英国论文参考文献格式
在投稿前，如果就能根据期刊要求格式化文稿中的参考文献，不仅能给编辑留下良好的印象，也为自己将来修改文章省去很多麻烦，那么英国论文参考文献格式应该怎么样处理？
Journal （期刊）
期刊（Journal）是最常见的参考文献类型，一般需要依次列出以下信息：作者，文章的题目，期刊名称，发表年份，卷号，页码。
提醒：页码也可由DOI、文章编号(Article Number)代替；期刊类型参考文献也可以改成网页类型。
英文学术论文中几种常见的参考文献格式
Book（书）
参考文献为书（Book），一般需要列出的信息有：作者，书名，出版社，出版社地点（包括城市和国家），年份，页码
英文学术论文中几种常见的参考文献格式
书中的Chapter（章节）
书中的某个章节（Chapter），需要流出的信息有：作者，章节的题目，书名，编辑，出版社，出版社地点（包括城市和国家），年份，卷号，页码
英文学术论文中几种常见的'参考文献格式
还未发表的文章（Unpublished Work）
引用了一篇还未发表的文章，你需要列出以下信息：作者，文章题目，期刊名称，阶段。
英文学术论文中几种常见的参考文献格式
个人通讯（Personal communication）
个人通讯一般需要你列出作者所在机构和通讯时间。形式一般如图所示。
英文学术论文中几种常见的参考文献格式
论文（Thesis）
在参考文献中，也会出现硕士和博士论文的引用，需要给出的信息有：作者，论文题目，论文级别（硕士还是博士），大学名称，大学地址（城市和国家），完成时间
英文学术论文中几种常见的参考文献格式
会议（Proceedings）
一个学术会议也可以被引用。一般所需的信息有：作者，会议的名称，会议的地址（城市和国家）会议的时间。
英文论文写作参考文献
参考文献是文章或著作等写作过程中参考过的文献，文后参考文献是指为撰写或编辑论文和著作而引用的有关文献信息资源。
[1]AgranoflF, R. and Michael,M., 2003,“Collaborative Public Management; New Stiategies for Local Governments”, Geo^etown University Press,Washington,D. C.
[2]Aguinis, H. and Glavas, A., 2012, “What We Know and Don't Know About Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review and Research Agenda”,Journal of Management, 38(4)，pp. 932-968.
[3]Altman, E.,1998' “Financial Ratio,Discriminant Analysis and the Prediction of Corporate Banlruptcy”? Journal of Finance, 23(4)，pp. 589-609.
[4]Arenas, D.,Lozano,J. M. and Albareda,L.,2009,“The role ofNGOs in CSR:Mutual Perceptions Among Stakeholders”, Journal of Business Ethics,88,pp. 175-197.
[5]Aupperie, K., Carroll, A. and Hatfield,J.,1985,“An Empirical Examination of the Relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility and Profitability”,Academy of Management Journal, 28(2)， pp. 446-463.
[6]Austin, J. E.,2000,“Strategic collaboration between nonprofits between businesses”, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 29(1)， pp. 69-97.
[7]Baron,D. R, 1997,Integrated strategy* trade Policy, and global competition'California Management Review? 39(2)， pp. 145-169.
[8]Baron,R. A., 2006, “Opportunity Recognition as the Detection of Meaningful Patterns: Evidence from Comparisons of Novice and Experienced Entrepreneurs”?Management Science, 9,pp. 1331-1344.
[9]Baiy, A. D?,1879,: “Die Erscheinung der Symbiose”, Strasbourg.
[10] Kotha, B. ., 1999,“Does Stakeholder Orientation Matter? The Relationship Between Stakeholder Management Models and Firm Performance”. Academy ofManagement Jounal, 42,pp. 488-506.
[11]Binghamf C. B. and Davis,J. P.,2012, “Learning Sequences: Their Emeigence? Evolution and Effect”. Academy of Management Journal 55(3)， pp. 611-641.
[12]Blumer, H. , 1980, “Mead and Blumer : The Convei^ent Methodological Perspectives of Social Behaviorism and Symbolic Interactionism”,AmericanSociological Review, 45,pp. 409-419.
[13]Bondy,K.,2008,“The Paradox of Power in CSR : A Case Study on Implementation”. Journal of Business Ethics? 82(2)，pp. 307-323.
[14]Bowen, F.,Aloysius. N. K. and Herremans,I.,2010,“When Suits Meet Roots:The Antecedents and Consequences of Community Engagement Strategy”, Journal of Business Ethics, 95,pp. 297-318 ?
[15]Brammer,S, and Millington,A., 2003, “The Effect of Stakeholder Preferences >Organizational Structure and Industry Type on Corporate Community Involvement”,Journal of Business Ethics,45(3)? pp. 213-226.
[16]Bridoux, F. and Stoelhorst, J. W.,2014, “Microfoundations for Stakeholder Theoiy : Managing Stakeholders with Heterogeneous Motives” , Strategic Management Joumah 35, pp. 107-125
[17]Bryson, J. M., Crosby, B. C, and Stone? M. M.,2006, “The Design and Implementation of Cross-Sector Collaborations: Propositions from the Literature”,Public Administration Review, 66(sl)。
[18]Carey, J. M.,Beilin, R., Boxshall,A.,Burgman M. A. and Flander , “Risk-Based Approaches to Deal with Uncertainty in a Data-Poor System:Stakeholder Involvement in Hazard Identification for Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries in Victoria,Australia”, Risk Analysis: An International Journal,27(1)，pp. 271-281,
[19]Carroll> A. B., 1979, “A TTiree-Dimensional conceptual Model of Corporate Performance”. Academy of Management Review, 4(4)， pp. 497-505.
[20] Carroll, A. B?,1991,“The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders”. Business Horizons,34(4)，pp. 39-48.
[1] Zhixin W, Chuanwen J, Qian A, et al. The key technology of offshore wind farm and its new development in China[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009, 13(1)：216-222.
[2] Shahir H, Pak A. Estimating liquefaction-induced settlement of shallow foundations by numerical approach[J]. Computers and Geotechnics, 2010, 37(3)： 267-279.
[3] Hausler EA. Influence of ground improvement on settlement and liquefaction:a study based on field case history evidence and dynamic geotechnicalcentrifuge tests. PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley; 2002.
[4] Kemal Hac efendio lu. Stochastic seismic response analysis of offshore wind turbine including fluid‐structure‐soil interaction[J]. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build.,2010,
[5] Arablouei A, Gharabaghi A R M, Ghalandarzadeh A, et al. Effects of seawater–structure–soil interaction on seismic performance of caisson-type quay wall[J]. Computers &Structures, 2011, 89(23)： 2439-2459.
[6] Zafeirakos A, Gerolymos N. On the seismic response of under-designed caisson foundations[J]. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2013: 1-36.
[7] Snyder B, Kaiser M J. Ecological and economic cost-benefit analysis of offshore wind energy[J]. Renewable Energy, 2009, 34(6)： 1567-1578.
[8] Ding H, Qi L, Du X. Estimating soil liquefaction in ice-induced vibration of bucket foundation[J]. Journal of cold regions engineering, 2003, 17(2)： 60-67.
[9] Shooshpasha I, Bagheri M. The effects of surcharge on liquefaction resistance of silty sand[J]. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 2012: 1-7.
[10] Bhattacharya S, Adhikari S. Experimental validation of soil–structure interaction of offshore wind turbines[J]. Soil dynamics and earthquake engineering, 2011, 31(5)： 805-816.
[11] H. Bolton Seed, Izzat M. Idriss. Simplified procedure for evaluating soilliquafaction potential. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division. 1971,97(9)： 1249-1273
[12] W. D. Liam Finn, Geoffrey , Kwok . An effective stress model for liquefaction. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, 1977, 103(6)：517-533
[13] liquefaction and Cyclic Mobility Evolution for Level Ground During Earthquakes, J of the Geotechnical Engineering Division ASCE , 1979,
[14] and Cyclic Deformation of Sands-A Critical Review,Proceedings of the Fifth Pan American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering,Buenos Aires,Argentina,1975.
