尚同家园
Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its origin. In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is legend. China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical works. East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the event. China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough comparison. Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the image. China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a creativity. Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the legend. For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not stop. The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the West." The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of language. Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the summit. "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new path. Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of mature. The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main things. Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of fiction. The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well-developed. As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially improved. The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public opinion. In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of fiction. Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong feelings. Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the writer. Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte,. Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this category. Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary fiction. East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the case. Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main flu. Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main characters. Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng's. In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique features. 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete story. Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional arts. The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid characteristics. Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot development. The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral whole. "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best writing. Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese novel. 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western novels. Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the people. Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many areas. Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are more. Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent related. 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression destroyed. Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not know. Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry hole. Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each other. Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little more. To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are interlinked. We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic heights. References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考，请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。
宝哥哥艺涵
提要：戏曲成熟的突出标志是脚色的形成，戏曲的发展也和戏曲脚色的发展密不可分,探讨脚色的演化，对戏曲史的研究具有重要的理论意义。早期出现的巫傩演出和俳优表演，虽然标志了中国戏剧较早的起源与发生，巫灵、俳优却并非脚色。在唐代部色影响下，宋金时期出现的杂剧色才是脚色的源头，五杂剧色变伎艺性的歌舞、说唱等演出方式为搬演故事的形态时，脚色就出现了。而脚色又在搬演故事、塑造人物形象的过程中发生分化。所以古典戏曲脚色的演化明显分为两个阶段：从杂剧色到生旦净末丑等脚色的出现，是由伎艺表演定型为脚色的演进阶段；定型化的脚色分蘖出自身的老、小、副等脚色则是脚色的分化阶段。 我国戏剧的起源甚早，而戏曲的成熟则甚晚。在戏曲成熟之前，包括参军戏在内的各类戏剧演出中都还没有脚色的出现，而脚色体制的完备则是戏曲成熟的重要标志之一。戏曲脚色经历了由唐至宋的漫长的孕育时期，为戏曲的成熟做好了伎艺经验的积累，演员分类的雏形，演出内容的准备等。伎艺表演之“戏”与叙事内容之“曲”的结合，最终要通过脚色的演出来完成。通过对于戏曲脚色的形成的探讨，我们可以获得探讨戏剧起源与戏曲形成关系的具体视角。原始戏剧和古剧的演出中是没有脚色的，作为一种便于安排调度的制度化的人员分类，脚色的形成受到了宫廷部色制度的深刻影响，尽管脚色名称有其令人难解之处，其所具有的深刻的人文烙印还是无可置疑的。而脚色制度一旦确立，便开始具有了独立的品格，开始和戏曲形态的演进相结合，发生着变化。对脚色演化的梳理和探讨有助于我们通过具体的考证研究获得对戏曲演进的理论认识。一戏曲脚色的出现不是一朝一夕的事，但却是中国戏剧发展的分水岭。横而言之，脚色制标志了中国传统戏曲与西方戏剧的差异。纵而言之，从我国的原始戏剧到诸种泛戏剧形态，最后到戏曲，脚色标志了戏曲的成熟，为诸种戏剧形态走向成熟的戏曲提供了足资效法的路径和方式。一个不成问题的问题是：戏曲是不是戏剧？答案当然是肯定的。反过来问个问题：是不是所有戏剧样式都可以和戏曲划等号呢？却没有办法得到肯定答复。由此，我们可一言以概之：戏曲是戏剧的一种类型，就像戏剧可包括话剧、歌剧和舞剧，也可包括歌、舞、说白合而为一的戏曲，而戏曲和诸种戏剧的本质区别在于是否通过脚色制进行演出。所以说有无脚色制是戏曲和一般意义而言的戏剧的分水岭。对此问题，可以通过对戏剧发展史的探讨而获得深入理解。关于戏剧的发生与起源，王廷信先生说：……就历史事实而言，在中国早期历史上，戏剧之形式本体——扮演又曾长期依附于宗教仪式。原始部族宗教对戏剧的孕育说明了这一点。这种现象同原始部族宗教仪式的混沌性有关。随着人类文明的进化，宗教和戏剧都分别会形成其质的规定性，朝着各自的方向发展。①宗教在戏剧发生与起源上所起的作用是人类文明发展中的共同现象，虽然这样说有些笼统，但又确实是为现存原始部族的宗教仪式和文物、文献材料所印证的历史事实。故王国维指出：“灵之为职，或偃蹇以象神，或婆娑以乐神，盖后世戏剧之萌芽，已有存焉者矣。②” 通过《宋元戏曲史》第一章“上古至五代之戏剧”的探讨，王国维在注意到巫（灵）对戏剧起源的作用的同时，还注意到随着文明进步，国家的出现使宫廷中的俳优从另外一个方面对于戏剧的产生发挥了较大的影响，概言之即：巫以乐神，而优以乐人；巫以歌舞为主，而优以调谑为主，巫以女为之，而优以男为之。至若优孟之为孙叔敖衣冠，而楚王欲以为相；优施一舞，而孔子谓其笑君，则于言语之外，其调戏亦以动作行之，与后世之优，颇复相类。后世戏剧，当自巫、优二者出。①而无论巫灵还是俳优，戏剧性的装扮表演只是他们各自职司的一部分内容。此外，戏曲脚色的装扮表演还和这些巫灵、俳优的表演有着很大不同。从功能上说，巫灵扮演的目的是沟通神人，表达对神灵的敬畏和祈福禳灾的，装扮表演自身是为了更好、更有效地达致其诉求的愿望，这样的扮演注重的不是戏剧效果，而是愿望的实现。巫灵扮演中，今人看到的戏剧化的形式在当事人的意念中却没有丝毫的存在，而戏剧化的形式也仅是巫灵演出的手段而已。这样，巫灵自身甚至算不得演员，他的表演不是给他人作愉悦身心的观赏，而是通过全身心的投入所形成的情感体验感染他的族人，共同进入一种虔诚的宗教氛围中。此外，巫灵装扮也不同于戏曲脚色的装扮。戏曲脚色装扮的效果首先是愉悦美，要使观众赏心悦目，巫灵扮演则希望营造一种意想中的逼真的氛围，以使其所诉求的愿望更好的完成。原始巫灵在周代制礼作乐的制度化改造后，依然顽强的存在，甚至到今天，比如在先秦的民间广泛盛行“乡人傩”，汉代则有每年的宫廷大傩逐除仪式，而时至今日的民间也不绝如缕地残存着原始巫灵的种种痕迹。只是随着文明进步，笼罩在原始巫灵表演中的那种能够感染观演者作共同的情感体验的宗教氛围已消退淡化，于是逐渐具有了某些戏剧化的因素。更重要的是，由于制度化的礼乐文化的强制力，巫灵、傩除等具有原始宗教特点的活动也被改造为祭礼的形式。于是我们看到，最初带有令人紧张的气氛的巫灵、傩除表演渐渐被戏拟化的礼敬仪式所笼罩，这一过程中的参与者基本具有了某种仪式戏剧表演者的特点，但也毕竟不可能被看作是戏曲脚色，甚至也还不是戏剧演员。同样，对于俳优来讲，他们的某些戏谏活动虽被我们按照戏剧要素的分解而获得了戏剧演出的结论，其实也是似是而非的认识。对要素的分解和对整体认识的结论往往会有脱节，比如每一种植物都可以分解出蛋白质、叶绿素，但不等于含有蛋白质、叶绿素的生物都是植物。