编译 | 未玖
Nature , 21 October 2021, VOL 598, ISSUE 7881
《自然》 2021年10月21日，第598卷，7881期
天文学 Astronomy
Carbon monoxide gas produced by a giant impact in the inner region of a young system
年轻星系内部发生巨大碰撞产生一氧化碳气体
作者：Tajana Schneiderman, Luca Matrà, Alan P. Jackson, Grant M. Kennedy, Quentin Kral, Sebastián Marino, et al.
链接：
摘要
类地行星形成的模型预测，行星组合的最后阶段（年轻的原行星盘扩散之后持续的数千万年间）主要发生行星碰撞。正是通过这些巨大的撞击，像年轻的地球这样的行星才能成长到最终质量，并实现长期稳定的轨道结构。
一个关键预测是这些撞击会产生碎片。到目前为止，关于撞击后碎片最令人信服的观测证据来自于附近2300万年前的A型恒星HD172555周围的行星系。该星系显示大量细尘，具有异常陡峭的粒度分布和非典型的尘埃组成，此前将其归因于超高速撞击或巨大的小行星带。
研究组报道了一个与HD172555周围的尘埃碎片共轨的一氧化碳气体环的光谱分辨率探测结果，气体环与HD172555相距大约6到9个天文单位，类似于太阳系的外类地行星区域。
综上所述，尘埃和一氧化碳的检测结果有助于理解大型、易挥发性天体之间的巨大碰撞。这表明行星级的碰撞类似于月球形成的碰撞，可释放大量的气体和碎片，并且这种气体是可观测的，为了解年轻行星的组成提供了一个窗口。
Abstract
Models of terrestrial planet formation predict that the final stages of planetary assembly—lasting tens of millions of years beyond the dispersal of young protoplanetary disks—are dominated by planetary collisions. It is through these giant impacts that planets like the young Earth grow to their final mass and achieve long-term stable orbital configurations. A key prediction is that these impacts produce debris. So far, the most compelling observational evidence for post-impact debris comes from the planetary system around the nearby 23-million-year-old A-type star HD 172555. This system shows large amounts of fine dust with an unusually steep size distribution and atypical dust composition, previously attributed to either a hypervelocity impact or a massive asteroid belt. Here we report the spectrally resolved detection of a carbon monoxide gas ring co-orbiting with dusty debris around HD 172555 between about six and nine astronomical units—a region analogous to the outer terrestrial planet region of our Solar System. Taken together, the dust and carbon monoxide detections favour a giant impact between large, volatile-rich bodies. This suggests that planetary-scale collisions, analogous to the Moon-forming impact, can release large amounts of gas as well as debris, and that this gas is observable, providing a window into the composition of young planets.
材料科学 Materials Science
Half- and quarter-metals in rhombohedral trilayer graphene
菱面体三层石墨烯中的半金属和四分之一金属
作者：Haoxin Zhou, Tian Xie, Areg Ghazaryan, Tobias Holder, James R. Ehrets, Eric M. Spanton, et al.
链接：
摘要
铁磁性在电子占据高度局域化d轨道的过渡金属化合物中最为常见。然而，在低密度二维电子系统中也可能出现铁磁有序。
研究组证明了菱面体三层石墨烯中的门调谐范霍夫奇点，驱动电子系统的自发铁磁极化转变为一种或多种自旋和谷型。
通过电容和输运测量，研究组观察到调谐至相位间载流子浓度和电位移场的一系列跃迁，其中量子振荡具有四重、二重或一重简并度，分别对应自旋和谷简并的“正常金属态”、自旋极化的“半金属态”以及自旋极化和谷极化的“四分之一金属态”。
对于电子掺杂，包含谷各向异性相互作用的唯象斯通纳模型很好地捕捉到了数据的显著特征。对于空穴填充，研究组观察到一个更丰富的相图，其特征是费米面拓扑中对称性破缺和跃迁的微妙相互作用。
最后，研究组通过旋转对齐的六方氮化硼衬底引入莫尔超晶格。值得注意的是，研究组发现同位旋序仅受到弱扰动，当迁移的半金属态或四分之一金属态填充半超晶格带或四分之一超晶格带时，莫尔势会催化拓扑非平凡间隙态的形成。
该结果表明，菱面体石墨烯是一个多体理论控制测试的理想平台，并揭示了莫尔材料的磁性本质上是迁移的。
Abstract
Ferromagnetism is most common in transition metal compounds where electrons occupy highly localized d orbitals. However, ferromagnetic order may also arise in low-density two-dimensional electron systems. Here we show that gate-tuned van Hove singularities in rhombohedral trilayer graphene drive spontaneous ferromagnetic polarization of the electron system into one or more spin and valley flavours. Using capacitance and transport measurements, we observe a cascade of transitions tuned to the density and electronic displacement field between phases in which quantum oscillations have fourfold, twofold or onefold degeneracy, associated with a spin- and valley-degenerate normal metal, spin-polarized ‘half-metal’, and spin- and valley-polarized ‘quarter-metal’, respectively. For electron doping, the salient features of the data are well captured by a phenomenological Stoner model that includes valley-anisotropic interactions. For hole filling, we observe a richer phase diagram featuring a delicate interplay of broken symmetries and transitions in the Fermi surface topology. Finally, we introduce a moiré superlattice using a rotationally aligned hexagonal boron nitride substrate. Remarkably, we find that the isospin order is only weakly perturbed, with the moiré potential catalysing the formation of topologically nontrivial gapped states whenever itinerant half- or quarter-metal states occur at half- or quarter-superlattice band filling. Our results show that rhombohedral graphene is an ideal platform for well-controlled tests of many-body theory, and reveal magnetism in moiré materials to be fundamentally itinerant in nature.
Superconductivity in rhombohedral trilayer graphene
菱面体三层石墨烯的超导性
作者：Haoxin Zhou, Tian Xie, Takashi Taniguchi, Kenji Watanabe & Andrea F. Young.
链接：
摘要
在一个干净的二维器件中通过电场效应获得超导性是纳米电子学的一个核心目标。最近，石墨烯莫尔异质结构已实现超导性；然而，其中许多结构在机械上并不稳定，实验显示出强无序特征。
研究组报道了在亚开尔文温度下表现为低电阻率或零电阻率的晶体菱面三层石墨烯（一种结构上亚稳态的碳同素异形体）的超导性。超导性发生在两个不同的门调谐区（SC1和SC2），且深度在由平均自由程和超导态相干长度之比定义的干净极限内。
量子振荡对常态费米面的映射显示，这两种超导体都来自环形费米海，并且接近同位旋对称性破缺转变，其中费米面简并度发生变化。SC1从顺磁正常态出现，而SC2则从自旋极化、谷简并的半金属态中出现，且违反了面内磁场的泡利极限至少一个数量级。
研究组讨论了该结果的各种机制，包括传统的声子介导配对，近同位旋序波动产生的配对，以及环形费米液体的固有不稳定性导致的配对。
研究组为干净且结构简单的二维金属中超导性的观察提供了一个模型系统，用于测试相互竞争的超导理论模型，而不会出现建模混乱的复杂情况，同时使基于相关电子现象和弹道电子输运的新型场效应控制电子器件成为可能。
Abstract
To access superconductivity via the electric field effect in a clean, two-dimensional device is a central goal of nanoelectronics. Recently, superconductivity has been realized in graphene moiré heterostructures; however, many of these structures are not mechanically stable, and experiments show signatures of strong disorder. Here we report the observation of superconductivity—manifesting as low or vanishing resistivity at sub-kelvin temperatures—in crystalline rhombohedral trilayer graphene, a structurally metastable carbon allotrope. Superconductivity occurs in two distinct gate-tuned regions (SC1 and SC2), and is deep in the clean limit defined by the ratio of mean free path and superconducting coherence length. Mapping of the normal state Fermi surfaces by quantum oscillations reveals that both superconductors emerge from an annular Fermi sea, and are proximal to an isospin-symmetry-breaking transition where the Fermi surface degeneracy changes. SC1 emerges from a paramagnetic normal state, whereas SC2 emerges from a spin-polarized, valley-unpolarized half-metal and violates the Pauli limit for in-plane magnetic fields by at least one order of magnitude. We discuss our results in view of several mechanisms, including conventional phonon-mediated pairing, pairing due to fluctuations of the proximal isospin order, and intrinsic instabilities of the annular Fermi liquid. Our observation of superconductivity in a clean and structurally simple two-dimensional metal provides a model system to test competing theoretical models of superconductivity without the complication of modelling disorder, while enabling new classes of field-effect controlled electronic devices based on correlated electron phenomena and ballistic electron transport.