[1] T. Paulay and J. R. Binney. Diagonally Reinforced coupling beams of shear Walls[S].ACI Special Publication 42, Detroit, 1974, 2: 579-598
[2] Lam WY, Su R K L, Pam H J. Experimental study of plate-reinforced composite deep coupling beams[J]. Structural Design Tall Special Building, 2009(18)： 235-257
[3] ACI 318-02: Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI318R-02:Commentary, An ACI Standard, reported by ACI Com-mittee318, American Concete Institute, 2002
[4] Siu W H, Su R K L. Effects of plastic hinges on partial interaction behaviour of bolted side-plated beams[J]. Journal of Construction Steel Research, 2010, 66(5)：622-633
[5] Xie Q. State of the art of buckling-restrained braces inAsia[J]. Journal of Construction Steel Research, 2005, 61(6)：727-748
[6] Kim J,Chou H. Behavior and design of structures with buckling-restrained braces[J].Structural Engineering, 2004,26(6)：693-706
[7] Tsai K C, Lai J W. A study of buckling restrained seismic braced frame[J].Structural Engineering, Chinese Society of Structural Engineering, 2002, 17(2)：3-32
[8] Patrick J. Fortney, Bahrem M. Shahrooz, Gian A. Rassati. Large-Scale Testing of a Replaceable “Fuse” Steel Coupling Beam[J]. Journal of Structural 2007:1801-1807
[9] Qihong Zhao. Cyclic Behavior of traditional and Innovative Composite Shear Walls[J]. Journal of Structural Engineering, Feb. 2004:271-284
[2] (作者姓名),Near-perfect Token Distribution（论文名称）, in Random Structures & Algorithms5(1994)（论文发表在的出版物名称（期刊号）或会议名称）.又如，[8] and Less-structured P2P Systems for the Expected High Churn, in IEEE P2P,2005.
《Nature 》 《Science》 《Plant Cell》 《cell》这是外文的，比较难。。。《遗传》《遗传学报》《植物学报》《中国科学C》中文的，但是不知道中文的这几个SCI收不收，大学毕业可能够，再高点应该都写英文论文吧。。。
肿瘤学论文参考文献 考文献是论著文章的一个重要组成部分。它在一定程度上增加论文内容的可信程度，并具有重要的学术价值和使用价值。著录格式：序号。作者名。文题。刊名。年，卷：起止页码。 按照国标准规定，作者不超过3位时，全部著录；超过3位时，只著录前3位，后面加“等”，或相应的'外文。 举例： 1 蒋代凤，陆应麟，邱宗荫，等。肺巨细胞癌高低转移株转移能力差异相关分子的研究。中华肿瘤杂志，2003，25：531-534. 2 Obonai T， Mizuguchi M， Takashima S， et al. Developmental and aging changes of Bak expression in the human brain. Brain Res，1998，783：167-170. 引用书籍的格式：序号 作者。书名。卷（册）次。出版者，年份。起止页。或：作者。文题。见（英文用In）：主编者。书名。卷（册）次。版次。出版地：出版者，年份。起页-止页。 举例： 1 黄国俊，黄孝迈，黄偶鳞，等。 肺癌的治疗（外科治疗）。见：徐昌文，吴善方，孙燕主编。肺癌。第2版。上海：上海科学出版社，. 2 颜子颖，王海林译。精编分子生物学实验指南。第1版，北京：科学出版社，. 著录参考文献时应注意：只著录最必要的最新的文献；只著录作者亲自阅读过的和在文中直接引用的文献；只著录公开发表的文献，“内部资料”和“待发表”文章应避免引用，因为这些文献或者可能缺乏科学性，或者难于查找。 参考文献应按在文内先后出现的顺序用阿拉伯数字加方括号标出，文后参考文献的序号应与文中角码相一致。 ;
分子生物学技术在国内防制虫媒传染病领域的应用【摘要】本文综述了国内近年来,分子生物学技术在虫媒病中蚊媒传染病防制的应用情况,以期为蚊媒传染病的防制、应对突发公共卫生事件中蚊媒传染病的发生提供参考.【关键词】分子生物学技术;虫媒;传染病虫媒病是由节肢动物携带病原体传播的一组疾病.1992年在国际虫媒病毒中心登记的已达535种,其中128种对人有致病性[1].我国法定报告的传染病中,虫媒病占13种,蚊虫作为媒介,除了传播病毒性疾病外,还可传播寄生虫病.这类疾病大都属于自然疫源性疾病,有一定的地域性和时间性,发病率低、死亡率高,主要通过媒介的控制进行防制[2].近年来,随着分子生物学技术的研究和发展,在医学领域的应用日趋广泛,并取得了重大进展,作者就近年来分子生物学技术在蚊媒传染病的诊断和防制等方面的应用综述如下.1常用的分子生物学技术[3]1·1核酸分子杂交技术核酸的分子杂交(molecular hybridization)它是利用核酸分子的碱基互补原则,在特定的条件下,双链解开成两条单链,与异源的DNA或RNA (单链)复性,若异源DNA或RNA之间的某些区域有互补的碱基序列,则在复性时可形成杂交的核酸分子.杂交的双方是待测核酸序列及探针.核酸探针可用放射性核素、生物素或其它活性物质标记.根据其来源和性质可分为cDNA探针、基因组探针、寡核苷酸探针、RNA探针等.分类:根据被测定的对象,分为Southern杂交和Northern杂交;根据所用的方法,分为斑点(dot)杂交、狭槽(slot)杂交和菌落原位杂交;根据环境条件:分为液相杂交和固相杂交.1·2聚合酶链式反应(polymerase chain reaction, PCR)是以拟扩增的DNA分子为模板,以一对分别与模板互补的寡核苷酸片段为引物,在DNA聚合酶的作用下,按照半保留复制的机理沿着模板链延伸直至完成新的DNA合成.通过不断重复这一过程,可以使目的DNA片段得到扩增,同时新合成的DNA片段也可以作为模板,使DNA的合成量呈指数型增长.PCR各种应用模式:兼并引物( degenerate primer)pcr、套式引物(nested primer) pcr、复合pcr (multiplexpcr)、反向pcr ( inverse pcr或reverse pcr)、不对称pcr(asymmetric pcr)、标记pcr ( lp-pcr)和彩色pcr、加端pcr、锚定pcr或固定pcr、玻片pcr、反转录pcr方法检测rna、定量·3DNA芯片基因芯片又称DNA芯片(DNA chip)或DNA微阵列(DNA microarray).是采用光导原位合成或显微印刷等方法将大量特定序列的探针分子密集、有序地固定于经过相应处理的载体上,然后加入标记的待测样品,进行多元杂交,通过杂交信号的强弱及分布,来分析目的分子的有无、数量及序列,从而获得受检样品的遗传信.特点:具有通量大,并行性、微量化与自动化等优点,但在实践中其研究成本较高;方法标准化不足;配套软件不够完善.2分子生物学技术在虫媒病诊断的应用2·1疟疾黄炳成等[4]用pBF2 DNA片断,经标记后作探针,从多种疟原虫DNA样本中检出恶性疟原虫.基因芯片在疟原虫的研究内容还有疟原虫新基因发现[5]、转录因子调控网络[6]、疟原虫适应人体宿主机制[7]、疟原虫比较基因组杂交分析[8]、恶性疟原虫抗原变异分子机制[9]以及疟原虫攻击红细胞机制[10]等.2·2丝虫病黄志彪等[11]运用PCR技术检测血液中的班氏丝虫微丝蚴,可检出lOOul阳性血样中的l条班氏丝虫微丝蚴;用于检测班氏丝虫监测点540份血液样本结果均为阴性,镜检血片结果亦为阴性.常规丝虫检测是在夜间采血,有资料显示[12], SsP/PCR扩增系统可用于检测班氏丝虫病患者血样中的循环DNA,能用于周期性或夜间周期性丝虫病的日间血检工作,从根本上改变了丝虫病的诊断、监测和工作方式.2·3登革热病郑夔等[13]应用多重PCR技术快速鉴定4种血清型登革病毒,并在同一反应管中进行多重PCR对登革病毒进行分型鉴定,证实了2004年在广东发生的登革热疫情为I型登革病毒;也有报道应用寡核苷酸芯片技术能同时确认流感和登革热病毒[14].长期受这种疾病困扰的地区将有望通过这种技术的完善,获得有效的治疗和保护.