所以这样的研究不能改变俳优戏谏的本质：《宋元戏曲史》对于滑稽戏与歌舞戏曾作如下区分：“一以歌舞为主，一以言语为主；一则演故事，一则讽时事；一为应节之舞蹈，一为随意之动作；一可永久演之，一则除一时一地外，不容施于他处。②”就能很好地说明俳优戏谏的本质，何况，早期俳优还只是滑稽戏的萌芽阶段。即以《优孟衣冠》而论，其所装扮之行为与效果和戏剧舞台上演出“优孟衣冠”故事的区别是什么呢？周贻白先生说： 其实，这段故实，说它已具戏剧的形式，显然过早，因为戏剧的基本条件，是要表演故事。优孟之“为孙叔敖衣冠”，固已作人物的模仿，而其目的，却不过借这种形式来实行其谲谏。形貌和举止之像孙叔敖，充其量，不过接近戏剧中一个脚色，而所表演的，仅为“庄王置酒，前为寿”，并无情节可言，岂得谓为戏剧？③周氏之“脚色”实为扮人物的“角色”之意，故“优孟衣冠”中的优孟只是专扮某一人而已，和戏曲脚色可以扮不同角色人物远不可同日而语。就俳优的职责而言，固然可以被看作是御用演员，但他们主要是通过歌舞、伎艺的展示为王公贵族提供愉悦身心的表演，即使有戏谏扮演也仅偶然为之，不可能成为重要职司，所以根本就算不得是戏剧演员，“俳优杂戏”固其宜也。当然，这种情况自唐代开始发生了变化。唐代对于中国戏剧史的重要价值体现在如下四点：一是规模空前的民族融合和文化交流为戏剧形态的演变增添了大量的养分；二是空前繁盛的乐舞为戏剧的舞蹈化扮演奠定了坚实的基础；三是散乐表演中出现了初步伎艺化的经验手段的积累，为其他伎艺化表演手段走上程式化发展和经验积累的道路开辟了道路；四是宫廷中的乐部制度确立了宫廷演员的部色分类，从人文制度的层面完善了导致戏曲脚色经由杂剧色出现并成熟的机制。首先看前三点。《宋元戏曲史》在分析唐代歌舞戏“大面”与“踏摇娘”的歌舞表演之特色与性质时认为：前此虽有歌舞，未用之以演故事；虽演故事，未尝合以歌舞，不可谓非优戏之创例也。盖魏齐周三朝，皆以外族入主中国，其与西域诸国，交通频繁，龟兹、天竺、康国、安国等乐，皆于此时入中国。而龟兹乐则自隋唐以来，相承用之，以迄于今。此时外国戏剧，当与之俱入中国。①可以作为隋唐以来中外戏剧交流的一个例证。大量敦煌乐舞的壁画、雕塑更可以为此说法作一个有力的注解，中国舞蹈艺术研究会舞蹈史研究组编写的《全唐诗中的乐舞资料》（人民音乐出版社，1996年）则可以与敦煌文物一起提供有力的文献支持。而这些材料和说法则可以让我们看到煌煌大唐当年的舞蹈风尚：隋唐时代，特别是唐代，舞蹈活动极为普遍。社会各阶层，在不同的场合，运用各种方式，频繁地进行丰富多彩的舞蹈活动。舞蹈是人们乐于欣赏的表演艺术，又是人们用以自娱的极好方式。因此，王室贵族祭祀天地祖先、朝会大典、宴百寮及域外来宾，或欣赏，或自娱，都有舞蹈活动；佛寺神庙宣传宗教、招揽信徒、礼佛敬神，有舞蹈活动；民间巫觋通神娱神，也要借助舞蹈；酒肆、广场、街头，有乐舞艺人献艺谋生；传统节日举行大酺，有大规模的群众舞蹈活动遍及城市乡村，几天几夜歌舞不停，舞蹈已成为人们生活中不可缺少的组成部分。②从戏曲表演中的脚色都可以载歌载舞看，与这一时期的舞蹈风尚实有密不可分的联系。其实，戏曲表演舞蹈化的伎艺手段也就是自唐代开始的。“歌舞演出是一个形态丰富的载体，这其中自然孕育着戏剧扮演的要素，而在走向叙事扮演的过程中，需要有一些具体的伎艺手段把这些已经呼之欲出的戏剧要素表现出来，提炼为纯粹的戏剧手段。③”这些手段主要就是“弄”伎和“打”伎，其中“弄”伎就是自唐代散乐中各类“戏弄”表演发展而来。④且这些伎艺手段是造成一般角色和戏曲脚色本质差异的重要依据。再看第四点。在第一章中，通过对脚色来源与演化为戏曲术语过程的探讨，我们知道了在戏曲脚色形成之前，首先是伎艺化的演员群体“杂剧色”，而这些杂剧色的存在和产生就是杂剧“传学教坊十三部”后，借鉴了宫廷教坊的“部色”制才逐步形成的。而教坊中分部管理始自隋代“七部乐”到“九部乐”的变化，唐代则出现了“九部乐”到“十部乐”，继而有唐玄宗“梨园”的创立，自此进一步根据伎艺水平的高下与所演种类分为“坐部伎”与“立部伎”等。这种管理办法在宋代体现为“色有色长，部有部头”的“筚篥部、大鼓部、拍板部”与“歌板色、琵琶色、筝色、方响色、笙色、龙笛色、头管色、舞旋色、杂剧色、参军色”等。在此基础上，杂剧的“杂”又使得其诸“杂”演员按照自身的职司与演出形态等分为“末泥”、“引戏”、“副末”、“副净”和“装孤”等“杂剧色”。俱《武林旧事》的“官本杂剧段数”和《辍耕录》“金院本名目”又可知，杂剧色所演虽有故事，却还没有成为代言体的演出，而是歌舞的形式。虽然歌舞也可以发展出歌剧和舞剧，宋杂剧演出中的歌舞却是舞蹈者与歌唱者同演一事，“表”（歌唱内容）与“演”（舞蹈表现）是各自分离的。王国维《戏曲考原》在列举了曾布的《水调歌头》和董颖的《道宫·薄媚》两段大曲后曾有如下一段话：“今以曾、董大曲与真戏曲相比较，则舞大曲时之动作，皆有定制，未必与所演之人物所要之动作相适合。其词亦系旁观者之言，而非所演之人物之言，故其去真戏曲尚远也。”③这就是说，在歌舞演故事时，倘言语、动作、歌唱非与塑造人物的情节、内容要求相适合，这样的戏曲就是一种表演形式，还算不上是真戏曲。真戏曲须将定制化的动作“与所演之人物所要之动作相适合”，即变抒情歌舞为叙事歌舞；此外还要合旁观者之言与演者动作为一身。总之，王国维所认为的戏曲，是具有强烈抒情特征的歌舞化故事表演，当这种抒情“歌舞演故事”走向叙事化扮演时，就成为“真戏曲”。而通过叙事歌舞的形式表现故事的内容就构成后世所谓的“真戏剧”。②既然“真戏剧”都还没有形成，杂剧色就更不能看作是戏曲脚色了。二古典戏曲脚色的研究中，一个重大的缺陷就是不重视脚色制在戏曲发展形成过程中的重大作用。忽视戏曲艺术“戏”的成分主要是以“伎艺化”的扮演手段，在叙事演出过程中体现出来的。从这一角度看，唐戏弄是古典戏曲的准备阶段，但戏曲的成熟，应是在“官本杂剧段数”和“院本名目”的伎艺手段程式化积累完成并孕育出具有不同演出形态、职司的脚色后体现出来的。这一点通过对脚色演化的分析可以看得更清楚。杂剧色出现后，大致的分工如文献所载：“末泥为长，每一场四人或五人。先做寻常熟事一段，名曰艳段；次做正杂剧，通名两段。末泥色主张，引戏色分付，副净色发乔，副末色打诨，或添一人名曰装孤。其吹曲破断送者，谓之把色。③”也就是说五杂剧色中“末泥”为“戏头”，在“色有色长，部有部头”制度中就是杂剧色色长。但他并不侧身演出活动之外，“主张”就说他的演出职司，即以歌唱或韵说念白来参与演出，突出的演唱伎艺是末尼色发展为金元杂剧主唱之正末的基础，在女性所扮末泥则为主唱之正旦。此外，“分付”成为了引戏色的演出职司，那就是通过舞蹈身段动作，当然也要有言语念白的辅助，来参与到演出中“分付演出”，所谓“引戏”之“引”与末尼色的“戏头”比较，不同之处在本书第二章“末色考”中可以看出，是：末尼为戏头且“为长”的职司表明了其最早出场，很多情况下，最早出场也有“引”戏的含义；但在具体演出形态上，末尼色主张系以唱为主，而引戏色吩咐还要负责开场后演出人物的持续进行，以说白为“分付”。