Dexterous magnetic manipulation of conductive non-magnetic objects
导电非磁性物体的灵巧磁操控
作者：Lan N. Pham, Griffin F. Tabor, Ashkan Pourkand, Jacob L. B. Aman, Tucker Hermans & Jake J. Abbott.
链接：
摘要
对铁磁物体的灵巧磁操控已很好建立，根据物体的几何结构，可能有三到六个自由度。有些物体需要非接触式灵巧操作，它们不含有大量的铁磁性材料，但含有导电材料。
时变磁场在导电材料中产生涡流，涡流与磁场相互作用产生力和力矩。这种现象曾被用于诱导阻力，以减少物体通过静态场时的运动，或使用动态场在单个方向上对物体施加力，但尚未被用于对导电物体进行如铁磁物体那样的灵活操控。
研究组表明，通过使用多个旋转磁偶极子场可在六个自由度下操控导电物体。利用量纲分析，结合多物理场数值模拟和实验验证，研究组描述了在旋转磁偶极子场中导电球体上产生的力和力矩。利用该模型，研究组在仿真和物理实验中实现了灵活操控。
Abstract
Dexterous magnetic manipulation of ferromagnetic objects is well established, with three to six degrees of freedom possible depending on object geometry. There are objects for which non-contact dexterous manipulation is desirable that do not contain an appreciable amount of ferromagnetic material but do contain electrically conductive material. Time-varying magnetic fields generate eddy currents in conductive materials, with resulting forces and torques due to the interaction of the eddy currents with the magnetic field. This phenomenon has previously been used to induce drag to reduce the motion of objects as they pass through a static field, or to apply force on an object in a single direction using a dynamic field, but has not been used to perform the type of dexterous manipulation of conductive objects that has been demonstrated with ferromagnetic objects. Here we show that manipulation, with six degrees of freedom, of conductive objects is possible by using multiple rotating magnetic dipole fields. Using dimensional analysis, combined with multiphysics numerical simulations and experimental verification, we characterize the forces and torques generated on a conductive sphere in a rotating magnetic dipole field. With the resulting model, we perform dexterous manipulation in simulations and physical experiments.
地球科学 Earth Science
Pliocene decoupling of equatorial Pacific temperature and pH gradients
上新世赤道太平洋温度和pH梯度的解耦
作者：Madison G. Shankle, Natalie J. Burls, Alexey V. Fedorov, Matthew D. Thomas, Wei Liu, Donald E. Penman, et al.
链接：
摘要
赤道太平洋的海洋动力学驱动热带气候模式，影响全球海洋和陆地生态系统。该地区如何应对全球变暖对全球气候、经济稳定和生态系统 健康 具有深远影响。因此，许多研究调查了上新世（530-260万年前）和中新世晚期（约600万年前）期间的赤道太平洋动力学，作为该地区在全球变暖下未来行为的模拟。
这一时期的古海洋学记录提出了一个明显的悖论，即沿着赤道太平洋东西向的海面温度梯度降低表明风驱动的上升流减少，这与东太平洋生物生产力增强的证据相冲突，后者通常由更强的上升流引起。
研究组通过提供新的证据，证明上新世早期/中新世晚期与现代环流体制完全不同，导致更古老、更酸性和更富营养的水到达赤道太平洋，从而调和了这些观察结果。这些结果为上新世早期/中新世晚期东太平洋生产力的提高提供了一种新机制，即使在风力驱动上升流较弱的情况下也是如此。
该发现为赤道太平洋动力学提供了新的线索，并有助于限制它们在不久的将来可能发生的变化，因为预计下个世纪地球将达到上新世那样的变暖水平。
Abstract
Ocean dynamics in the equatorial Pacific drive tropical climate patterns that affect marine and terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. How this region will respond to global warming has profound implications for global climate, economic stability and ecosystem health. As a result, numerous studies have investigated equatorial Pacific dynamics during the Pliocene (– million years ago) and late Miocene (around 6 million years ago) as an analogue for the future behaviour of the region under global warming. Palaeoceanographic records from this time present an apparent paradox with proxy evidence of a reduced east–west sea surface temperature gradient along the equatorial Pacific—indicative of reduced wind-driven upwelling—conflicting with evidence of enhanced biological productivity in the east Pacific that typically results from stronger upwelling. Here we reconcile these observations by providing new evidence for a radically different-from-modern circulation regime in the early Pliocene/late Miocene that results in older, more acidic and more nutrient-rich water reaching the equatorial Pacific. These results provide a mechanism for enhanced productivity in the early Pliocene/late Miocene east Pacific even in the presence of weaker wind-driven upwelling. Our findings shed new light on equatorial Pacific dynamics and help to constrain the potential changes they will undergo in the near future, given that the Earth is expected to reach Pliocene-like levels of warming in the next century.
Direct radiative effects of airborne microplastics
空气中微塑料的直接辐射效应
作者：Laura E. Revell, Peter Kuma, Eric C. Le Ru, Walter R. C. Somerville & Sally Gaw
链接：
摘要
微塑料现在被认为是大气中广泛存在的污染物，由于其体积小、密度低，可以随风绕地球传播。大气气溶胶，如矿物粉尘和其他类型的空气悬浮颗粒物，通过吸收和散射辐射（直接辐射效应）影响地球气候，其影响通常用有效辐射强迫（ERF）度量进行量化。然而，空气中微塑料的辐射效应及其对全球气候的影响尚不清楚。
研究组计算了空气中微塑料的光学性质和直接辐射效应（不包括气溶胶-云相互作用）。假设平均表面浓度为1个微塑料颗粒/ m3 ，且垂直分布在10公里高空，则计算出当今大气中空气微塑料的ERF为 mW/ m2 。
然而，微塑料的地理和垂直分布存在很大的不确定性。假设它们局限于边界层，短波效应占主导地位，微塑料ERF约为 mW/ m2 。与气溶胶-辐射相互作用引起的总ERF相比（ 至 W/ m2 ），微塑料ERF很小。
然而，塑料产量在过去70年中迅速增长；如果不认真改革塑料生产和废物管理实践，空气中微塑料的丰度和ERF将继续增加。
Abstract
Microplastics are now recognized as widespread contaminants in the atmosphere, where, due to their small size and low density, they can be transported with winds around the Earth. Atmospheric aerosols, such as mineral dust and other types of airborne particulate matter, influence Earth’s climate by absorbing and scattering radiation (direct radiative effects) and their impacts are commonly quantified with the effective radiative forcing (ERF) metric. However, the radiative effects of airborne microplastics and associated implications for global climate are unknown. Here we present calculations of the optical properties and direct radiative effects of airborne microplastics (excluding aerosol–cloud interactions). The ERF of airborne microplastics is computed to be milliwatts per square metre in the present-day atmosphere assuming a uniform surface concentration of 1 microplastic particle per cubic metre and a vertical distribution up to 10 kilometres altitude. However, there are large uncertainties in the geographical and vertical distribution of microplastics. Assuming that they are confined to the boundary layer, shortwave effects dominate and the microplastic ERF is approximately milliwatts per square metre. Compared with the total ERF due to aerosol–radiation interactions ( to watts per square metre), the microplastic ERF is small. However, plastic production has increased rapidly over the past 70 years; without serious attempts to overhaul plastic production and waste-management practices, the abundance and ERF of airborne microplastics will continue to increase.