要说快的，你可以看下这个会议：国际生物技术与生物工程学术会议（International Conference on Biotechnology and Bioengineering），查看他们合作的SCI发表，审稿和发表还是很快的，仅限生物、动植物、医药大类。
英文论文写作参考文献
参考文献是文章或著作等写作过程中参考过的文献，文后参考文献是指为撰写或编辑论文和著作而引用的有关文献信息资源。
[1]AgranoflF, R. and Michael,M., 2003,“Collaborative Public Management; New Stiategies for Local Governments”, Geo^etown University Press,Washington,D. C.
[2]Aguinis, H. and Glavas, A., 2012, “What We Know and Don't Know About Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review and Research Agenda”,Journal of Management, 38(4)，pp. 932-968.
[3]Altman, E.,1998' “Financial Ratio,Discriminant Analysis and the Prediction of Corporate Banlruptcy”? Journal of Finance, 23(4)，pp. 589-609.
[4]Arenas, D.,Lozano,J. M. and Albareda,L.,2009,“The role ofNGOs in CSR:Mutual Perceptions Among Stakeholders”, Journal of Business Ethics,88,pp. 175-197.
[5]Aupperie, K., Carroll, A. and Hatfield,J.,1985,“An Empirical Examination of the Relationship between Corporate Social Responsibility and Profitability”,Academy of Management Journal, 28(2)， pp. 446-463.
[6]Austin, J. E.,2000,“Strategic collaboration between nonprofits between businesses”, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 29(1)， pp. 69-97.
[7]Baron,D. R, 1997,Integrated strategy* trade Policy, and global competition'California Management Review? 39(2)， pp. 145-169.
[8]Baron,R. A., 2006, “Opportunity Recognition as the Detection of Meaningful Patterns: Evidence from Comparisons of Novice and Experienced Entrepreneurs”?Management Science, 9,pp. 1331-1344.
[9]Baiy, A. D?,1879,: “Die Erscheinung der Symbiose”, Strasbourg.
[10] Kotha, B. ., 1999,“Does Stakeholder Orientation Matter? The Relationship Between Stakeholder Management Models and Firm Performance”. Academy ofManagement Jounal, 42,pp. 488-506.
[11]Binghamf C. B. and Davis,J. P.,2012, “Learning Sequences: Their Emeigence? Evolution and Effect”. Academy of Management Journal 55(3)， pp. 611-641.
[12]Blumer, H. , 1980, “Mead and Blumer : The Convei^ent Methodological Perspectives of Social Behaviorism and Symbolic Interactionism”,AmericanSociological Review, 45,pp. 409-419.
[13]Bondy,K.,2008,“The Paradox of Power in CSR : A Case Study on Implementation”. Journal of Business Ethics? 82(2)，pp. 307-323.
[14]Bowen, F.,Aloysius. N. K. and Herremans,I.,2010,“When Suits Meet Roots:The Antecedents and Consequences of Community Engagement Strategy”, Journal of Business Ethics, 95,pp. 297-318 ?
[15]Brammer,S, and Millington,A., 2003, “The Effect of Stakeholder Preferences >Organizational Structure and Industry Type on Corporate Community Involvement”,Journal of Business Ethics,45(3)? pp. 213-226.
[16]Bridoux, F. and Stoelhorst, J. W.,2014, “Microfoundations for Stakeholder Theoiy : Managing Stakeholders with Heterogeneous Motives” , Strategic Management Joumah 35, pp. 107-125
[17]Bryson, J. M., Crosby, B. C, and Stone? M. M.,2006, “The Design and Implementation of Cross-Sector Collaborations: Propositions from the Literature”,Public Administration Review, 66(sl)。
[18]Carey, J. M.,Beilin, R., Boxshall,A.,Burgman M. A. and Flander , “Risk-Based Approaches to Deal with Uncertainty in a Data-Poor System:Stakeholder Involvement in Hazard Identification for Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries in Victoria,Australia”, Risk Analysis: An International Journal,27(1)，pp. 271-281,
[19]Carroll> A. B., 1979, “A TTiree-Dimensional conceptual Model of Corporate Performance”. Academy of Management Review, 4(4)， pp. 497-505.
[20] Carroll, A. B?,1991,“The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders”. Business Horizons,34(4)，pp. 39-48.
[1] Zhixin W, Chuanwen J, Qian A, et al. The key technology of offshore wind farm and its new development in China[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009, 13(1)：216-222.
[2] Shahir H, Pak A. Estimating liquefaction-induced settlement of shallow foundations by numerical approach[J]. Computers and Geotechnics, 2010, 37(3)： 267-279.
[3] Hausler EA. Influence of ground improvement on settlement and liquefaction:a study based on field case history evidence and dynamic geotechnicalcentrifuge tests. PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley; 2002.
[4] Kemal Hac efendio lu. Stochastic seismic response analysis of offshore wind turbine including fluid‐structure‐soil interaction[J]. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build.,2010,
[5] Arablouei A, Gharabaghi A R M, Ghalandarzadeh A, et al. Effects of seawater–structure–soil interaction on seismic performance of caisson-type quay wall[J]. Computers &Structures, 2011, 89(23)： 2439-2459.
[6] Zafeirakos A, Gerolymos N. On the seismic response of under-designed caisson foundations[J]. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 2013: 1-36.
[7] Snyder B, Kaiser M J. Ecological and economic cost-benefit analysis of offshore wind energy[J]. Renewable Energy, 2009, 34(6)： 1567-1578.
[8] Ding H, Qi L, Du X. Estimating soil liquefaction in ice-induced vibration of bucket foundation[J]. Journal of cold regions engineering, 2003, 17(2)： 60-67.
[9] Shooshpasha I, Bagheri M. The effects of surcharge on liquefaction resistance of silty sand[J]. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 2012: 1-7.
[10] Bhattacharya S, Adhikari S. Experimental validation of soil–structure interaction of offshore wind turbines[J]. Soil dynamics and earthquake engineering, 2011, 31(5)： 805-816.
