英文经济学毕业论文范文

Microeconomics is a branch of economics that studies how individuals, households and firms make decisions to allocate limited resources,[1] typically in markets where goods or services are being bought and sold. Microeconomics examines how these decisions and behaviours affect the supply and demand for goods and services, which determines prices; and how prices, in turn, determine the supply and demand of goods and services.[2][3] Macroeconomics, on the other hand, involves the "sum total of economic activity, dealing with the issues of growth, inflation and unemployment, and with national economic policies relating to these issues"[2] and the effects of government actions (such as changing taxation levels) on them.[4] Particularly in the wake of the Lucas critique, much of modern macroeconomic theory has been built upon 'microfoundations' — . based upon basic assumptions about micro-level behaviour. One of the goals of microeconomics is to analyze market mechanisms that establish relative prices amongst goods and services and allocation of limited resources amongst many alternative uses. Microeconomics analyzes market failure, where markets fail to produce efficient results, as well as describing the theoretical conditions needed for perfect competition. Significant fields of study in microeconomics include general equilibrium, markets under asymmetric information, choice under uncertainty and economic applications of game theory. Also considered is the elasticity of products within the market system. Assumptions and definitions The theory of supply and demand usually assumes that markets are perfectly competitive. This implies that there are many buyers and sellers in the market and none of them have the capacity to significantly influence prices of goods and services. In many real-life transactions, the assumption fails because some individual buyers or sellers or groups of buyers or sellers do have the ability to influence prices. Quite often a sophisticated analysis is required to understand the demand-supply equation of a good. However, the theory works well in simple situations. Mainstream economics does not assume a priori that markets are preferable to other forms of social organization. In fact, much analysis is devoted to cases where so-called market failures lead to resource allocation that is suboptimal by some standard (highways are the classic example, profitable to all for use but not directly profitable for anyone to finance). In such cases, economists may attempt to find policies that will avoid waste directly by government control, indirectly by regulation that induces market participants to act in a manner consistent with optimal welfare, or by creating "missing markets" to enable efficient trading where none had previously existed. This is studied in the field of collective action. It also must be noted that "optimal welfare" usually takes on a Paretian norm, which in its mathematical application of Kaldor-Hicks Method, does not stay consistent with the Utilitarian norm within the normative side of economics which studies collective action, namely public choice. Market failure in positive economics (microeconomics) is limited in implications without mixing the belief of the economist and his or her theory. The demand for various commodities by individuals is generally thought of as the outcome of a utility-maximizing process. The interpretation of this relationship between price and quantity demanded of a given good is that, given all the other goods and constraints, this set of choices is that one which makes the consumer happiest. [edit] Modes of operation It is assumed that all firms are following rational decision-making, and will produce at the profit-maximizing output. Given this assumption, there are four categories in which a firm's profit may be considered. A firm is said to be making an economic profit when its average total cost is less than the price of each additional product at the profit-maximizing output. The economic profit is equal to the quantity output multiplied by the difference between the average total cost and the price. A firm is said to be making a normal profit when its economic profit equals zero. This occurs where average total cost equals price at the profit-maximizing output. If the price is between average total cost and average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, then the firm is said to be in a loss-minimizing condition. The firm should still continue to produce, however, since its loss would be larger if it were to stop producing. By continuing production, the firm can offset its variable cost and at least part of its fixed cost, but by stopping completely it would lose the entirety of its fixed cost. If the price is below average variable cost at the profit-maximizing output, the firm should go into shutdown. Losses are minimized by not producing at all, since any production would not generate returns significant enough to offset any fixed cost and part of the variable cost. By not producing, the firm loses only its fixed cost. By losing this fixed cost the company faces a challenge. It must either exit the market or remain in the market and risk a complete loss. [edit] Market failure Main article: Market failure In microeconomics, the term "market failure" does not mean that a given market has ceased functioning. Instead, a market failure is a situation in which a given market does not efficiently organize production or allocate goods and services to consumers. Economists normally apply the term to situations where the inefficiency is particularly dramatic, or when it is suggested that non-market institutions would provide a more desirable result. On the other hand, in a political context, stakeholders may use the term market failure to refer to situations where market forces do not serve the public interest. The four main types or causes of market failure are: Monopolies or other cases of abuse of market power where a "single buyer or seller can exert significant influence over prices or output". Abuse of market power can be reduced by using antitrust regulations.