topic1:简析英语委婉语应用领域一、日常生活领域1. 关于死亡的委婉语2. 关于贫穷的委婉语3. 表达疾病、生理和智力缺陷的委婉语4. 与性有关的委婉语二、社会政治、经济领域1. 社会政治方面2. 经济方面三、军事领域四、职业领域五、教育领域topic2: 英汉委婉语的文化内涵与语用功能一、英汉委婉语的定义二、英汉委婉语的文化内涵1. 宗教迷信与委婉语的起源2. 具有社会等级标志的委婉语3. 反映民族心理和社会生活的委婉语4. 反映人们道德价值观的委婉语三、英汉委婉语的语用功能1. 避免忌讳2. 表示礼貌和尊敬3. 化消极因素为积极因素4. 掩饰事实真相四、总结topic3：英语委婉语探究一、前言二、英语委婉语的语用特征（一）民族文化性（二）时代性（三）地域性（四）语域变异性三、英语委婉语的交际功能（一）避讳功能（二）润滑功能（三）礼貌功能（四）掩饰功能四、结束语
基本就是这些内容。但是你的有些句子还需提炼。比如：introduction里的第一句，应该是“……同时也（就）反映了社会生活的变化”。
abstract里的第二句，“旨在”应该放在前面，即：“本文旨在通过……”
我也是英语专业，论文选的也是委婉语，看了一些文献，给你参考下：英语委婉语研究发展至今，主要是从修辞学的角度出发，集中在分析委婉语的分类情况、构成方式，有些学者从不同国家委婉语的使用差异分析中西文化差异，有些研究翻译等。个人觉得关于禁忌语的比较容易着手且有趣，虽然不能避免类似论文太多，但论文的结构方面可以根据自己的思路与众不同，提出新意。祝写作顺利！
中西委婉语的异同一、委婉语的定义与动机1.委婉语的含义2.雅文化的动机3.美化和礼貌的动机4.淡化和欺的动机二、中西文化习惯1.语言方式2.文化差异3.习惯表达三、社会背景1.宗教信仰2.阶级观念3.价值观差异四、总结
我也是英语专业，论文选的也是委婉语，看了一些文献，给你参考下：英语委婉语研究发展至今，主要是从修辞学的角度出发，集中在分析委婉语的分类情况、构成方式，有些学者从不同国家委婉语的使用差异分析中西文化差异，有些研究翻译等。个人觉得关于禁忌语的比较容易着手且有趣，虽然不能避免类似论文太多，但论文的结构方面可以根据自己的思路与众不同，提出新意。祝写作顺利！
？好的一．课题的意义：委婉语是人类语言使用过程中的一种普遍现象 , 是人们谈论那些令人不快或尴尬的事情时 , 所使用的较为温和、礼貌的说法。它是一种修辞格 , 也 是一种文化现象。使用委婉语有利于提高交际效果和保持和谐的人际关系，在人类文明日益发展和人际交往不断扩大的今天，委婉语更是发挥着其不可或缺的作用。合作原则是确保人际交往成功的重要的语用原则，它是指人们在交际过程中遵守质 .量 .相关和方式准则。而委婉语恰恰违反这些准则，由此导致会话含义的产生。文章试从语用学的新角度讨论了合作原则与委婉语之间的关系，而跳出长期以来的修辞学角度二．所属领域研究现状：本在各种语言中，几乎都有委婉语的大量存在和它们的广泛使用，这一特殊的语言形式已引起语言研究者的重视， 英语委婉语研究发展至今，主要是从修辞学的角度着手。 对委婉语的研究集中在分析委婉语的分类情况，构成方式。有些学者从不同国家委婉语的使用差异分析中西文化差异，有些学者分析委婉语产生的原因及其心理折射现象，有些学者研究委婉语翻译及其所反映出来的交际障碍的解决。总的来说， 我国古代学者对委婉语的研究内容可分为两个方面：一是对避讳的研究；二是对民间风俗的研究 。外国学者对委婉语的研究也是先从修辞着手，发展到一定的程度也开始引入心理学，社会学的概念。从目前的发展趋向来看，对委婉语在社会应用学，心理学的研究处于发展阶段 ，在语用方面的研究则相对不足。本文将在讨论委婉语的定义，来源，分类，构成，发展后，重点分析委婉语在语用学中的应用，与合作原则的关系等讨论较少的问题。
topic1:简析英语委婉语应用领域一、日常生活领域1. 关于死亡的委婉语2. 关于贫穷的委婉语3. 表达疾病、生理和智力缺陷的委婉语4. 与性有关的委婉语二、社会政治、经济领域1. 社会政治方面2. 经济方面三、军事领域四、职业领域五、教育领域topic2: 英汉委婉语的文化内涵与语用功能一、英汉委婉语的定义二、英汉委婉语的文化内涵1. 宗教迷信与委婉语的起源2. 具有社会等级标志的委婉语3. 反映民族心理和社会生活的委婉语4. 反映人们道德价值观的委婉语三、英汉委婉语的语用功能1. 避免忌讳2. 表示礼貌和尊敬3. 化消极因素为积极因素4. 掩饰事实真相四、总结topic3：英语委婉语探究一、前言二、英语委婉语的语用特征（一）民族文化性（二）时代性（三）地域性（四）语域变异性三、英语委婉语的交际功能（一）避讳功能（二）润滑功能（三）礼貌功能（四）掩饰功能四、结束语
中英禁忌语比较
纯英文的参考文献可以从礼貌原则和委婉语研究两个方面进行找。希望下面这些英文文献对你有所帮助： G, Principle of Pragmatics [M]. Longman, 1983. JS, Silver CG, Kind Words, Facts on File [M].INC, LA, Porter RE, Stefani LA. Communication Between Cultures .2nd edition. Belmont,CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1998, . 4. Enrigh, . Fair of Speech: the uses of euphemism. Oxford University Press, P&Levinson S. Politeness Phenomena. Universals in Language usage. New York: Academic Press, Keith & Kate Brridge. Euphemmis& Dysphemism: language used as shield and weapon. oxford: oxford university press, B. The Sociolinguistics of Language. Beijing: foriegn language teaching and research press, Yule. Pragmatics. Shanghai: Shanghai foreign language education press,2001.