[11] H. Bolton Seed, Izzat M. Idriss. Simplified procedure for evaluating soilliquafaction potential. Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division. 1971,97(9)： 1249-1273
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目 录摘 要 IABSTRACT（英文摘要） II目 录 IV第一章引 言 课题的提出 超声波测距发展概况 本课题研究内容及科学意义 3第二章超声波测距技术综述 超声及超声传感器简介 超声概述 超声传感器结构 超声传感器的主要参数及选择 超声测距原理与方法 测量盲区的影响 本章小结 13第三章硬件系统设计 方案论证 凌阳61板简介 功能区分与工作原理 系统各模块工作原理 超声波测距模组简介 超声波谐振频率发生电路、调理电路 超声波回波接受处理电路 超声波模组电源设置 LED键盘模组简介 硬件系统设计说明 系统设计 硬件原理图 系统连接 本章小结 26第四章软件系统设计 主程序设计 超声波测距程序设计 本章小结 31第五章试验结果与改进 系统调试 试验结果分析 试验结果 误差分析 系统改进方法 本章小结 38结论 39参考文献 41致谢 44附录一 45附录二 46
Introduction vibrations of frequencies greater than the upper limit of the audible range for humans—that is, greater than about 20 kilohertz. The term sonic is applied to ultrasound waves of very high amplitudes. Hypersound, sometimes called praetersound or microsound, is sound waves of frequencies greater than 1013 hertz. At such high frequencies it is very difficult for a sound wave to propagate efficiently; indeed, above a frequency of about × 1013 hertz, it is impossible for longitudinal waves to propagate at all, even in a liquid or a solid, because the molecules of the material in which the waves are traveling cannot pass the vibration along rapidly enough. TableMany animals have the ability to hear sounds in the human ultrasonic frequency range. Some ranges of hearing for mammals and insects are compared with those of humans in the Table. A presumed sensitivity of roaches and rodents to frequencies in the 40 kilohertz region has led to the manufacture of “pest controllers” that emit loud sounds in that frequency range to drive the pests away, but they do not appear to work as advertised. Transducers An ultrasonic transducer is a device used to convert some other type of energy into an ultrasonic vibration. There are several basic types, classified by the energy source and by the medium into which the waves are being generated. Mechanical devices include gas-driven, or pneumatic, transducers such as whistles as well as liquid-driven transducers such as hydrodynamic oscillators and vibrating blades. These devices, limited to low ultrasonic frequencies, have a number of industrial applications, including drying, ultrasonic cleaning, and injection of fuel oil into burners. Electromechanical transducers are far more versatile and include piezoelectric and magnetostrictive devices. A magnetostrictive transducer makes use of a type of magnetic material in which an applied oscillating magnetic field squeezes the atoms of the material together, creating a periodic change in the length of the material and thus producing a high-frequency mechanical vibration. Magnetostrictive transducers are used primarily in the lower frequency ranges and are common in ultrasonic cleaners and ultrasonic machining applications. By far the most popular and versatile type of ultrasonic transducer is the piezoelectric crystal, which converts an oscillating electric field applied to the crystal into a mechanical vibration. Piezoelectric crystals include quartz, Rochelle salt, and certain types of ceramic. Piezoelectric transducers are readily employed over the entire frequency range and at all output levels. Particular shapes can be chosen for particular applications. For example, a disc shape provides a plane ultrasonic wave, while curving the radiating surface in a slightly concave or bowl shape creates an ultrasonic wave that will focus at a specific point. Piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers also are employed as ultrasonic receivers, picking up an ultrasonic vibration and converting it into an electrical oscillation. Applications in research One of the important areas of scientific study in which ultrasonics has had an enormous impact is cavitation. When water is boiled, bubbles form at the bottom of the container, rise in the water, and then collapse, leading to the sound of the boiling water. The boiling process and the resulting sounds have intrigued people since they were first observed, and they were the object of considerable research and calculation by the British physicists Osborne Reynolds and Lord Rayleigh, who applied the term cavitation to the process of formation of bubbles. Because an ultrasonic wave can be used carefully to control cavitation, ultrasound has been a useful tool in the investigation of the process. The study of cavitation has also provided important information on intermolecular forces. Research is being carried out on aspects of the cavitation process and its applications. A contemporary subject of research involves emission of light as the cavity produced by a high-intensity ultrasonic wave collapses. This effect, called sonoluminescence, is believed to create instantaneous temperatures hotter than the surface of the Sun. The speed of propagation of an ultrasonic wave is strongly dependent on the viscosity of the medium. This property can be a useful tool in investigating the viscosity of materials. Because the various parts of a living cell are distinguished by differing viscosities, acoustical microscopy can make use of this property of cells to “see” into living cells, as will be discussed below in Medical applications. Ranging and navigating Sonar (sound navigation and ranging) has extensive marine applications. By sending out pulses of sound or ultrasound and measuring the time required for the pulses to reflect off a distant object and return to the source, the location of that object can be ascertained and its motion tracked. This technique is used extensively to locate and track submarines at sea and to locate explosive mines below the surface of the water. Two boats at known locations can also use triangulation to locate and track a third boat or submarine. The distance over which these techniques can be used is limited by temperature gradients in the water, which bend the beam away from the surface and create shadow regions. One of the advantages of ultrasonic waves over sound waves in underwater applications is that, because of their higher frequencies (or shorter wavelengths), the former will travel greater distances with less diffraction. Ranging has also been used to map the bottom of the ocean, providing depth charts that are commonly used in navigation, particularly near coasts and in shallow waterways. Even small boats are now equipped with sonic ranging devices that determine and display the depth of the water so that the navigator can keep the boat from beaching on submerged sandbars or other shallow points. Modern fishing boats use ultrasonic ranging devices to locate schools of fish, substantially increasing their efficiency. Even in the absence of visible light, bats can guide their flight and even locate flying insects (which they consume in flight) through the use of sonic ranging. Ultrasonic echolocation has also been used in traffic control applications and in counting and sorting items on an assembly line. Ultrasonic ranging provides the basis of the eye and vision systems for robots, and it has a number of important medical applications (see below). The Doppler effect If an ultrasonic wave is reflected off a moving obstacle, the frequency of the resulting wave will be changed, or Doppler-shifted. More specifically, if the obstacle is moving toward the source, the frequency of the reflected wave will be increased; and if the obstacle is moving away from the source, the frequency of the reflected wave will be decreased. The amount of the frequency shift can be used to determine the velocity of the moving obstacle. Just as the Doppler shift for radar, an electromagnetic wave, can be used to determine the speed of a moving car, so can the speed of a moving submarine be determined by the Doppler shift of a sonar beam. An important industrial application is the ultrasonic flow meter, in which reflecting ultrasound off a flowing liquid leads to a Doppler shift that is calibrated to provide the flow rate of the liquid. This technique also has been applied to blood flow in arteries. Many burglar alarms, both for home use and for use in commercial buildings, employ the ultrasonic Doppler shift principle. Such alarms cannot be used where pets or moving curtains might activate them. Materials testing Nondestructive testing involves the use of ultrasonic echolocation to gather information on the integrity of mechanical structures. Since changes in the material present an impedance mismatch from which an ultrasonic wave is reflected, ultrasonic testing can be used to identify faults, holes, cracks, or corrosion in materials, to inspect welds, to determine the quality of poured concrete, and to monitor metal fatigue. Owing to the mechanism by which sound waves propagate in metals, ultrasound can be used to probe more deeply than any other form of radiation. Ultrasonic procedures are used to perform in-service inspection of structures in nuclear reactors. Structural flaws in materials can also be studied by subjecting the materials to stress and looking for acoustic emissions as the materials are stressed. Acoustic emission, the general name for this type of nondestructive study, has developed as a distinct field of acoustics. High-intensity applications High-intensity ultrasound has achieved a variety of important applications. Perhaps the most ubiquitous is ultrasonic cleaning, in which ultrasonic vibrations are set up in small liquid tanks in which objects are placed for cleaning. Cavitation of the liquid by the ultrasound, as well as the vibration, create turbulence in the liquid and result in the cleaning action. Ultrasonic cleaning is very popular for jewelry and has also been used with such items as dentures, surgical instruments, and small machinery. Degreasing is often enhanced by ultrasonic cleaning. Large-scale ultrasonic cleaners have also been developed for use in assembly lines. Ultrasonic machining employs the high-intensity vibrations of a transducer to move a machine tool. If necessary, a slurry containing carborundum grit may be used; diamond