅酸盐工业"(Silicate Industry)的范畴。 陶瓷的发展史是中华文明史的一个重要的组成部分,中国作为四大文明古国之一,为人类社会的进步和发展做出了卓越的贡献,其中陶瓷的发明和发展更具有独特的意义,中国历史上各朝各代不同艺术风格和不同技术特点。英文中的"china"既有中国的意思,又有陶瓷的意思,清楚地表明了中国就是"陶瓷的故乡"。changaiyin 早在欧洲人掌握瓷器制造技术一千多年前,中国人就已经制造出很精美的陶瓷器。中国是世界上最早应用陶器的国家之一,而中国瓷器因其极高的实用性和艺术性而备受世人的推崇。 所谓陶器和瓷器是指用可塑性制瓷粘土和瓷石矿做胎体,用长石和石英等原料制釉,并且通过成型、干燥、烧制而成的制品,主要有日用、艺术、和建筑陶器等三种。考古发现已经证明中国人早在新石器时代(约公元前8000)就发明了陶器。原始社会晚期出现的农业生产使中国人的祖先过上了比较固定的生活,客观上对陶器有了需求。人们为了提高生活的方便,提高生活质量,逐渐通过烧制粘土烧制出了陶器。 随着近代科学技术的发展,近百年来又出现了许多新的陶瓷品种。它们不再使用或很少使用粘土、长石、石英等传统陶瓷原料,而是使用其他特殊原料,甚至扩大到非硅酸盐,非氧化物的范围,并且出现了许多新的工艺。美国和欧洲一些国家的文献已将"Ceramic"一词理解为各种无机非金属固体材料的通称。因此陶瓷的含义实际上已远远超越过去狭窄的传统观念了。 迄今为止,陶瓷器的界说似可概括地作如下描述:陶瓷是用铝硅酸盐矿物或某些氧化物等为主要原料,依照人的意图通过特定的物理化学工艺在高温下以一定的温度和气氛制成的具有一定型式的工艺岩石。表面可施釉或不施釉,若干瓷质还具有不同程度的半透明度,通体是由一种或多种晶体或与无定形胶结物及气孔或与熟料包裹体等微观结构组成。 陶瓷工业是硅酸盐工业的主要分支之一,属于无机化学工业范围.但现代科学高度综合,互相渗透,从整个陶瓷工业制造工艺的内容来分析,它的错综复杂与牵涉之广,显然不是仅用无机化学的理论所能概括的。 陶瓷制品的品种繁多,它们之间的化学成分.矿物组成,物理性质,以及制造方法,常常互相接近交错,无明显的界限,而在应用上却有很大的区别。因此很难硬性地归纳为几个系统,详细的分类法各家说法不一,到现在国际上还没有一个统一的分类方法。"Ceramic" is a generic term, "Tao" and "Porcelain" in texture, the physical properties there are very different. China was among the first to create one of the countries of pottery, porcelain was one of the first invention. The emergence of pottery dating back about 1 million years or so, China has entered the New Stone Age, began to settle in life, water, with objects of daily life, such as the need to promote the invention of pottery. Chinese pottery wider distribution, mainly in the Yangtze River and Yellow River Basin. Yangshao culture which is the New Stone Age culture more representative of the type, characterized by painted pottery, also known as the "painted pottery culture", which derived Banpo and Miao Digou two types of decorative patterns, has high artistic value. Majiayao culture is the culture of the late New Stone Age type than a little late Yangshao culture, since about 5000. Black painted pottery is the second after another great invention, since about 4000 the Longshan Culture period, there has been a unique process of eggshell pottery. In recent years, Shandong, Hebei and more in the vicinity of imitation, there is a high value for collection. Qin and Han Dynasty pottery figurine of China's ancient sculpture of the peak figure, so that the ceramic technology and the arts reached a high position. In addition, three of the color of the Tang Dynasty, the Ming and Qing dynasties such as Yixing, China is an important aspect of pottery relics, it is worthy of collection and research. Ceramics (Ceramics), the general term for pottery and porcelain. Ceramic refers to the traditional concept of all inorganic non-metallic minerals such as clay as raw material of artificial industrial products. It consists of clay from or containing a mixture of clay by kneading, molding, and calcined made of a variety of products. By the most rough-earth to the most refined of the fine pottery and porcelain are it. For its main raw materials are derived from natural silicate minerals (such as clay, feldspar, quartz, etc.), and glass, cement, ceramic, refractory material, such as industry, with an "industrial silicate" (Silicate Industry ) Area. The history of ceramics is the history of Chinese civilization is an important part of China, as one of the four ancient civilizations, human development and social progress made outstanding contributions, including the invention of ceramics and the development of a more unique significance , The history of China-North Korea on behalf of all the different artistic styles and different technical characteristics. English of "china" China not only mean, ceramics and mean, clearly demonstrates China is the "hometown of pottery." changaiyin As early as the Europeans have porcelain manufacturing technology over 1000 years ago, Chinese people have created a very fine ceramics. China is the world's first application of one of the countries pottery, and porcelain from China for its high artistic quality and relevance of the world have attracted much praise. The so-called pottery and porcelain refers to the use of plastic ware and porcelain clay quarry to do matrix, quartz and feldspar, and other raw materials-glaze, and through the forming, drying, firing from the products, mainly for daily use, art, and architecture Three pottery. Archaeological discoveries have proved that the Chinese people as early as the Neolithic Age (about 8000 BC) invented pottery. The emergence of primitive society with advanced agricultural production so that the ancestors of the Chinese people lead a life of a relatively fixed, the objective of pottery with the demand. In order to improve people's lives easier, improve the quality of life, gradually burn through the burning out of the clay pottery. With the development of modern science and technology, and the past 100 years there have been many new varieties of ceramics. They no longer use or the use of small clay, feldspar, quartz and other traditional ceramic materials, but the use of other special materials, and even extended to non-silicate, non-oxide scope, and there have been a lot of new technology. The United States and some European countries have literature "Ceramic" understanding of the term for a variety of solid inorganic non-metallic materials known. Therefore, the meaning of ceramics in fact go far beyond the traditional concept in the past the narrow. To date, the Definition of ceramics may be generally described as follows: The ceramic is aluminum silicate minerals such as oxides or as the main raw material, in accordance with the intention of people through specific physical and chemical processes at a high temperature to a certain degree of Temperature and atmosphere made of a certain type of rock technology. Glazing may be on the surface or glazing, porcelain has a number of different levels of transparency and a half, the species by one or more of the crystal and amorphous or cement and clinker with pores or inclusions, such as micro-structure. Portland ceramic industry is one of the main branches of industry, belong to the scope of inorganic chemical industry. However, modern science and highly integrated with each other to infiltrate from the ceramic industry as a whole manufacturing process to analyze the contents of its complex and involve wide, is not only Using the theory of inorganic chemistry can be summarized. A wide variety of ceramic products, their chemical composition. Mineral composition, physical properties, as well as manufacturing methods, often close to each other staggered, no boundaries, and in the application there is a huge difference. Therefore, it is difficult to be summed up in a few hard and fast system, a detailed classification of the various different view, the international community to now there is no uniform classification.
2区。国外的期刊质量是按区来分的，比如1区、2区、3区这样。陶瓷国际期刊是sci二区的期刊。澳大利亚陶瓷期刊是二区的期刊。
姜大大夫人 2人参与回答 2023-12-07 Pottery is made by forming a clay body into objects of a required shape and heat
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罗曼蒂克123 3人参与回答 2023-12-12 