英语专业毕业论文-英语委婉语的交际功能摘要委婉语是人类使用语言过程中的一种普遍现象。它不仅是一种社会语言现象,更是一种文化现象。不管是在日常生活还是在涉外交际中，我们都要进行语言交流。由于某些生活习惯或习俗差异，以及不同文化背景的社会具有不同的忌讳，这时我们就必须学会使用委婉语以避免尴尬或不愉快。所以本文从语言学的角度，试图通过具体的例子来探究在特定的语言环境下英语委婉语的交际功能。只有认知委婉语在不同背景、不同环境下的使用方式，才能够调整好礼貌程度，从而把给对方的伤害降到最低限度，达到成功的交际目的。委婉语可以反映出各种各样的社会心理,从而也体现出了委婉语的各种社会交际功能。委婉语在各个领域都有广泛的应用，对于我们学好英语，进行有效的跨文化交际有很大的帮助。关键词：委婉语；功能；忌讳；交际Communicative Function of English EuphemismAbstractEuphemism is a common phenomenon when people use language, which is not only a social language phenomenon, but it is also a cultural phenomenon. We all need to communicate in our daily life or in diplomacy. However, because of the difference of life habit or custom and the taboo of different culture, we must learn to use Euphemism to avoid embarrassment or unhappiness. Therefore, through linguistic facet, this paper tries to research into communicative function of English Euphemism in certain language condition by special examples. Only when can we know how to make use of Euphemism in different background and environment, we can use the proper Euphemism to minimize hurt to people and to achieve the purpose of effective communicative Euphemism reflects all kinds of social mentality and social communicative function. Euphemism is also widely used in every field, so it is good for us to study English and do effective multi-cultural intercommunication. Key words: euphemism; function; taboo; intercommunication委婉语（Euphemism）一词源自希腊语的前缀eu=well 和词根pheme=speaking。根据《英语委婉语详解词典》的定义，委婉语是一种用无害的或悦耳的词语替代那些较直接的、唐突的言词，用善意的话语把事实掩盖起来的修饰手段。它不仅是一种社会语言现象，更是一种文化现象。随着社会的进步，人类文明的发展，委婉语始终伴随着整个社会的言语交际过程，且充分显示了它的交际功能。委婉语在各个领域都有广泛的应用，所以委婉语的交际功能的了解对于我们学好英语，进行有效的跨文化交际有很大的帮助。一. 避讳功能由于人对于某些事物或现象的恐惧，在语言表达时不愿言、不敢言，但有时又不得不表达出此种意思，于是人们便学会用委婉语来代替。各个民族中对于“死”的说法都有各自的委婉语。讲英语的国家的人们和许多民族一样，忌讳直接说英语中的“死”也有多种表现形式。例如：人们常用“去了”（to pass away）, “离别了”（to depart）, “离开了我们”（to leave us）, “睡着了”（to go to sleep）, “去天国”（to go to heaven）, “最后一觉”（final sleep）,得到安息 (to have found rest)等词来代替说某人“死了”（to die）。以上回答你满意么？