tools can also be used. A variation of this technique is ultrasonic drilling, which makes use of pneumatic vibrations at ultrasonic frequencies in place of the standard rotary drill bit. Holes of virtually any shape can be drilled in hard or brittle materials such as glass, germanium, or ceramic. Ultrasonic soldering has become important, especially for soldering unusual or difficult materials and for very clean applications. The ultrasonic vibrations perform the function of cleaning the surface, even removing the oxide layer on aluminum so that the material can be soldered. Because the surfaces can be made extremely clean and free from the normal thin oxide layer, soldering flux becomes unnecessary. Chemical and electrical uses The chemical effects of ultrasound arise from an electrical discharge that accompanies the cavitation process. This forms a basis for ultrasound's acting as a catalyst in certain chemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, polymerization and depolymerization, and molecular rearrangement. With ultrasound, some chemical processes can be carried out more rapidly, at lower temperatures, or more efficiently. The ultrasonic delay line is a thin layer of piezoelectric material used to produce a short, precise delay in an electrical signal. The electrical signal creates a mechanical vibration in the piezoelectric crystal that passes through the crystal and is converted back to an electrical signal. A very precise time delay can be achieved by constructing a crystal with the proper thickness. These devices are employed in fast electronic timing circuits. Medical applications Although ultrasound competes with other forms of medical imaging, such as X-ray techniques and magnetic resonance imaging, it has certain desirable features—for example, Doppler motion study—that the other techniques cannot provide. In addition, among the various modern techniques for the imaging of internal organs, ultrasonic devices are by far the least expensive. Ultrasound is also used for treating joint pains and for treating certain types of tumours for which it is desirable to produce localized heating. A very effective use of ultrasound deriving from its nature as a mechanical vibration is the elimination of kidney and bladder stones. Diagnosis Much medical diagnostic imaging is carried out with X rays. Because of the high photon energies of the X ray, this type of radiation is highly ionizing—that is, X rays are readily capable of destroying molecular bonds in the body tissue through which they pass. This destruction can lead to changes in the function of the tissue involved or, in extreme cases, its annihilation. One of the important advantages of ultrasound is that it is a mechanical vibration and is therefore a nonionizing form of energy. Thus, it is usable in many sensitive circumstances where X rays might be damaging. Also, the resolution of X rays is limited owing to their great penetrating ability and the slight differences between soft tissues. Ultrasound, on the other hand, gives good contrast between various types of soft tissue. Ultrasonic scanning in medical diagnosis uses the same principle as sonar. Pulses of high-frequency ultrasound, generally above one megahertz, are created by a piezoelectric transducer and directed into the body. As the ultrasound traverses various internal organs, it encounters changes in acoustic impedance, which cause reflections. The amount and time delay of the various reflections can be analyzed to obtain information regarding the internal organs. In the B-scan mode, a linear array of transducers is used to scan a plane in the body, and the resultant data is displayed on a television screen as a two-dimensional plot. The A-scan technique uses a single transducer to scan along a line in the body, and the echoes are plotted as a function of time. This technique is used for measuring the distances or sizes of internal organs. The M-scan mode is used to record the motion of internal organs, as in the study of heart dysfunction. Greater resolution is obtained in ultrasonic imaging by using higher frequencies—., shorter wavelengths. A limitation of this property of waves is that higher frequencies tend to be much more strongly absorbed. Because it is nonionizing, ultrasound has become one of the staples of obstetric diagnosis. During the process of drawing amniotic fluid in testing for birth defects, ultrasonic imaging is used to guide the needle and thus avoid damage to the fetus or surrounding tissue. Ultrasonic imaging of the fetus can be used to determine the date of conception, to identify multiple births, and to diagnose abnormalities in the development of the fetus. Ultrasonic Doppler techniques have become very important in diagnosing problems in blood flow. In one technique, a three-megahertz ultrasonic beam is reflected off typical oncoming arterial blood with a Doppler shift of a few kilohertz—a frequency difference that can be heard directly by a physician. Using this technique, it is possible to monitor the heartbeat of a fetus long before a stethoscope can pick up the sound. Arterial diseases such as arteriosclerosis can also be diagnosed, and the healing of arteries can be monitored following surgery. A combination of B-scan imaging and Doppler imaging, known as duplex scanning, can identify arteries and immediately measure their blood flow; this has been extensively used to diagnose heart valve defects. Using ultrasound with frequencies up to 2,000 megahertz, which has a wavelength of micrometre in soft tissues (as compared with a wavelength of about micrometre for light), ultrasonic microscopes have been developed that rival light microscopes in their resolution. The distinct advantage of ultrasonic microscopes lies in their ability to distinguish various parts of a cell by their viscosity. Also, because they require no artificial contrast mediums, which kill the cells, acoustic microscopy can study actual living cells. Therapy and surgery Because ultrasound is a mechanical vibration and can be well focused at high frequencies, it can be used to create internal heating of localized tissue without harmful effects on nearby tissue. This technique can be employed to relieve pains in joints, particularly in the back and shoulder. Also, research is now being carried out in the treatment of certain types of cancer by local heating, since focusing intense ultrasonic waves can heat the area of a tumour while not significantly affecting surrounding tissue. Trackless surgery—that is, surgery that does not require an incision or track from the skin to the affected area—has been developed for several conditions. Focused ultrasound has been used for the treatment of Parkinson's disease by creating brain lesions in areas that are inaccessible to traditional surgery. A common application of this technique is the destruction of kidney stones with shock waves formed by bursts of focused ultrasound. In some cases, a device called an ultrasonic lithotripter focuses the ultrasound with the help of X-ray guidance, but a more common technique for destruction of kidney stones, known as endoscopic ultrasonic disintegration, uses a small metal rod inserted through the skin to deliver ultrasound in the 22- to 30-kilohertz frequency region. Infrasonics The term infrasonics refers to waves of a frequency below the range of human hearing—., below about 20 hertz. Such waves occur in nature in earthquakes, waterfalls, ocean waves, volcanoes, and a variety of atmospheric phenomena such as wind, thunder, and weather patterns. Calculating the motion of these waves and predicting the weather using these calculations, among other information, is one of the great challenges for modern high-speed computers. TableAircraft, automobiles, or other rapidly moving objects, as well as air handlers and blowers in buildings, also produce substantial amounts of infrasonic radiation. Studies have shown that many people experience adverse reactions to large intensities of infrasonic frequencies, developing headaches, nausea, blurred vision, and dizziness. On the other hand, a number of animals are sensitive to infrasonic frequencies, as indicated in the Table. It is believed by many zoologists that this sensitivity in animals such as elephants may be helpful in providing them with early warning of earthquakes and weather disturbances. It has been suggested that the sensitivity of birds to infrasound aids their navigation and even affects their migration. One of the most important examples of infrasonic waves in nature is in earthquakes. Three principal types of earthquake wave exist: the S-wave, a transverse body wave; the P-wave, a longitudinal body wave; and the L-wave, which propagates along the boundary of stratified mediums. L-waves, which are of great importance in earthquake engineering, propagate in a similar way to water waves, at low velocities that are dependent on frequency. S-waves are transverse body waves and thus can only be propagated within solid bodies such as rocks. P-waves are longitudinal waves similar to sound waves; they propagate at the speed of sound and have large ranges. When P-waves propagating from the epicentre of an earthquake reach the surface of the Earth, they are converted into L-waves, which may then damage surface structures. The great range of P-waves makes them useful in identifying earthquakes from observation points a great distance from the epicentre. In many cases, the most severe shock from an earthquake is preceded by smaller shocks, which provide advance warning of the greater shock to come. Underground nuclear explosions also produce P-waves, allowing them to be monitored from any point in the world if they are of sufficient intensity. The reflection of man-made seismic shocks has helped to identify possible locations of oil and natural-gas sources. Distinctive rock formations in which these minerals are likely to be found can be identified by sonic ranging, primarily at infrasonic frequencies.
超声波检测技术是现代科学技术发展的产物，其检测的过程会很好的保护试件的质量和性能，这是我为大家整理的超声波检测技术论文，仅供参考!