[5] Externalities, which occur in cases where the "market does not take into account the impact of an economic activity on outsiders." There are positive externalities and negative externalities.[5] Positive externalities occur in cases such as when a television program on family health improves the public's health. Negative externalities occur in cases such as when a company’s processes pollutes air or waterways. Negative externalities can be reduced by using government regulations, taxes, or subsidies, or by using property rights to force companies and individuals to take the impacts of their economic activity into account. Public goods are goods that have the characteristics that they are non-excludable and non-rivalous and include national defense[5] and public health initiatives such as draining mosquito-breeding marshes. For example, if draining mosquito-breeding marshes was left to the private market, far fewer marshes would probably be drained. To provide a good supply of public goods, nations typically use taxes that compel all residents to pay for these public goods (due to scarce knowledge of the positive externalities to third parties/social welfare); and Cases where there is asymmetric information or uncertainty (information inefficiency).[5] Information asymmetry occurs when one party to a transaction has more or better information than the other party. For example, used-car salespeople may know whether a used car has been used as a delivery vehicle or taxi, information that may not be available to buyers. Typically it is the seller that knows more about the product than the buyer, but this is not always the case. An example of a situation where the buyer may have better information than the seller would be an estate sale of a house, as required by a last will and testament. A real estate broker purchasing this house may have more information about the house than the family members of the deceased. This situation was first described by Kenneth J. Arrow in a seminal article on health care in 1963 entitled "Uncertainty and the Welfare Economics of Medical Care," in the American Economic Review. George Akerlof later used the term asymmetric information in his 1970 work The Market for Lemons. Akerlof noticed that, in such a market, the average value of the commodity tends to go down, even for those of perfectly good quality, because the buyer has no way of knowing whether the product they are buying will turn out to be a "lemon" (a defective product). [edit] Opportunity cost Main article: Opportunity cost Although opportunity cost can be hard to quantify, the effect of opportunity cost is universal and very real on the individual level. In fact, this principle applies to all decisions, not just economic ones. Since the work of the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser, opportunity cost has been seen as the foundation of the marginal theory of value. Opportunity cost is one way to measure the cost of something. Rather than merely identifying and adding the costs of a project, one may also identify the next best alternative way to spend the same amount of money. The forgone profit of this next best alternative is the opportunity cost of the original choice. A common example is a farmer that chooses to farm his land rather than rent it to neighbors, wherein the opportunity cost is the forgone profit from renting. In this case, the farmer may expect to generate more profit himself. Similarly, the opportunity cost of attending university is the lost wages a student could have earned in the workforce, rather than the cost of tuition, books, and other requisite items (whose sum makes up the total cost of attendance). The opportunity cost of a vacation in the Bahamas might be the down payment money for a house. Note that opportunity cost is not the sum of the available alternatives, but rather the benefit of the single, best alternative. Possible opportunity costs of the city's decision to build the hospital on its vacant land are the loss of the land for a sporting center, or the inability to use the land for a parking lot, or the money that could have been made from selling the land, or the loss of any of the various other possible uses—but not all of these in aggregate. The true opportunity cost would be the forgone profit of the most lucrative of those listed. One question that arises here is how to assess the benefit of dissimilar alternatives. We must determine a dollar value associated with each alternative to facilitate comparison and assess opportunity cost, which may be more or less difficult depending on the things we are trying to compare. For example, many decisions involve environmental impacts whose dollar value is difficult to assess because of scientific uncertainty. Valuing a human life or the economic impact of an Arctic oil spill involves making subjective choices with ethical implications.