编译 | 未玖
Nature , 14 April 2022, VOL 604, ISSUE 7905
《自然》 2022年4月14日，第604卷，7905期
天文学 Astronomy
A dusty compact object bridging galaxies and quasars at cosmic dawn
在宇宙黎明时分，星系由尘埃致密体过渡到类星体
作者：S. Fujimoto, G. B. Brammer, D. Watson, G. E. Magdis, V. Kokorev, T. R. Greve, et al.
链接：
摘要：
自从发现发光类星体在宇宙大爆炸后仅存在7亿年以来，了解超大质量黑洞在早期宇宙中如何形成和生长已成为一个重大难题。
理论模拟显示了一种进化序列，尘埃红移的类星体从严重尘埃遮蔽的星暴星系中出现，然后通过释放气体和尘埃过渡到无遮蔽的发光类星体。尽管最后一个阶段的红移已被确定为，但由于它们在光学和近红外波长上的微弱性，目前尚未发现具有类似红移的过渡类星体。
研究组报道了一个紫外致密天体GNz7q的观测结果，它与一个红移为 、尘埃掩蔽的星暴有关。
在该时期，宿主星系的尘埃辐射比任何其他已知物体都要明亮，在480秒差距的中心半径范围内，每年形成1600个太阳质量的恒星。在深部、高分辨率成像和无狭缝光谱中，可识别出一个远紫外的红点源。
GNz7q在X射线中非常微弱，这表明在尘埃星暴核心出现了一个独特的紫外致密恒星形成区或一个康普顿厚、超过爱丁顿极限的黑洞吸积盘。在后一种情况下，观测到的性质与宇宙学模拟的预测一致，并表明GNz7q是晚期无遮蔽发光类星体的祖先。
Abstract：
Understanding how super-massive black holes form and grow in the early Universe has become a major challenge since it was discovered that luminous quasars existed only 700 million years after the Big Bang. Simulations indicate an evolutionary sequence of dust-reddened quasars emerging from heavily dust-obscured starbursts that then transition to unobscured luminous quasars by expelling gas and dust. Although the last phase has been identified out to a redshift of , a transitioning quasar has not been found at similar redshifts owing to their faintness at optical and near-infrared wavelengths. Here we report observations of an ultraviolet compact object, GNz7q, associated with a dust-enshrouded starburst at a redshift of . The host galaxy is more luminous in dust emission than any other known object at this epoch, forming 1,600 solar masses of stars per year within a central radius of 480 parsec. A red point source in the far-ultraviolet is identified in deep, high-resolution imaging and slitless spectroscopy. GNz7q is extremely faint in X-rays, which indicates the emergence of a uniquely ultraviolet compact star-forming region or a Compton-thick super-Eddington black-hole accretion disk at the dusty starburst core. In the latter case, the observed properties are consistent with predictions from cosmological simulations and suggest that GNz7q is an antecedent to unobscured luminous quasars at later epochs.
物理学 Physics
Intelligent infrared sensing enabled by tunable moiré quantum geometry
可调谐莫尔量子几何实现智能红外传感
作者：Chao Ma, Shaofan Yuan, Patrick Cheung, Kenji Watanabe, Takashi Taniguchi, Fan Zhang, et al.
链接：
摘要：
众所周知，固体中布洛赫波函数的量子几何性质，即贝里曲率和量子度量，显著影响着电子的基态和激发态行为。
体光伏效应（BPVE）是一种依赖于激发光偏振的非线性现象，在很大程度上取决于光学跃迁中的量子几何特性。红外BPVE尚未在石墨烯或莫尔体系等新兴平台中观察到，尽管这些平台已报道过与量子几何有关的激发强关联现象。
研究组报道了在扭曲双双层石墨烯（TDBG）中观察到5 µm和 µm处可调谐中红外BPVE，由莫尔诱导的强对称性破缺和量子几何贡献产生。光响应在很大程度上取决于激发光的偏振态，且可通过外部电场进行高度调谐。
这种量子几何特性的广泛可调性使研究组能够使用卷积神经网络同时实现全斯托克斯偏振测量和波长检测，仅使用一个亚波长足迹仅为3 3 µm2的TDBG器件 。
该研究工作不仅揭示了莫尔工程量子几何在可调谐非线性光-物质相互作用中的独特作用，还以极其紧凑的芯片方式为未来智能传感技术开辟了新途径。
Abstract：
Quantum geometric properties of Bloch wave functions in solids, that is, Berry curvature and the quantum metric, are known to significantly influence the ground- and excited-state behaviour of electrons. The bulk photovoltaic effect (BPVE), a nonlinear phenomenon depending on the polarization of excitation light, is largely governed by the quantum geometric properties in optical transitions. Infrared BPVE has yet to be observed in graphene or moiré systems, although exciting strongly correlated phenomena related to quantum geometry have been reported in this emergent platform. Here we report the observation of tunable mid-infrared BPVE at 5 µm and µm in twisted double bilayer graphene (TDBG), arising from the moiré-induced strong symmetry breaking and quantum geometric contribution. The photoresponse depends substantially on the polarization state of the excitation light and is highly tunable by external electric fields. This wide tunability in quantum geometric properties enables us to use a convolutional neural network to achieve full-Stokes polarimetry together with wavelength detection simultaneously, using only one single TDBG device with a subwavelength footprint of merely 3 3 µm2. Our work not only reveals the unique role of moiré engineered quantum geometry in tunable nonlinear light–matter interactions but also identifies a pathway for future intelligent sensing technologies in an extremely compact, on-chip manner.
材料科学 Materials Science
Uniting tensile ductility with ultrahigh strength via composition undulation
通过成分起伏同时实现拉伸塑性与超高强度
作者：Heng Li, Hongxiang Zong, Suzhi Li, Shenbao Jin, Yan Chen, Matthew J. Cabral, et al.