关于超声波无损检测技术的应用研究
摘要：超声波无损检测技术是现代科学技术发展的产物，其检测的过程会很好的保护试件的质量和性能，从而获取物品的性质和特征对其进行检测。超声波无损检测技术通过结合高科技的技术来完成检测的过程，检测的结果真实可靠，可以体现出超声波无损检测技术的应用性，同时超声波无损检测技术在检测时，也存在一些缺点。
关键词：超声波无损检测;脉冲反射式技术;检测技术
中图分类号：P631 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1009-2374(2014)05-0029-02
超声波无损检测技术在检测的过程中，会使用到很多的技术，这些技术既满足了检测的需要，又能有效的解决检测中出现的问题。经过技术人员的不断探索，通过人工神经网络的技术来减少检测的缺陷，并实现了降低噪音的效果，满足了超声波无损检测的更高要求。在检测的过程中，要合理科学的利用技术手法，来提高检测结果的准确性。
1 超声波无损检测技术的发展趋势和主要功能
超声波无损检测技术的发展趋势
在超声波无损检测技术应用的过程中，需要很多理论知识的支持，检测时也对检测的方法和工艺流程有严格的要求，这些规范的检测方式使超声波无损检测的结果可以更准确。发现检测缺陷时，技术人员应用非接触方式的检测技术，运用激光超声来提高检测的效果，所以未来超声波无损检测技术一定会向着自动化操作的水平去发展。自动化的检测方法可以简化检测工作，实现专业检测的目标，扩大超声波无损检测技术应用的范围，同时随着超声技术的应用，在检测的过程中，也会实现数字化检测的目标，利用超声信号来处理技术的应用，使检测技术可以实现统一使用的要求，同时数字化操作的检测过程也会提高检测的准确性，有利于检测技术的发展。所以超声波无损检测技术将会实现全面的现代化操作要求，利用现代化科学技术的发展，来规范超声波无损检测的检测行为，也具备了处理缺陷的功能，提高了检测的效率。
超声波无损检测技术系统的主要功能
目前，我国超声波无损检测主要应用的技术是脉冲反射式的检测方法，这种技术的应用可以准确的定位缺陷出现的位置和形式，具有非常高的灵敏度，简化了技术人员检查缺陷的工作，完善了技术标准。脉冲反射式的检测技术还具有非常高的灵活性和适用性，可以适应超声波无损检测的要求，并实现一台仪器检测多种波形的检测工作。根据脉冲反射式的检测技术要求，可以实现缺陷检查的功能、操作界面切换显示的功能、显示日历时钟的功能，在实际的检测过程中功能键的使用也非常方便，简化了技术人员的操作过程，并且脉冲反射式技术具有灵敏度高的功能，使其可以及时的发现检测过程中出现的缺陷，有利于技术人员进行检修的工作，提高了检测工作的工作效率。
系统主要功能的技术指标
脉冲反射式技术在使用的过程中有很多的要求，其中要满足功能使用的技术指标，从而实现规范化的操作标准。反射电压的电量要控制在400伏，实现半波或者射频的检波方式，检测的范围要在4000-5000毫米之间，只有满足了这些技术标准才能合理的设置出技术应用的框架。同时在超声波无损检测技术应用的过程中有严格要求的电路设计，如果不能满足技术的指标要求，那么在实际检测的过程中，会存在很大的风险，会对技术人员造成严重的生命安全威胁。所以在检测工作实施之前，必须要按照相关的技术指标来合理的构建检测的环境，提高检测工作的安全性，保障检测工作可以顺利的进行。
2 超声波无损检测技术检测的方法和缺陷的显示
超声波无损检测技术检测的主要应用方法
超声波无损检测技术的检测方法按照具体的分类可以分为很多种，从检测的原理进行分析，超声波无损检测技术应用的主要方法是穿透法、脉冲反射法、共振法，按照检测探头来分类，检测的主要方法有单探头法、双探头法、多探头法，按照检测试件的耦合类型来分类，检测的主要方法有液浸法、直接接触法。这些具体的方法可以满足很多情况下的检测工作，并且提高了检测结果的准确性，完善了超声波无损检测技术的检测要求，所以技术人员要根据具体的检测环境和试件的类型来选择正确的检测方法，通过方法的应用要提高检测工作的效率，降低缺陷出现的可能。随着我国现代化科学技术的不断发展，人们对检测技术的应用也提出了更高的要求，检测工作的检测范围也越来越广，同时要求在对试件检测的过程中，不可以损坏试件的质量和性能，同时还要保准检测结果的准确性，所以技术人员要严格的按照检测标准，完成检测的工作，要对检测的方法进行改善，使其可以满足时代发展的要求。
缺陷的显示
在超声波无损检测技术检测的过程中，会出现不同类型的缺陷，主要分为A、B、C三种类型的显示，在工业检测的过程中，A类显示是应用最广泛的一种类型，在显示器上以脉冲的形式显示出来，对显示器上的长度和宽度进行标记，从而当超声波返回缺陷信号时，可以在屏幕上明确的显示出缺陷出现的位置。B类显示是通过回波信号来完成显示的过程，回波信号发出时会点亮提示灯，通过显示器的显示可以观察到缺陷出现的水平位置，这种类型的显示比较直观，有利于技术人员的观察和分析。C类显示是通过反射的回波信号来调制显示的内容，通过亮灯和暗灯来显示接收的结果，检测到缺陷时会出现亮灯，因此技术人员只需要观察灯的变化，就可以判断缺陷出现的情况。所以在实际检测的过程中，技术人员一定要认真观察缺陷出现的位置和内容，从而制定出科学合理的改善方案，来降低缺陷出现的可能，提高超声波无损检测技术检测的效果。
缺陷的定位
对于脉冲反射式超声检测技术来说，显示器的水平数值变化就是缺陷出现的位置，这时技术人员要对缺陷出现的位置进行定位，从而可以分析在检测过程中出现缺陷的环节。根据反映出的缺陷声波，经过计算，得出准确的缺陷产生的位置。
3 结语
科学技术的发展会带动我国的生产力水平的提高，同时也会促进技术的研发，超声波无损检测技术就是因为科学技术的不断发展，才实现了检测的目标，在检测的过程中，可以结合现代化的技术来提高检测的效率和结果的准确性。超声波无损检测技术实现了无损试件的检测要求，提高了检测的质量和水平，应该得到社会各界的关注，扩大检测的范围。
参考文献
[1] 耿荣生.新千年的无损检测技术――从罗马会议看无损检测技术的发展方向[J].无损检测，2010，23(12)：152-156.
[2] 中国机械工程委员会无损检测分会编.超声波检测第二版(无损检测Ⅱ级培训教材)[M].北京：机械工业出版社，2012.
[3] 李洋，杨春梅，关雪晴.基于AD603的程控直流宽带放大器设计[J].重庆文理学院学报(自然科学版)，2010，29(16)：202-203.
[4] 段灿，何娟，刘少英.多小波变换在信号去噪中的应用[J].中南民族大学学报(自然科学版)，2012，28(12)：320-325
[5] 张梅军，石文磊，赵亮.基于小波分析和Kohonen神经网络的滚动轴承故障分析[J].解放军理工大学学报，2011，12(10)：14-15.