商务英语毕业论文有很多

金融危机的国际经验及现实思考 Abstract：Since the 1990s, the financial crisis that frequently broke out has brought great danger to economy of various countries. This text reviews financial crisis of various countries at first, and then summarize its experience and lessons. Finally, combining potential factors in our economy which may cause financial crisis, the text carries on a helpful discussion to prevent our country from the financial crisis and puts forward some measures 关键词：金融危机 经验与教训 现实思考 随着经济的全球化以及我国逐步开放金融业，我国的金融体系越来越成为世界金融体系不可分割的一部分。然而20世纪以来频繁发生的金融危机却明白无误地昭示着金融危机的危害性。尤其是对于我们这样一个大国而言，金融危机在某种意义上可能就是一个灾难性的结果。虽然我国迄今还未曾在发生金融危机，但是这并不意味着我国的经济结构和金融体系有多么健全，而更多地可归结为我国先前所处的封闭状态。事实上，国外近年来关于中国爆发金融危机的论调几乎就不曾停止过。比如尼古拉斯•拉迪就认为，中国的金融危机早已成熟，唯一缺乏的是引发危机全面爆发的导火索（吴传俯，2003）。更有《远东经济评论》2002年发表文章认为“中国金融系统在走向毁灭”。虽然这些观点各有其出发点，但是中国经济体系内部存在着许多诱发金融危机的因素却是不争的事实。因此，在金融开放已成为趋势的当前，从其他国家发生的金融危机中汲取经验，防范金融危机并且增强自身抵御金融危机的能力就更显得迫切而重要。 一、理论综述 关于金融危机，比较权威的定义是由戈德斯密斯（1982）给出的 ，是全部或大部分金融指标——短期利率、资产（资产、证券、房地产、土地）价格、商业破产数和金融机构倒闭数——的急剧、短暂和超周期的恶化。其特征是基于预期资产价格下降而大量抛出不动产或长期金融资产，换成货币。金融危机可以分为货币危机、债务危机、银行危机等类型。而近年来的金融危机越来越呈现出某种混合形式的危机。 （一）马克思的金融危机理论 马克思关于金融危机的理论是在批判李嘉图的“比例”理论、萨伊的“市场均衡法则”的基础上建立的。马克思指出，货币的出现使商品的买卖在时间上和空间上出现分离的可能性，结果导致货币与商品的转化过程出现不确定性，而货币作为支付手段的职能在客观上又会产生债务支付危机的可能性；因此，导致金融危机和经济危机的可能性的关键在于商品和货币各自不同的独立运动价值特性。而只要商品、货币存在，经济危机就不可避免，并且会首先表现为金融危机。 马克思进一步指出，“一旦劳动的社会性质表现为商品的货币存在，从而表现为一个处于现实生产之外的东西，独立的货币危机或作为现实危机尖锐化的货币危机，就是不可避免的。” 可见，马克思是将货币金融危机分为两种类型：伴随经济危机发生的货币金融危机和独立的货币金融危机。伴随经济危机的金融危机主要是以市场竞争、资本积累以及信用发展等因素为现实条件，而独立的货币金融危机则是金融系统内部紊乱的结果。同时马克思特别强调了银行信用在缓和和加剧金融危机中的作用。 总的来说，马克思认为金融危机是以生产过剩和金融过剩为条件，表现为企业和银行的流动性危机、债务支付危机，但是其本质上是货币危机。 （二）西方的金融危机理论 早期比较有影响的金融危机理论是由Fisher（1933）提出的债务－通货紧缩理论。Fisher认为，在经济扩张过程中，投资的增加主要是通过银行信贷来实现。这会引起货币增加，从而物价上涨；而物价上涨又有利于债务人，因此信贷会进一步扩大，直到“过度负债”状态，即流动资产不足以清偿到期的债务，结果引起连锁的债务－通货紧缩过程，而这个过程则往往是以广泛的破产而结束。