链接：
摘要：
具有纳米晶粒的金属有接近2 GPa的超高强度。然而，这种极端的晶界强化导致几乎所有拉伸塑性的丧失，即使当金属具有面心立方结构（所有晶体结构中塑性最强的结构）时亦如此。
研究组证明了纳米晶镍-钴固溶体虽仍是面心立方单相，但其拉伸强度约为 GPa，塑性断裂伸长率约为16 %。
这种不寻常的拉伸强度和塑性的结合是通过高浓度固溶体中的成分起伏实现的。这种起伏使得层错能和晶格应变在1-10纳米的尺度范围内发生空间变化，从而显著影响了位错运动。
尽管纳米晶粒内部空间非常有限，但位错运动变得缓慢，促进了它们的交互作用、联锁和增殖。因此，流动应力增加，同时位错储存增加，从而提升了应变硬化能力，提高了塑性。
同时，沿位错线的分段脱捕需要较小的激活体积，因此应变速率敏感性增加，这也稳定了拉伸流动。因此，抗位错传播的起伏结构提供了一种强化机制，可在高流动应力下保持拉伸塑性。
Abstract：
Metals with nanocrystalline grains have ultrahigh strengths approaching two gigapascals. However, such extreme grain-boundary strengthening results in the loss of almost all tensile ductility, even when the metal has a face-centred-cubic structure—the most ductile of all crystal structures. Here we demonstrate that nanocrystalline nickel–cobalt solid solutions, although still a face-centred-cubic single phase, show tensile strengths of about gigapascals with a respectable ductility of about 16 per cent elongation to failure. This unusual combination of tensile strength and ductility is achieved by compositional undulation in a highly concentrated solid solution. The undulation renders the stacking fault energy and the lattice strains spatially varying over length scales in the range of one to ten nanometres, such that the motion of dislocations is thus significantly affected. The motion of dislocations becomes sluggish, promoting their interaction, interlocking and accumulation, despite the severely limited space inside the nanocrystalline grains. As a result, the flow stress is increased, and the dislocation storage is promoted at the same time, which increases the strain hardening and hence the ductility. Meanwhile, the segment detrapping along the dislocation line entails a small activation volume and hence an increased strain-rate sensitivity, which also stabilizes the tensile flow. As such, an undulating landscape resisting dislocation propagation provides a strengthening mechanism that preserves tensile ductility at high flow stresses.
Perovskite–organic tandem solar cells with indium oxide interconnect
钙钛矿-氧化铟互连有机串联太阳能电池
作者：K. O. Brinkmann, T. Becker, F. Zimmermann, C. Kreusel, T. Gahlmann, M. Theisen, et al.
链接：
摘要：
多结太阳能电池可以克服单结器件的基本效率限制。金属卤化物钙钛矿型太阳能电池的带隙可调性使其在多结结构中具有吸引力。硅和铜铟硒化镓（CIGS）以及全钙钛矿串联电池的组合已有报道。与此同时，窄间隙非富勒烯受体为有机太阳能电池带来了快速提升的效率。
有机和钙钛矿半导体是一种很有吸引力的组合，具有相似的加工技术。目前，钙钛矿-有机串联电池的效率低于标准，并且受到宽间隙钙钛矿电池的低开路电压（Voc）和子电池之间互连引入损耗的限制。
研究组展示了钙钛矿-有机串联电池的效率为（认证为），Voc高达 伏特。优化的电荷提取层使钙钛矿子电池具有高Voc和填充因子的出色组合。
该串联电池的有机子电池在近红外下提供了高外部量子效率，与对非富勒烯电池有限光稳定性的典型担忧相反，如果激子主要在非富勒烯受体上产生，则表现出出色的操作稳定性。子电池由一层超薄（约纳米）类金属氧化铟层连接，具有前所未有的低光/电损耗。
这项工作为钙钛矿-有机串联电池竖了一座里程碑，它优于最好的p–i–n钙钛矿单结，并与钙钛矿-CIGS和所有钙钛矿多结相媲美。
Abstract：
Multijunction solar cells can overcome the fundamental efficiency limits of single-junction devices. The bandgap tunability of metal halide perovskite solar cells renders them attractive for multijunction architectures. Combinations with silicon and copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS), as well as all-perovskite tandem cells, have been reported. Meanwhile, narrow-gap non-fullerene acceptors have unlocked skyrocketing efficiencies for organic solar cells. Organic and perovskite semiconductors are an attractive combination, sharing similar processing technologies. Currently, perovskite–organic tandems show subpar efficiencies and are limited by the low open-circuit voltage (Voc) of wide-gap perovskite cells and losses introduced by the interconnect between the subcells. Here we demonstrate perovskite–organic tandem cells with an efficiency of per cent (certified per cent) and a high Voc of volts. Optimized charge extraction layers afford perovskite subcells with an outstanding combination of high Voc and fill factor. The organic subcells provide a high external quantum efficiency in the near-infrared and, in contrast to paradigmatic concerns about limited photostability of non-fullerene cells, show an outstanding operational stability if excitons are predominantly generated on the non-fullerene acceptor, which is the case in our tandems. The subcells are connected by an ultrathin (approximately nanometres) metal-like indium oxide layer with unprecedented low optical/electrical losses. This work sets a milestone for perovskite–organic tandems, which outperform the best p–i–n perovskite single junctions and are on a par with perovskite–CIGS and all-perovskite multijunctions.
机械工程 Mechanical Engineering
Thermophotovoltaic efficiency of 40%
科学家实现40%的热光伏效率
作者：Alina LaPotin, Kevin L. Schulte, Myles A. Steiner, Kyle Buznitsky, Colin C. Kelsall, Daniel J. Friedman, et al.
链接：
摘要：
热光伏（TPV）主要通过光伏效应将红外波长的光转换为电能，可使用比目前普遍存在于电力生产中的涡轮机更高温度的热源进行能量存储和转换。
自从在2000 下使用集成背表面反射器和钨发射极首次展示29%的高效TPV以来，TPV的制造和性能得到了改善。然而，尽管预测TPV的效率可能超过50%，但在温度低于1300 下，实际效率仍仅为32%。
研究组报道了效率超过40%的TPV电池的制造和测量，并通过实验证明了高带隙串联TPV电池的效率。TPV电池是由带隙在 eV的III–V材料组成的双结器件，针对1900-2400 的发射极温度进行了优化。
电池利用带边光谱滤波的概念来获得高效率，使用高反射背表面反射器来拒绝不可用的子带隙辐射返回发射极。在功率密度为 W cm –2 ，发射极温度为2400 的条件下， eV器件的最大效率为（ 1）%。在功率密度为 W cm–2，发射极温度为2127 的条件下， eV器件的最大效率为（ 1）%。
这些电池可以集成到一个TPV系统中，用于热能电网存储，以实现可调度的可再生能源。这为热能电网存储创造了一条途径，以达到足够高的效率和足够低的成本，从而实现电网脱碳。
Abstract：
Thermophotovoltaics (TPVs) convert predominantly infrared wavelength light to electricity via the photovoltaic effect, and can enable approaches to energy storage and conversion that use higher temperature heat sources than the turbines that are ubiquitous in electricity production today. Since the first demonstration of 29% efficient TPVs using an integrated back surface reflector and a tungsten emitter at 2,000 C, TPV fabrication and performance have improved. However, despite predictions that TPV efficiencies can exceed 50%, the demonstrated efficiencies are still only as high as 32%, albeit at much lower temperatures below 1,300 C. Here we report the fabrication and measurement of TPV cells with efficiencies of more than 40% and experimentally demonstrate the efficiency of high-bandgap tandem TPV cells. The TPV cells are two-junction devices comprising III–V materials with bandgaps between and eV that are optimized for emitter temperatures of 1,900–2,400 C. The cells exploit the concept of band-edge spectral filtering to obtain high efficiency, using highly reflective back surface reflectors to reject unusable sub-bandgap radiation back to the emitter. A eV device reached a maximum efficiency of ( 1)% operating at a power density of W cm–2 and an emitter temperature of 2,400 C. A eV device reached a maximum efficiency of ( 1)% operating at a power density of W cm –2 and an emitter temperature of 2,127 C. These cells can be integrated into a TPV system for thermal energy grid storage to enable dispatchable renewable energy. This creates a pathway for thermal energy grid storage to reach sufficiently high efficiency and sufficiently low cost to enable decarbonization of the electricity grid.