作者简介：李新明(1992―)，男，湖北人，大连理工大学学生。
长输管道超声波内检测技术现状
【摘要】超声波内检测技术是长输管道的主要检测技术。本文介绍了长输管道超声波内检测的技术优势、国内外的发展现状，以供参考。
【关键词】长输管道 超声波 内检测 优势 现状
一、前言
长输管道是石油、天然气重要的运输手段，要保证管道的稳定运行，就要加强日常的检测和维护，及时发现问题，防止重大事故发生。
二、管道内检测主要技术及优势
管道内检测是涵盖检测方案决策、管道检测、检测数据解释分析和管道安全评价等过程的系统工程。利用智能检测器进行管线内检测是目前较为普遍的方式，该方法是通过运行在管道内的智能检测器收集、处理、存储管道检测数据，包括管道壁厚、管道腐蚀区域位置、管道腐蚀程度、管道裂纹和焊接缺陷，再将处理数据与显示技术结合描绘管道真实状况的三维图像，为管道维护方案的制定提供决策依据。超声波内检测技术和漏磁检测技术是现在最常用的海管内检测技术。
超声波内检测技术是在检测器中心安放一个水平放置的超声波传感器，传感器沿着平行于管壁的方向发射声波，声波沿着平行于管壁的方向行进直至被一个旋转镜面反射后，垂直穿透管道壁，声波触碰管道外壁后按照原路径反射回传感器，计算机计算声波发射及反射回传感器的时间，该时间就被转换为距离及管道壁厚的测量值。声波反射镜面每秒旋转2周，检测器每米可以采集3万个左右的测量值。超声波内检测技术可以原理简单，数据准确可靠，该方法可以精确测量管道的壁厚，不仅可以测量金属管线，对于非金属管线，如高密度聚乙烯管也能够有效测量，并且可测管道管径的尺寸范围较大，甚至能够测量壁厚等级80以上的大壁厚管道，对于变径管道同样适用。
管道漏磁检测技术利用磁铁在管壁上产生的纵向回路磁场来探测管道内外壁的金属损失以及裂纹等缺陷，确定上述缺陷的准确位置，检测器所带磁铁将检测器经过的管壁饱磁化，使管壁周圈形成磁回路。若管道的内壁或外壁有缺陷，围绕着管道缺陷，管道壁的磁力线将会重新进行分布，部分磁力线会在这个过程中泄露从而进入到周围的介质中去，这就是所谓的漏磁场。磁极之间紧贴管壁的探头检测到泄漏的磁场，检测到的信号经过滤波、放大、转换等处理过程后会被记录到存储器中，通过数据分析系统的处理对信号进行判断和识别。管道的漏磁检测技术具有准确性高的优点，通过在气管线中低阻力和低磨损的设计取得较高质量的数据，可以在没有收球和发球装置的情况下完成检测，对于路径超过200公里的长输管道能够以每分钟200米左右的速度进行检测。
三、长输管道建设工艺技术发展现状
1、管道焊接
管道焊接是管道建设的最重要的一个方面，现场焊接的效率高，安全性和可靠性在每个管道的建设是重要的角色。从国内长途管道工程在1950年的第一条运输管道建设以来，管道现场焊接施工在我国发展的半个世纪里主要经历了有四个发展过程，分别是：手工电弧焊上向焊、手工电弧焊下向焊、半自动焊和自动焊。
(1)手工电弧焊上向焊和手工电弧焊下向焊。90年代初手工电弧焊下向焊和手工电弧焊下向焊作为当时国内传输管道的一种焊接方法，得到了广泛的应用，突出的优点是高电流、焊接速度高，根焊接速度可达20到50厘米/分钟，焊接效率高。目前在进行焊接位置相对困难的位置和焊接设备难进入的位置时采用手工电弧焊焊接。
(2)半自动焊。电焊工通过半自动焊枪进行焊接，由连续送丝装置送丝焊接的一种方式叫做半自动焊。半自动焊是长输管道焊接的主要方式，因为在焊接送丝比较连续，就省了换焊条和其他辅助工作时间，同时熔敷率高、减少焊接接头，减少焊接电弧，电弧焊接缺陷、焊接合格率提高，
(3)自动焊。自动焊方法使整个焊接过程自动化，人工主要从事监控操作。国内开始从西到东的天然气管道项目，就是大面积的自动焊接的应用程序。自动焊接技术在新疆，戈壁等地区比较适合。
2、非开挖穿越施工技术
遇到埋管道的建设，跨越河流，道路，铁路等障碍时，有许多问题如果使用传统开挖方法则会比较难实施，而“非开挖”铺设地下管道是当前国际管道项目进行了先进的施工方法，已广泛应用于这个国家。我国近年来建设大量的长输管道采用了盾穿越技术，有许多大河流使用了盾构穿越。顶管穿越通过短距离管道穿越技术在1970年代后期开始得到使用。传统意义上的顶管施工是以人工开采为主。后来当使用螺旋钻开采和输送管顶土，后来又派生出了土压力平衡方法，泥水平衡方法，通过顶管技术，可以达到超过1千米以上的距离。通过液压以控制管切割前方的覆土，以保证顶管的方向正确，和顶采用继电器，激光测距，头部方位校正方法顶推的施工工作，长距离顶管的问题和方向问题得到了解决。
3、定向穿越技术
我国从美国引进的定向钻是在1985年首次应用于黄河的长输管道建设。在过去的20年里，非开挖定向穿越管道技术在我国得到了迅速的发展。定向钻井在非开挖管道穿越技术已广泛应用于管道业。定向钻用于铺设管道取得了巨大的成就。我国在2002年2月以2308米和273米直径的长度穿越了钱塘江，是世界上最长的穿越长度，被载入吉尼斯世界纪录。定向穿越管道施工技术是一个多学科，多技术，根据于一体的系统工程，任何部分在施工过程中存在的问题的设备集成，并可能导致整个项目的失败，造成了巨大的损失。而被广泛使用，由于定向钻井，通过建设，使技术已经取得了长足的进步和发展的方向。硬石国际各种施工方法，如泥浆马达，震荡的顶部，双管钻进的建设。广泛采用PLC控制，电液比例控制技术，负荷传感系统，具有特殊的结构设计软件的使用。
四、管道超声内检测技术现状
1、相控阵超声波检测器
美国GE公司研制的超声波相控阵管道内检测器于2005年开始应用于油气管道内检测，目前已检测管道长度4700km，该检测器包括两种不同的检测模式：超声波壁厚测量模式和超声腐蚀检测模式，适用于管径610～660mm的成品油管道。该检测器有别于传统检测器的单探头入射管道表面检测的方法，采用探头组的形式来布置探头环，几个相邻并非常靠近(间距左右)的探头组成一个探头组，一个探头组内的探头按照一定的时间顺序来激发并产生超声波脉冲，而该激发顺序决定了产生的超声波脉冲的方向和角度，因此控制一个探头组内不同探头的激发顺序就可以产生聚焦的超声波脉冲。检测器包括3个探头环、44个探头组，每个探头环提供一种检测模式，可根据不同的管道检测需求来确定探头环。
该检测器与其他内检测器相同，包括清管器、电源、相控阵传感器、数据处理和储存模块4部分。清管器位于整个检测器的头部并装有聚氨酯皮碗，一方面负责清管以确保检测精度，另一方面起密封作用，使得检测器可以在前后压力差的作用下驱动前进。探头仓由3个独立的探头环组成，每个探头环的探头布置都能实现超声波信号周向全覆盖。检测器能够实现长25mm、深1mm的裂纹检测，检测准确率超过90%;最小检测腐蚀面积10×10mm ，检测精度大于90%。
2、弹性波管道检测器
安桥管道公司管理着世界上最长和最复杂的石油管道网络。其研发的内检测器已经在超过15000km的管道中开展检测。其中基于声波原理的检测器主要有弹性波检测器和超声波管道腐蚀检测器。弹性波检测器的弹性波信号可以在气体管道中传播，主要用于检测管道的焊缝特征，尤其是对长焊缝和应力腐蚀裂纹有较好的检测效果。最新的MKIII弹性波检测器最多可以装备96个超声波传感器，用于在液体祸合条件下发射接收超声波信号，进行管道检测。MKIII弹性波检测器的最大运行距离为150km，相对于二代产品的45km有了很大程度的提高。
五、结束语
综上所述，随着科技水平的快速发展和进步，超声波内检测技术也将更加完善，对于长输管道的检测也将更加准确，为管道的正常使用和安全运行发挥更大的作用。
参考文献
[1]宋生奎，宫敬，才建，等.油气管道内检测技术研究进展[J].石油工程建设，2013，31(2)：10-14.