topic1:简析英语委婉语应用领域一、日常生活领域1. 关于死亡的委婉语2. 关于贫穷的委婉语3. 表达疾病、生理和智力缺陷的委婉语4. 与性有关的委婉语二、社会政治、经济领域1. 社会政治方面2. 经济方面三、军事领域四、职业领域五、教育领域topic2: 英汉委婉语的文化内涵与语用功能一、英汉委婉语的定义二、英汉委婉语的文化内涵1. 宗教迷信与委婉语的起源2. 具有社会等级标志的委婉语3. 反映民族心理和社会生活的委婉语4. 反映人们道德价值观的委婉语三、英汉委婉语的语用功能1. 避免忌讳2. 表示礼貌和尊敬3. 化消极因素为积极因素4. 掩饰事实真相四、总结topic3：英语委婉语探究一、前言二、英语委婉语的语用特征（一）民族文化性（二）时代性（三）地域性（四）语域变异性三、英语委婉语的交际功能（一）避讳功能（二）润滑功能（三）礼貌功能（四）掩饰功能四、结束语
还好啊 不过这两个论题都泛了些，以后和你导师商讨时，他会细化你的论题。我的毕业论文写的是死亡委婉语中西文化比较，资料比较全，好找，避免了开题时的论题资料不全这个棘手的问题。颜色词汇就写到人你叫多了，容易有抄袭嫌疑，如果你需要委婉语的资料。可以回复下，我发给你
英语毕业论文答辩（通用6篇）
英语的论文答辩要点是格式最好少些瑕疵，提前将abstract和conclusion背一背。有利于答辩的顺利进行。下面是我为大家整理的.关于英语毕业论文的答辩。欢迎大家阅读。
Good morning, all appraiser committee members. I am **** and my supervisor is ***. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is On Transformation of Parts of Speech in Translation. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. Each language has its own special structure. And there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. In order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. So the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in English to Chinese based on different characteristics of English and Chinese. For the above facts, I select the subject of On Transformation of parts of speech as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in English to Chinese translation. Through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation skills.
The way of thinking and expressing is quite different between Chinese and English. English is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. While Chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often used.
So when we make translation in English to Chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of speech.
Part one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. There are transformed English words into Chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the problems.
Part five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. It is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. In addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices.
OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.
Good morning,
Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. (或Welcome to attend the oral defense.) ：
I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis.
My topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points(Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van )The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.
Thank you!