地球科学 Earth Science
Realization of Paris Agreement pledges may limit warming just below 2
实现《巴黎协定》的承诺有望将全球变暖控制在2 以下
作者：Malte Meinshausen, Jared Lewis, Christophe McGlade, Johannes Gütschow, Zebedee Nicholls, Rebecca Burdon, et al.
链接：
摘要：
在《格拉斯哥气候公约》签署前的过去五年中，154个缔约方在其国家自主贡献中提交了新的或更新的2030年减缓目标，76个缔约方提出了长期承诺。对2021联合国气候变化大会（COP26）之前承诺的量化表明，将升温控制在2 以下的可能性低于50 %。
研究组证明，如果所有有条件和无条件的承诺都得到充分和及时的执行，全球变暖可以控制在2 以下。根据政府间气候变化专门委员会（IPCC）第六次评估报告中第一工作组对地球系统不确定性进行的概率表征，在全面执行的情况下，峰值升温可被限制在 之间。
研究组回顾性地预测了21世纪的气候变暖，以显示2015-2021年雄心勃勃的总体目标水平如何变化。研究结果依赖于对2030年或2050年之后的限时目标外推、IPCC 特别报告（）情景数据库的特征和承诺的全面实施情况。
对这些因素更悲观的假设将导致更高的升温预测。另一个独立的排放模型框架预测，全球升温峰值为 ，这支持了该研究发现，即各国兑现承诺可能会将全球变暖限制在略低于2 的范围内。
若不仅要将升温控制在“略低于”，还要控制在“远低于”2 或 ，则迫切需要制定政策和采取行动，以在本世纪中叶实现全球C O2 净零排放。
Abstract：
Over the last five years prior to the Glasgow Climate Pact, 154 Parties have submitted new or updated 2030 mitigation goals in their nationally determined contributions and 76 have put forward longer-term pledges. Quantifications of the pledges before the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) suggested a less than 50 per cent chance of keeping warming below 2 degrees Celsius. Here we show that warming can be kept just below 2 degrees Celsius if all conditional and unconditional pledges are implemented in full and on time. Peak warming could be limited to – degrees Celsius in the full implementation case—building on a probabilistic characterization of Earth system uncertainties in line with the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). We retrospectively project twenty-first-century warming to show how the aggregate level of ambition changed from 2015 to 2021. Our results rely on the extrapolation of time-limited targets beyond 2030 or 2050, characteristics of the IPCC C Special Report () scenario database and the full implementation of pledges. More pessimistic assumptions on these factors would lead to higher temperature projections. A second, independent emissions modelling framework projected peak warming of degrees Celsius, supporting the finding that realized pledges could limit warming to just below 2 degrees Celsius. Limiting warming not only to ‘just below’ but to ‘well below’ 2 degrees Celsius or degrees Celsius urgently requires policies and actions to bring about steep emission reductions this decade, aligned with mid-century global net-zero C O2 emissions
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sci-hub专门免费下载外文文献，但网站经常换域名，有时不稳定，新域名也有卡顿打不开现象，而且没有收录新文献，目前2022年文献基本下不到。
学术文献下载器（)，把海量中外文献数据库资源整合一起，涵盖上面提到的文献数据库，文献资源庞大涉及全科，包括谷歌学术和sci-hub下载不了的文献。适合学校资源不够的高校生或者是单位没有数据库资源的科研人员查阅下载文献资料。
小木虫论坛-SCI期刊点评专栏：拥有来自国内各大院校、科研院所的博硕士研究生和企业研发人员对期刊的专业点评，覆盖了8000+ SCI期刊杂志的专业点评信息，为国内外学术科研人员论文投稿、期刊选择等提供了专业的建议。小木虫论坛秉承“为中国学术科研免费提供动力”宗旨，已成为千万硕博 ...浏览6707 回答81 Epigenetics经验分享：with editor一个月了，好慢呐，有战友投过这个期刊 么，版面费多少？ 2 0 2021-07-01 ms8933482113232354 影响因子: 经验分享：EPIGENETICS-US的2020年度#影响因子#为 168 0 2021-02-18 ms6032332839474392 …浏览6707 回答81 科技大数据知识发现平台平台围绕大数据与文献情报智能服务，提供知识发现丰富化和多维度化：提供多维度分面展示，快速发现知识；利用STKOS语义支持相关搜索词分析与规范；提供对专利的关联发现，辅助了解当前关注方向的专利产出，辅助寻求科研合作关系；提供对期刊的关联发现，对期刊按领域、研究方向、期刊的 ...浏览6707 回答81 Editorial:BrainInsulinResistanceinNeurodevelopmental首页 资讯 期刊 导师 问答 求职 发Paper 文献直达 高级搜索 期刊列表 论文助手 搜索 当前位置： X-MOL 学术 › Front. Neurosci. › 论文详情 Editorial: Brain Insulin Resistance in …如何快速使用endnote首先推荐你一个网站，xmol。. 为了搜索你的领域，首先要了解两个方法，第一doi，第二，关键词。. 后者你需要科学上网 。. 你看到了一篇文献，你可以在文献里找到doi或者是以文章期刊名，页码等的引用格式。. 复制doi或者引用格式到xmol，一搜就会直达文章 ...科研过程中，如何订阅本领域重要的期刊，使其整期推送新的 ...2019-7-30如何评价化学咨询平台x-mol？ - 知乎2016-4-11你写论文时发现了哪些非常神的网站？ - 知乎2016-2-27查看更多结果如何快速查询JACS文献XMOL化学 2015-08-11 2698人看过 JACS可以说是每个化学人梦寐以求的能发一篇论文的地方，可以说是化学类杂志的龙头。化学人经常需要查询JACS的文献。如何在谷歌学术不能用、ACS访问太慢、百度太渣的情况下，快速查询到JACS的文献呢？AnalyticalandBioanalyticalChemistry期刊最新论文,化学Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry期刊最新论文，,顶级期刊最新论文图文内容，出版社网站每日同步更新，点击标题直达论文原文，自定义关注的期刊，覆盖PubMed的论文库，快速方便精准的找到您想要的 …iomedicalMicrodevices期刊最新论文,化学/材料,Biomedical Microdevices期刊最新论文，,顶级期刊最新论文图文内容，出版社网站每日同步更新，点击标题直达论文原文，自定义关注的期刊，覆盖PubMed的论文库，快速方便精准的找到您想要的论文中国实用外科杂志中国实用外科杂志Chinese Journal of Practical Surgery. 核心期刊 JST Pж (AJ) CSCD 统计源期刊. 基本信息. 曾用刊名： 实用外科杂志. 主办单位： 中国医师协会;中国实用医学杂志社. 出版周期： 月刊. ISSN： 1005-2208. CN： …化学SCI期刊目录导航SCI期刊搜索 - 最新影响因子查询 中科院分区源于2019年12月17日《2019年中国科学院文献情报中心期刊分区表》“基础版”，仅供参考! 仪器仪表 光谱学 全科医学与补充医学 分析化学 化学综合 声学 学科教育 工程：化工 工程：土木 应用化学 数学跨学科应用 无机 ...小木虫论坛-SCI期刊点评专栏：拥有来自国内各大院校、科研院所的博硕士研究生和企业研发人员对期刊的专业点评，覆盖了8000+ SCI期刊杂志的专业点评信息，为国内外学术科研人员论文投稿、期刊选择等提供了专业的建议。小木虫论坛秉承“为中国学术科研免费提供动力”宗旨，已成为千万硕博 ...Epigenetics经验分享：with editor一个月了，好慢呐，有战友投过这个期刊 么，版面费多少？ 