在Fisher的理论基础上，Minsky（1963）提出“金融不稳定”理论，Tobin（1980）提出“银行体系关键”理论，Kindleberger（1978）提出“过度交易”理论， （1996）年提出“资产价格下降”理论，各自从不同方面发展了Fisher的债务－通货紧缩理论。 70年代以后的金融危机爆发得越来越频繁，而且常常以独立于实际经济危机的形式而产生。在此基础上，金融危机理论也逐渐趋于成熟化。从70年代到90年代大致分为三个阶段。第一阶段的金融危机模型是由（1979）提出的，并由和加以完善和发展，认为宏观经济政策和汇率制度之间的不协调是导致金融危机的原因；第二阶段金融危机模型是由以（1994、1996）为代表，主要引入预期因素，对政府与私人之间进行动态博弈分析，强调金融危机由于预期因素存在的自促成性质以及经济基础变量对于发生金融危机的重要作用。1997年亚洲金融危机以后，金融危机理论发展至第三阶段。许多学者跳出货币政策、汇率体制、财政政策、公共政策等传统的宏观经济分析范围，开始从金融中介、不对称信息方面分析金融危机。其中有代表性的如Krugman(1998)提出的道德风险模型，强调金融中介的道德风险在导致过度风险投资既而形成资产泡沫化中所起的核心作用；流动性危机模型（，1998），侧重于从金融体系自身的不稳定性来解释金融危机形成的机理；“孪生危机”( Kaminsky & Reinhart, 1998 ) ，从实证方面研究银行业危机与货币危机之间固有的联系。 二、金融危机的国际经验与教训 从历史上看，早期比较典型的金融危机有荷兰的“郁金香狂热”、英格兰的南海泡沫、法国的密西西比泡沫以及美国1929年的大萧条等等。由于篇幅所限，本文仅回顾20世纪90年代以来所发生的重大金融危机，并试图从中找出导致金融危机发生的共同因素，以为我国预防金融危机提供借鉴。 （一）90年代一共发生了五次大的金融危机，根据时间顺序如下： －1993年的欧洲货币危机 90年代初，两德合并。为了发展东部地区经济，德国于1992年6月16日将其贴现率提高至％。结果马克汇率开始上升，从而引发欧洲汇率机制长达1年的动荡。金融风波接连爆发，英镑和意大利里拉被迫退出欧洲汇率机制。欧洲货币危机出现在欧洲经济货币一体化进程中。从表面上看，是由于德国单独提高贴现率所引起，但是其深层次原因是欧盟各成员国货币政策的不协调，从而从根本上违背了联合浮动汇率制的要求，而宏观经济政策的不协调又与欧盟内部各成员国经济发展的差异紧密相连。 －1995年的墨西哥金融危机。 1994年12月20日，墨西哥突然宣布比索对美元汇率的波动幅度将被扩大到15％，由于经济中的长期积累矛盾，此举触发市场信心危机，结果人们纷纷抛售比索，1995年初，比索贬值30％。随后股市也应声下跌。比索大幅贬值又引起输入的通货膨胀，这样，为了稳定货币，墨西哥大幅提高利率，结果国内需求减少，企业大量倒闭，失业剧增。在国际援助和墨西哥政府的努力下，墨西哥的金融危机在1995年以后开始缓解。墨西哥金融危机的主要原因有三：第一、债务规模庞大，结构失调；第二、经常项目持续逆差，结果储备资产不足，清偿能力下降；第三、僵硬的汇率机制不能适应经济发展的需要。 －1998年的亚洲金融危机 亚洲金融危机是泰国货币急剧贬值在亚洲地区形成的多米诺骨牌效应。这次金融危机所波及的范围之广、持续时间之长、影响之大都为历史罕见，不仅造成了东南亚国家的汇市、股市动荡，大批金融机构倒闭，失业增加，经济衰退，而且还蔓延到世界其它地区，对全球经济都造成了严重的影响。亚洲金融危机涉及到许多不同的国家，各国爆发危机的原因也有所区别。然而亚洲金融危机的发生决不是偶然的，不同国家存在着许多共同的诱发金融危机产生的因素，如宏观经济失衡，金融体系脆弱，资本市场开放与监控，货币可兑换与金融市场发育不协调等问题（李建军、田光宁，1998）。 参考文献： [1] Demirg- Kunt, Asli and Detragiache, Enrica.“Financial Liberalization and Financial Fragility”, 1998. [2] 贝内特•T•麦克勒姆，国际货币经济学[M]，中国金融出版社，2001年 [3] 李建军、田光宁，九十年代三大国际金融危机比较研究[M]，中国经济出版社，1998年 [4] 陈学彬，当代金融危机的形成、扩散与防范机制研究[M]，上海财经大学出版社，2001年 [5] 王德祥，论马克思的金融危机理论[J]，《经济评论》，2000年3期 [6] 刘明兴、罗俊伟，金融危机理论综述[J]，《经济科学》，2000年4期