Good evening, all the appraiser committee members. I come from HUST, majoring in foreign linguistics and applied linguistics. I am xxx and my supervisor is her sincere and intellectual guidance, for nearly one whole year's hard work, I have finished my paper. Finally, it is the show time. This evening I will present my efforts to you all and I gratefully welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style in A Rose for Emily from a Feminist Perspective. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this short story as this is one of the texts in our intensive teaching course and I have taught this text for more than 3 times . Last but not the least ,as a female , I am keen on the study of feminism. For the above facts, I select the subject of A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style in A Rose for Emily from a Feminist Perspective as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this short story we can know more about American southern women in certain history and culture and more importantly help women in modern society get a deeper understanding about ourselves ,help us raise our independence and confidence and show more concern for our mental health.
Next , I will present it to you. Here is an outline of my presentation. They are literature review, gothic tradition , the gothic style in the story and the causes of the gothic style .
This paper consists of six parts. Part one presents an introduction to the author William Faulkner and A Rose for Emily by pointing out the purpose and significance of this study. Part two is literature review which introduces the relevant research about this novel at home and abroad and then points out the theoretical basis and methods. Part three gives a timeline of the gothic tradition in literature and explains the main characteristics of gothic works. Part four explains the three aspects of the gothic style in the novel，that is, the death theme, grotesque characters and mystic atmosphere. Part five then explains in detail the causes of the gothic style in this novel: patriarchal oppression, the myth of southern ladyhood and Emily’s attitude towards love. Finally, in the conclusion, the author summarizes the previous parts and emphasizes the significance of the argument of the thesis again.
Ok, that's all. Now you may raise your questions ! I am ready! Thank you !
Good morning, appraises committee members and schoolmates. I come from class 08951, and I am Yu Lianfei.
Today, the title of my paper is On the Network Novels. In recent years, the network literature is developing rapidly. Network novel is one of the fast of them. In the middle schools, high schools and even universities, there is no lack of network novels' addicts. For the above facts,I select the subject of “on the network novels” as the title of my paper. Then, I will show it to you. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into four parts, as the concept of network novels, the classification of their authors, the development of network novels and the prospects of that.
The first part, the definition. Its concept can be divided into the generalized and the narrow. And it can also be divided into boys’ and girls’ in another way.
The second part, the classification of their authors. Generally speaking, there are four kinds of authors. The first kind is some people who have favor of literature, they are writing but not for fame. Then, there is some one has favor for literature and also be for fame. The third kind is some people who have explicit goals at the beginning of his writing. And the last kind are some people who just want to express their view, their viewpoint and their feeling with no desire of being published. They take up the most of the authors.
The third part, the development. The network novels’ development can not separate form the development of the net and the literature websites. Its developing process may be divided into three stages approximately. The first stage is from 1996 to 2000. This time's literary work often did not strive for (were also not aware of) the fame and fortune, and moreover received the control of tradition. The second stage is beginning of 21st century, mainly contains 2001 and 2002. In this period, the whole network presented the situation of “chaos”. The third stage is from May, 2003 and continues until now. In this period, many schools come into the world, and when a school became a hit there must be many people mimic it.
The last part, the forecast. Looking from the internal strength pattern, the outstanding writers in our country mainly hold one kind of critique and the pessimistic manner to the network novels at present. If each big literature website enlarges their own supervision, the vulgar works, the pornography and bad works like those things, meanwhile hanker for new person’s new article as well as depth ones, the network novels can be accepted by more people.
Not a low-level novel but a kind of enjoyment.
Teachers, good afternoon! My name is Chen Jing, the students of class xxx, my thesis topic is《 the power of the giver and the victim, foucault power interpretation theory perspective, the heroine in “the golden notebook, Anna》，thesis is completed under Wang Zhiqin teacher of meticulous guidance, here, I express my deep appreciation to my supervisor, to the teachers to take part in my thesis express our heartfelt thanks to you for, and for the past three years I have a chance to listen to the teachings, teachers say heartfelt I will this paper design the research background, significance and main content of the teacher made a report, please the teacher criticism guidance.