[2]石永春，刘剑锋，王文军.管道内检测技术及发展趋势[J].工业安全与环保，2012，32(8)：46-48
[3]丁建林.我国油气管道技术和发展趋势.油气储运，2013，22(9)：22-25.
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材料科学 Materials ScienceMaterials science or materials engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and engineering. This science investigates the relationship between the structure of materials and their properties. It includes elements of applied physics and chemistry, as well as chemical, mechanical, civil and electrical engineering. With significant media attention to nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and forensic materials engineering, the study of failed products and material of choice of a given era is often its defining point; the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Steel Age are examples of this. Materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science, deriving from the manufacture of ceramics. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from mining. A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when Willard Gibbs demonstrated that thermodynamic properties relating to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a material. Important elements of modern materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space vehicles enabling the exploration of space. Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as plastics, semiconductors, and the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, from a 19th and early 20th century emphasis on metals. The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including: ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic materials, medical implant materials and biological materials.[edit] Fundamentals of materials scienceIn materials science, rather than haphazardly looking for and discovering materials and exploiting their properties, one instead aims to understand materials fundamentally so that new materials with the desired properties can be basis of all materials science involves relating the desired properties and relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of the atoms and phases in that material through characterization. The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final form. These, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics, govern a material’s microstructure, and thus its old adage in materials science says: "materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting". The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically impossible. Instead materials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials such as precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall-Petch relationship), interstitial atoms, vacancies or substitutional atoms, to create materials with the desired all materials have a regular crystal structure. Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non-crystalline. Glasses, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic arrangements. The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic, as well as mechanical, descriptions of physical addition to industrial interest, materials science has gradually developed into a field which provides tests for condensed matter or solid state theories. New physics emerge because of the diverse new material properties which need to be explained.[edit] Materials in industryRadical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, etc.), and analytical techniques (characterization techniques such as electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, calorimetry, nuclear microscopy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction, etc.).Besides material characterisation, the material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful forms. Thus ingot casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a metallurgist/engineer. Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced, for instance, steels are classified based on 1/10th and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they contain. Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact of the quality of steel that may be overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of materials physics, which is concerned with the physical properties of materials. The approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in condensed matter physics. See important publications in materials physics for more details on this field of study of metal alloys is a significant part of materials science. Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon steels. For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is directly related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness. The addition of silicon and graphitization will produce cast irons (although some cast irons are made precisely with no graphitization). The addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) gives us stainless significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and magnesium. Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently developed. Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively recently. The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic shielding. These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering than metals, polymers and ceramics are also an important part of materials science. Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what we commonly call plastics. Plastics are really the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final form. Polymers which have been around, and which are in current widespread use, include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and polycarbonates. Plastics are generally classified as "commodity", "specialty" and "engineering" (polyvinyl-chloride) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are large. It lends itself to an incredible array of applications, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging and containers. Its fabrication and processing are simple and well-established. The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of plasticisers and other additives that it accepts. The term "additives" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include PEEK, ABS). Engineering plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material properties. They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, should be noted here that the dividing line between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and applications. For instance, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable shopping bags and trash bags, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas Medium-Density Polyethylene MDPE is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called Ultra-high Molecular Weight Polyethylene UHMWPE is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip application of material science in industry is the making of composite materials. Composite materials are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic phases. An example would be steel-reinforced concrete; another can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so on. These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibres or carbon fibres have been added for added strength, bulk, or electro-static dispersion. These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibres, or dispersants, depending on their purpose.[edit] Classes of materials (by bond types)Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate field. Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms:Ionic crystals Covalent crystals Metals Intermetallics Semiconductors Polymers Composite materials Vitreous materials [edit] Sub-fields of materials scienceNanotechnology – rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement, the Gibbs-Thomson effect, or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered materials. Microtechnology - study of materials and processes and their interaction, allowing microfabrication of structures of micrometric dimensions, such as MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS). Crystallography – the study of how atoms in a solid fill space, the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations, and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical properties. Materials Characterization – such as diffraction with x-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, etc., in order to understand and define the properties of materials. See also List of surface analysis methods Metallurgy – the study of metals and their alloys, including their extraction, microstructure and processing. Biomaterials – materials that are derived from and/or used with biological systems. Electronic and magnetic materials – materials such as semiconductors used to create integrated circuits, storage media, sensors, and other devices. Tribology – the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other factors. Surface science/Catalysis – interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid interfaces. Ceramography – the study of the microstructures of high-temperature materials and refractories, including structural ceramics such as RCC, polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramics Some practitioners often consider rheology a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that flows. However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, so it is often considered a sub-field of continuum mechanics. See also granular Science – any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide glasses. Forensic engineering – the study of how products fail, and the vital role of the materials of construction Forensic materials engineering – the study of material failure, and the light it sheds on how engineers specify materials in their product [edit] Topics that form the basis of materials scienceThermodynamics, statistical mechanics, kinetics and physical chemistry, for phase stability, transformations (physical and chemical) and diagrams. Crystallography and chemical bonding, for understanding how atoms in a material are arranged. Mechanics, to understand the mechanical properties of materials and their structural applications. Solid-state physics and quantum mechanics, for the understanding of the electronic, thermal, magnetic, chemical, structural and optical properties of materials. Diffraction and wave mechanics, for the characterization of materials. Chemistry and polymer science, for the understanding of plastics, colloids, ceramics, liquid crystals, solid state chemistry, and polymers. Biology, for the integration of materials into biological systems. Continuum mechanics and statistics, for the study of fluid flows and ensemble systems. Mechanics of materials, for the study of the relation between the mechanical behavior of materials and their microstructures. 材料科学材料是人类可以利用的物质，一般是指固体。而材料科学是研究材料的制备或加工工艺、材料结构与材料性能三者之间的相互关系的科学。涉及的理论包括固体物理学，材料化学，与电子工程结合，则衍生出电子材料，与机械结合则衍生出结构材料，与生物学结合则衍生出生物材料等等。材料科学理论物理冶金学 晶体学 固体物理学 材料化学 材料热力学 材料动力学 材料计算科学[编辑] 材料的分类按化学状态分类 金属材料 无机物非金属材料 陶瓷材料 有机材料 高分子材料 按物理性质分类 高强度材料 耐高温材料 超硬材料 导电材料 绝缘材料 磁性材料 透光材料 半导体材料 按状态分类 单晶材料 多晶质材料 非晶态材料 准晶态材料 按物理效应分类 压电材料 热电材料 铁电材料 光电材料 电光材料 声光材料 磁光材料 激光材料 按用途分类 建筑材料 结构材料 研磨材料 耐火材料 耐酸材料 电工材料 电子材料 光学材料 感光材料 包装材料 按组成分类 单组分材料 复合材料 [编辑] 材料工程技术金属材料成形 机械加工 热加工 陶瓷冶金 粉末冶金 薄膜生长技术 表面处理技术 表面改性技术 表面涂覆技术 热处理 [编辑] 材料的应用结构材料 信息材料 存储材料 半导体材料 宇航材料 建筑材料 能源材料 生物材料 环境材料 储能材料和含能材料 参考
你还想要几篇，英文文献一篇平均6页以上，还要翻译？？？？？？？？？？
英语教学论文参考文献
在学习和工作中，许多人都写过论文吧，论文是描述学术研究成果进行学术交流的一种工具。写论文的注意事项有许多，你确定会写吗？以下是我帮大家整理的英语教学论文参考文献，希望能够帮助到大家。
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