2 0 2021-07-01 ms8933482113232354 影响因子: 经验分享：EPIGENETICS-US的2020年度#影响因子#为 168 0 2021-02-18 ms6032332839474392 …科技大数据知识发现平台平台围绕大数据与文献情报智能服务，提供知识发现丰富化和多维度化：提供多维度分面展示，快速发现知识；利用STKOS语义支持相关搜索词分析与规范；提供对专利的关联发现，辅助了解当前关注方向的专利产出，辅助寻求科研合作关系；提供对期刊的关联发现，对期刊按领域、研究方向、期刊的 ...Editorial:BrainInsulinResistanceinNeurodevelopmental首页 资讯 期刊 导师 问答 求职 发Paper 文献直达 高级搜索 期刊列表 论文助手 搜索 当前位置： X-MOL 学术 › Front. Neurosci. › 论文详情 Editorial: Brain Insulin Resistance in …如何快速使用endnote首先推荐你一个网站，xmol。. 为了搜索你的领域，首先要了解两个方法，第一doi，第二，关键词。. 后者你需要科学上网 。. 你看到了一篇文献，你可以在文献里找到doi或者是以文章期刊名，页码等的引用格式。. 复制doi或者引用格式到xmol，一搜就会直达文章 ...科研过程中，如何订阅本领域重要的期刊，使其整期推送新的 ...2019-7-30如何评价化学咨询平台x-mol？ - 知乎2016-4-11你写论文时发现了哪些非常神的网站？ -如何快速查询JACS文献XMOL化学 2015-08-11 2698人看过 JACS可以说是每个化学人梦寐以求的能发一篇论文的地方，可以说是化学类杂志的龙头。化学人经常需要查询JACS的文献。如何在谷歌学术不能用、ACS访问太慢、百度太渣的情况下，快速查询到JACS的文献呢？AnalyticalandBioanalyticalChemistry期刊最新论文,化学Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry期刊最新论文，,顶级期刊最新论文图文内容，出版社网站每日同步更新，点击标题直达论文原文，自定义关注的期刊，覆盖PubMed的论文库，快速方便精准的找到您想要的 …BiomedicalMicrodevices期刊最新论文,化学/材料,Biomedical Microdevices期刊最新论文，,顶级期刊最新论文图文内容，出版社网站每日同步更新，点击标题直达论文原文，自定义关注的期刊，覆盖PubMed的论文库，快速方便精准的找到您想要的论文
第一种：web of sciencesci收录的期刊，可以在web of science网站上查询到。当查看某一本sci的期刊号时，就可以登录web of science，按照提示，完成该本sci期刊的检索，在相关信息介绍中，就可以找到sci期刊号。
第二种：中国知网中国知网是非常大的数据库，收录了很多期刊。我们可以登录中国知网，检索要查询的sci期刊，只要该本sci期刊收录，就可以找到该本期刊的介绍，查看到对应的期刊号。
第三种：sci期刊分区名单sci期刊名单每年都会更新一次，每次更新都会公布最新的期刊分区名单。这份名单中，包括每本sci期刊的介绍，自然也可以查看到对应的期刊号。
一区sci期刊有哪些如下：
一区sci期刊有Nature和Science，一区sci期刊还有Cell Metabolism 、Cancer Cell、Science Advances、Cell Reports、Nature Microbiology、Nature Biotechnology、Autophagy、Journal of Hepatology、Hepatology、Circulation等刊物，这些刊物在本专业中都是顶尖刊物，发表难度也是可想而知的。
国内也有很多优秀刊物被检索收录，这部分刊物也是国内作者发表sci论文选择刊物时首先会关注并选择的，包括Cell Research、Mol Cell、Cell Discovery、Fungal Diversity、Molecular Plant、Protein & Cell、Cellular & Molecular Immunology、Bone Research等等。
一区二区是sci期刊特有的期刊分类标准，sci将其检索的期刊按照影响因子高低分为四个区，也就是一区二区三区四区，四个区中对应不同的刊物，四个区中一区影响因子最高，四区最低，所以一区二区论文对应的就是发表在一区期刊和二区期刊的论文。
中文sci期刊如下：化学学报、物理学报、高等学校化学学报、岩石学报、植物分类学报、物理化学学报、高分子学报、分析化学、地球物理学报、无机化学学报、有机化学、无机材料学报、生物化学与生物物理进展、化学进展、稀有金属材料与工程、光谱学与光谱分析、新型碳材料、金属学报、红外与毫米波学报。
SCI全称是ScienceCitationIndex，是美国科学信息研究院（InstituteforScientificInformation，简称ISI）出版的一部世界著名的期刊文献检索工具，其出版形式包括印刷版期刊和光盘版及联机数据库，还发行了互联网上Web版数据库。SCI收录全世界出版的数、理、化、农、林、医、生命科学、天文、地理、环境、材料、工程技术等自然科学各学科的核心期刊约3500种。
sci经过50多年的发展，现在已经发展成为当代世界非常重要的大型数据库，并且已经列入国际六大著名检索系统之一。这是一部非常重要的检索工具书，同时也是科学研究成果评价的一项重要依据。
被SCI收录的中国期刊，整体数量还是比较少的，但是依然是一个缓慢的上升趋势。想查找这个还是比较容易的，大家直接进入知网就可以查询到。先点击期刊导航，然后点击数据库刊源导航，再点击SCI科学引文索引。所有被收录的中国期刊就能在这里查到了。
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李霞.顾幸勇.刘琪 查看详情 [期刊论文] -中国陶瓷2004(03) 高朋召 三维碳纤维预制体/陶瓷基复合材料的制备及性能研究 2004 廖树帜.张邦维 查看详情 [期刊论文] -稀有金属材料与工程1998(05) 郑燕青.施尔畏.李汶军 查看详情 [期刊论文] -中国科学2001(04) 葛荣德.刘志宏 查看详情 1995 Voleeanov E 查看详情 2007(2-3) Blumm J 查看详情 2005(09) 更多...相似文献(10条)期刊论文 Sol-gel法制备ZrO2/钙铝硅系微晶玻璃复合材料的研究 - 中国陶瓷2005,41(1) 期刊论文 Sol-Gel法制备Al2O3-SiO2-TiO2-ZrO2复合陶瓷膜的研究 - 中国陶瓷2003,39(6) 外文期刊 Synthesis of ZrO2-SiO2 mesocomposite with high ZrO2 content via a novel sol-gel method 2005,84(1/3) 外文期刊 Optical properties of sol-gel derived ZrO2-TiO2 composite films 2007,515(20/21) 期刊论文 溶胶-凝胶法制备定向排列的纳米结构二氧化锆薄膜 - 清华大学学报(自然科学版)2001,41(4_5) 外文期刊 Influence of La2O3 and ZrO2 as promoters on surface and catalytic properties of CuO/MgO system prepared by sol-gel method 2006,299(0) 外文期刊 Photocatalytic degradation of 2,4-dichlorophenoxiacetic acid and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol with ZrO2 and Mn/ZrO2 sol-gel materials 2006,37(3) 期刊论文 Sol-Gel法制备ZrO2粉的析晶机制 - 稀有金属材料与工程2005,34(z1) 外文会议 Preparation of ZrO2/nano-TiO2 composite powder by sol-gel method 2007 外文期刊 Phase evolution of sol-gel CaO-ZrO2 using sulfuric acid as hydrolysis catalyst 2006,37(3
在国内外学术期刊发表的主要论文如下：1. Nd-Fe-B (B≤50at.%)三元系相图的研究，《中国科学》A辑，, , 1985, . Phase Diagrams of Nd-Fe-B Ternary System, <
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论文中医药的网络推广(英文版本)。。 文件密码 RAR文件密码为：
Any survey of tax sources should begin with the nation’s fairest and most productive soure of revenue, the individual income tax. 任何税收来源的调查都应开始于国家最公正、生产性最强的国民收入来源--个人所得税. All advanced industrial countries levy a dircct tax on individual incomes, but nowhere is this tax as important as in the United States. In recent years,about 40 percent of federal cash receipts has been collected from this source. 所有先进的工业国家都对个人所得直接征税，但没有哪个国家在征此税时像美国一样重要。近年来,约40%的联邦现金收入都来源于此. The individual income tax is uniquely suited for raising revenue in a democratic country where the distribution of income, and therefore of ability to pay,is unequal. Theoreticians may disagree about the meaningfulness of the term “ability to pay,” but the close association between a man’s income and taxpaying ability is commonly accepted. There is also general acceptance of the idea of progression in income taxation. 个人所得税是非常适合民主国家增加国民收入的,在民主国家里收入分配和支付能力是不平等的. 理论家可能不赞成"支付能力"的长远意义,但个人收入和纳税能力间的密切关系却是普遍接受的. 