又因二者可以互通兼任，南戏中“引戏”接续“末尼”最早开场则为“末”。……末的“始事”之“引”是最早出场，随后可以中止交由其他脚色演出，“引戏”之“引”则是进行性可持续的表演形态。南戏中，因为引戏取代了末尼的开场始事，又在开场之通过“冲场”交由生脚演出，也就自然可命名为“末”。五杂剧色中，最为人熟知的是“副净色发乔，副末色打诨”的表演，根据其“发乔”与“打诨”的特点与后世戏曲脚色的比较可以看出，能够和这一演出的方式类同的只有南戏传奇中的净丑打诨戏谑，由于南戏传奇中的末和副末都极少参与科诨式演出，就和杂剧色中的副末有了很大不同。通过戏曲文物资料形象化的直观展示，结合杂剧色副末的“打诨”，我们考证了它其实就是我们久寻不得的“净”色，这一事实已为本书第三章的“净色考”所论证。杂剧色“副净”则如本书第五章和黄天骥先生所论述的那样，是戏曲脚色“丑”前身。此外，“添一人名曰装孤”的做法则发展成了后世戏曲演出中常见的，在次要演员人手不够时增加“外”、“贴”等脚色的做法，不过已不仅是“添一人”了。至此，我们得出了杂剧色和南戏传奇戏曲脚色之间发展的关系为：杂剧色 末泥 引戏 副末 副净 或添一人 脚色 生（女为旦） 末（女为旦） 净 丑 外、贴这一列表中的杂剧色脚色对应关系打破了以往认为戏曲脚色末净来自于杂剧色之副末、副净的结论，恢复了引戏色在戏曲脚色演化过程中应有的位置。此外，对于杂剧色演进到戏曲脚色过程的考证，也有力地说明了这样一个事实：生、旦两个脚色晚于杂剧色末、净而出现，且它们的出现背景是戏曲演出活动适应散段式的伎艺性表演走向叙事故事的扮演，也就是说戏曲表演走向以塑造人物形象和铺叙故事情节为中心的变化，是生、旦作为戏曲脚色出现的前提条件。首先按照剧本所反映的事实，是“生”一律指的是男主角，“旦”一无例外地是女主角；其次结合生、旦名称后出的现象，我们的结论就是：生、旦的本质就是表明男女主人公的一个符号，是作为叙事文学中的男、女主角的演出者。一句话，旦者，戏曲中表明女性身份的符号而已；生者，戏曲中表明男性演员身份的符号而已。无论扮演者是男是女，其在剧中往往可由“生”、“旦”的名称决定其在剧中必为相应的男或女主人公，除此之外，别无深意。
爱吃爱玩007
隐喻的中西方文化差异Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions : metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation. 1. Preamble Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation. 2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. " metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures relationship Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience. non-correspondence English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories: Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum). counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao. Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor . Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience. in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences. The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse. metaphorical expression of cultural conflict Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures "Dragon" to give a different connotation. differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society. different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on. It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange. 3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences. American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange. Literal Translation The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method. (1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine. : You are my sun, my only sunshine. In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation. (1) He is another Shylock. : He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business People. ) (2) To carry coals to Newcastle. : Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.) 4. Conclusion Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.
泡芙小工坊
Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding set. First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same way. The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the contrary. (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day-related. Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy occasion." It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to register. So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example: brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are considerable. In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so on. These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to do. However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film). Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change much. The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their face. Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different religion. China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly Christian. Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun Ren. China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has become.中西方文化差异表现在方方面面，从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在，下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异，中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义，在西方又表示一种涵义，甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。（一）red（红色）无论是在英语国家还是在中国，红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中，这些日子常用红色字体，因此，red letter day：指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”，因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组：red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语，翻译成英语，可不一定用“red”例如：红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine （二） yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中，yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思，例如：a yellow dog 可鄙的人，卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思，如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而，英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思，如blue jokes（下流的玩笑）， blue films（黄色电影）等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先，中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关：中国人比较保守，喜欢热闹，思维较古板，所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放，对于婚礼的要求也比较低，他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中：随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯，娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去，新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上，将女儿的一生托付给新郎，所有人的目光注视着这对新人，幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次，造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主，而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地，拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。
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