级数所得税的观点也被普遍接受. The individual income tax has still another attractive feature. Income alone does not differentiate a man’s ability to pay—his family responsibilities are also important. A single person may be able to along on an income of $3000 a year, but a married man with two children would have great diffculty making ends meet. The individual income tax takes such differences into account through the personal exemptions and deductions, which are subtracted before arriving at the income subject to tax. 个人所得税还有另一个吸引人的特点. 收入不足以区分一个人的支付能力—他的家庭责任也是很重要的. 单身男士也许每年收入达3000美元, 但带着两个孩子的已婚男人要想收支相抵却很困难. 个人所得税通过个人豁免和扣除将这种差异解决了, 个人免税额在应纳税收之前就扣除了. The revenue potential of the individual income tax has been recognized only recently. For almost thirty years after its adoption in 1913, the tax applied mainly to a small group of high income people. Exemptions were high by current standards and few incomes were large enough rates. In the national effort to raise needed revenue during World War Ⅱ, exemptions were drastically were increased in 1946 and 1948,but have remained low by prewar standards. Tax rates were also raised in wartime, and have remained much higher than in earlier years. At the same time, personal incomes have continued to increase with the growth of the economy (and with the inflation that occurred during and after World WarⅡ and the Korean War). The combination of lower exemptions, higher rates, and higher incomes increased the yield of the individual income tax manyfold. In1939, tax liabilities were about $1 billion; in 1966, they are in excess of $50 billion. 个人所得税的收入潜力最近才得到公认. 在1913年实施后的30年里，个人所得税主要应用于一小部分高收入人士. 在现行标准下豁免是很高的，低收入者占很大的比率. 二战期间,国家努力增加收入，豁免急剧减少。1946年和1948年有所提高，但从战前的水准看，仍然很低。税率在战时也有人提出,但比起早些年仍高多了. 在此同时, 个人收入随经济增长继续增加,(也与其间和二战后的通货膨胀和朝鲜战争的因素) . 较低的豁免,高利率,高收入的结合成倍地增加了个人所得税. 1939年，纳税义务约为10亿美元; 但1966年,超过了500亿美元. This tremendous expansion could not have been possible without ready compliance with income tax laws and effective many countries where compliance is poor and administration is weak, there is great reluctance to rely heavily on the income tax. In this country, the record of compliance is good—although it can still be improved—and practical methods have been developed for administering a mass income tax (at a cost of only about 1/2 of 1 percent of tax collected). In the late 1930’s many people—even high-placed officials of the Internal Revenue Service—doubted that an income tax covering almost everyone could be administered effectively. Although some problems remain, in an advanced country the administrative feasibility of an individual income tax of almost universal coverage is no longer questioned. 没有所得税法律的遵守和有效的管理，这个巨大的扩张是不可能的。许多国家法律意识差，管理松散,过于依赖所得税就很困难. 在这个国家, 守法记录还好--虽然它仍可以得到改善--实用方法已制定用来管理大量所得税(按成本仅约为1%的税收额的1 / 2 ) . 在20世纪30年代后期，很多人甚至美国国内税局的高级官员都认为关系每个人的所得税应得到有效管理. 尽管一些问题依然存在, 在一个先进的国家个人所得税的几乎全面普及在行政上的可行性已不存在质疑. There are good economic reasons for using the income tax as a major source of revenue. The automatie flexibility of the income tax promotes economic stability and the progressive rates help prevent excessive concentration of economic power and control. Some believe that the income tax is also needed to moderate the growth of private savings of high income people, which is likely to hold down private demand for goods and believe that a high income tax impairs work and investment incentives and , therefore, reduces the nation’s economic growth. These are difficult questions which will be discussed later. Nonetheless, it is correct to say that the modern individual income tax. If carefully designed and well administered, is a powerful and essential economic instrument for a modern indusrtial econmy. 使用所得税作为财政收入主要来源有很好的经济原因. 该所得税的自动灵活性能促进经济稳定，累进税率有助于防止经济权力和控制过分集中. 有人认为所得税也需缓和高收入人群的私人储蓄增长, 这很可能压抑商品的服务的私人需求。有人认为高所得税降低工作和投资动力,因此,减少了国家的经济增长. 这些都是日后讨论的难题. 但是,现代的个人所得税是正确的. 如果经过精心设计和良好管理,是现代工业化经济的有力而必要的经济手段。 Structure of the Federal Income Tax 联邦所得税结构 The basic structure of the federal income tax is simple. The taxpayer adds up all his taxable sources of income, subtracts certain allowable deductions and exemptions for himself, his wife, children, and other dcpendents,and then applies the tax rates to the difference. But this procedure has many pitfalls for the taxpayer, and difficult questions of tax policy arise at almost every stage. Consequently, it is important to understand the main features of the income tax structure. 联邦所得税的基本结构是很简单的. 纳税人增添了他的一切应纳税收入,减去某些自己的、妻子的、孩子的和其他相关人的允许扣除和豁免权,然后适用税率差额. 但这种程序对纳税人也有很多陷阱,税收政策的难题几乎出现在每一阶段. 因此,了解所得税结构的主要特征是重要的. Adjusted Gross Income and Taxable Income调整过的总收入和应纳税收入 The two major concepts of income that appear on the tax return are: adjusted gross income and taxable income. 出现在纳税申报单上的两大收益好象是:调整过的总收入和应纳税收入. Adjusted gross income is the closest approach in tax law to what all economist might call “total income.” But it departs from an economic definition of income in some important respects. It represents the total income from all taxable sources, less certain expenses incurred in earning that income. In general, only money income is treated as taxable, but many items are excluded. Such exclusions include one-half of realized capital gains on assets held six months or more, interest on state and local government bonds,all transfer payments(for example,social security benefits and unemployment compensation), fringe benefits received by employees from their employers(the most important of these are contributions to pension plans), and income on savings through life insurance. The emphasis on money income automatically excludes unrealized capital gains and such imputed income as the rental value of owner-occupied homes. 在税法上调整的总收入是所有经济学家称之为"总收入"的最接近说法。 但是,在某些重要方面，它背离了收入的经济学定义. 它表示所有应纳税来源的总收入，较少的赚取收入中的确定开支. 一般说来,只有货币收入被视为应税的,但很多项目都被排除在外. 这种排除包括二分之一的持有六个月或以上的已实现资本收益，国家和当地政府公债的利息,所有的转移支付(例如,社会保障福利和失业补偿) , 雇员从其雇主那得到的附加福利(贡献中最重要的是为养老金计划) , 和加入了人寿保险的储蓄收入. 对货币收入的强调自动排除了未实现资本收益和这种像所有者租税价的推算收入. Adjusted gross income is used on the tax return in two ways. First, it is the income concept built into the simplified tax table, which is used for determining tax on more than 25 million returns. Second,it provedes the basis for placing limits on some of the personal deductions which are subrtacted in computing taxable income. 调整后的总收入用于纳税申报单有两种方式. 第一,它是收入概念建成的简易税表, 用于决定税收突破2500万美元的回报. 第二,它提供了限制某些个人扣除的基础，个人扣除在计算应纳税收入时已经减去了. Taxable income is computed by making two sets of deductions from adjusted gross income. The rirst are personal expenditures which are allowed as deductions by law—charitable contributions, interest paid,state-local income, general sales, property and gasoline taxes, medical and dental expenses above 3 percent of adjusted gross income, and casualty and theft losses above $100 for each lieu of these deductions, the taxpayer may use the standard deduction of 10 percent of adjusted gross income(with a minimum of $200 plus $100 for each exemption,and a maximum of $1000 for single persons and married persons filing joint returns and $500 for married couples filing separate returns). 应税收入是从调整过的总收入中制作两套扣除法计算而来的. 剩下的是法律允许扣除的个人支出--慈善捐款,所付利息,国有地方收入,一般销售 财产和汽油税, 高于调整后总收入3%的医疗及牙科服务费用, 伤亡和每次损失100美元以上的偷盗损失。代替上述扣减， 纳税人可使用10%调整后的总收入的标准扣除额 (最低200美元,加上每项豁免100美元,单身和夫妻联合备案的已婚人士每人最高1000美元，并返回500美元为已婚备案夫妻分开报税) . When the present standard deduction was first adopted in 1944, it was used by over 80 percent of the persons filing incomes have risen and deductible expenditures have increased,the percentage using the standard deduction has declined. In 1963, the standard deduction was still being used on million returns, or 56 percent of the million filed(Appendix Table C-6). But the amount of the standard deduction was small compared to home ownership, state-local taxes,and use of consumer credit, as well as the normal increase in expenditures that occurs as incomes rise. Total deductions reported on all 1963 returns amounted to $ billion; of this amount, $ billion were itemized deductions and $ billion were standard deduction. 现行标准扣除额首次在1944年应用时， 它被用于个人存档返还的80%以上.随着收入的增加和可扣除支出增加, 用于标准扣除额的比率也有所下降. 1963年标准扣除额仍被用于3580万的回报, 或6390万存档56% (附录表C 6 ) . 但征收的标准扣除额是比较小的，与国有、地方税,消费品信贷的使用, 以及随收入增加而不断增加的正常开支相比.1963年报告的总扣除额回到了592亿美元; 这一数额中, 有461亿美元详细说明了扣除项目,131亿美元为标准扣除额.
海洋生物来源药物先导化合物的研究进展【摘要】海洋生物中活性物质丰富，本篇文章对国内外近3年来从海洋生物中分离提取到的萜类化合物以及糖苷类化合物进行了归纳，并对其研究趋势进行了展望。这些新发现的萜类化合物广泛分布于海藻、珊瑚、海绵以及一些海洋真菌等海洋生物中，主要以单萜、倍半萜、二萜、三萜结构型式存在；而糖苷类化合物在海藻、海绵、海参、海星等海洋生物中发现大部分以糖苷脂、甾体糖苷、萜类糖苷型式存在。【关键词】海洋生物萜类化合物糖苷类生物活性【Abstract】.【Keywords】Marineorganism;terpenoid;glycoside;bioactivity海洋是生命之源，由于海洋环境的特殊性，具有高压、低营养、低温（特别是深海）、无光照以及局部高温、高盐等生命极限环境，海洋生物适应了海洋独特的生活环境，必然造就了海洋生物具有独特的代谢途径和遗传背景，必定也会有新的、在许多陆地生物中未曾发现过的新结构类型和特殊生物活性的化合物。萜类物质是一类天然的烃类物质，其分子中具有异戊二烯(C5H8)的基本单位。故凡由异戊二烯衍生的化合物，其分子式符合(C5H8)n通式的均称萜类化合物(terpenoids)或异戊二烯类化合物（isopenoids）。但有些情况下，在分子合成过程中由于正碳离子引起的甲基迁移或碳架重排以及烷基化、降解等原因，分子的某一片断会不完全遵照异戊二烯规律产生出一些变形碳架，它们仍属于萜类化合物。海洋生物中萜类化合物主要以单萜、倍半萜、二萜、二倍半萜为主，三萜和四萜种类和数量都较少，且大部分以糖苷形式存在。萜类化合物是海洋生物活性物质的重要组成部分，广泛分布于海藻、珊瑚、海绵、软体动物等海洋生物中，具有细胞毒性、抗肿瘤活性、杀菌止痛等活性作用。糖苷的分类有多种方法，按照在生物体内是原生的还是次生的可将其分为原生糖苷和次生糖苷（从原生糖苷中脱掉一个以上的苷称为次生苷或次级苷）；按照糖苷中含有的单糖基的个数可将糖苷分为单糖苷、双糖苷、三糖苷等；按照糖苷的某些特殊化学性质或生理活性可将糖苷分为皂苷、强心苷等；按照苷元化学结构类型可分为黄酮糖苷、蒽醌糖苷、生物碱糖苷、三萜糖苷等，海洋类的糖苷大部分是按照此特点分类的，主要包括鞘脂类糖苷、甾体糖苷、萜类糖苷和大环内酯糖苷等，在很多海洋生物如海藻、珊瑚、海参、海绵等中均发现有糖苷类化合物存在。已有的研究表明海洋糖苷类成分大都具有抗肿瘤、抗病毒、抗炎、抗菌、增强免疫力等生物活性。抗白血病和艾氏癌药物阿糖胞苷Ara-C(D-arabinosylcytosine)1、抗病毒药物的Ara-A2以及Ara-C的N4-C16-19饱和脂肪酰基化衍生物3是海洋糖苷类药物成功开发的典范〔1〕。本篇文章对国内外自2005年来从海洋生物中分离提取到的萜类化合物以及糖苷类化合物进行了总结。1萜类化合物单萜2005年等人〔2〕对从红藻Plo