First of all, I want to talk about the research background and significance of the graduation thesis design.
Since the Golden Notebook involves comprehensive themes such as colonialism,feminism,racism,communism etc. and due to its severely fragmented writing forms,it has intrigued groups of both domestic and overseas critics. The research abroad could be roughly divided into three stages. The first comes about the biography of the author”],the general introduction and reading background of this novel,then a number of explorations over the themes of this book have been conducted, from the most popular one feminism,psychological featuresto the philosophical elements. Finally, critics shifted their concentration to the unique form or style applied by Lessing,for instance they analyzed the varied narrative techniques employed within ,the aesthetic value it displayed ,as well as its artistic nature generated by its messy it is worth mentioning that in 2006 Tapan has composed a specific collection of reviews on the Golden the study over this novel in foreign country has been quite fruitful and mature, the research in China is far lagging behind, most of them just emphasized the novel's multiplethemes such as feminism,eco-economic,psychology and modemism Thus more angels should be discovered by scholars at home, such as colonialism, religious and psychological exploration, and their research method should be more diversified,for instance,the potential inter-disciplinary study of this novel are waiting to be excavated, and seldomhave critics compared this masterpiece with other similar text.
Based on Foucault's power theory, this thesis is going to explore how the female protagonist Anna in Doris Lessing's the Golden Notebook, the producer and victim of power,fought against her catastrophic life. Through a close reading of the text, this thesis aims at making a Foucanldian interpretation on Lessing's motivation behind portraying such a schizophrenic female personality, convincing the reader that power permeates every capillary of the society mainly by exerting influence on power relations between individual. Sinceeverything concerns with the functioning of power, be it tragedy or comedy, Anna's destiny cannot be an exception, instead of restraining from the one-way suppress from men,Foucault's power theory enables us to put the heroine into a larger, more diverse cultural or social background where individual's identity could be perceived with much more plurality or heterogeneity. Ultimately, given Anna's gender attributes, the application of Foucault's power theory to the analysis of heroine can shed light on how women could wittedly deal with their counterpart, strike a balance between freedom and restriction, and thus heading feminism into a more reasonable and rational direction.
Secondly, I want to talk about the structure and main contents of this paper.
The author is going to divide this thesis into five chapters. The first chapter is a briefing about the research background of the Golden Notebook, which provides an overview on the fragmented content and complicated structure of this masterpiece. The second chapter is an introduction of the research status of this novel at home and abroad, at the same time,Foucault's power theory will be elaborated here as the theoretical framework. Chapter three concentrates on the text analysis of the female protagonist Anna's pursuit of the free woman identity, which will be conducted mainly from three perspectives, namely her political faith,marriage and love, as well we psychological status. Through asserting Foucault's power theory into the text analysis, we could get a clear view on how the heroine became the victim of the omnipresent power in contemporary social organizations, and also how individual resisted power via making explorations on the genealogy of the self. Chapter four gives two different interpretations of Anna's destiny, with each representing the common feminists'view and Foucault's version respectively. Via such comparison, the author attempts to find a correlation between Foucault's power theory and feminism, to tell in what ways Foucault'spower theory have modified parts of problems in current feminism, and how the formal convergent with the latter. The last chapter serves as a concluding part in which a summary of this thesis will be reached, and limitations as well as further implications will be point out.
Finally, I want to talk about the deficiency existing in this paper.
The limitations of this thesis cannot be regarded as the challenge to the relevance of Foucaxxlt's theory to feminism; on the contrary, it tells that the value of applying Foucault'spower theory lies precisely in his invitation to feminists to remain highly critical about their previous prejudices as well as their future trends. In order to make full use of Foucault's power theory in modifying feminism, we have to dig out more convergences they share with each other. With the idea that knowledge and truth are partial ones serving as a start,Genealogy is then an excellent perspective for farther explorations on the Foucauldian and feminist projects.
Thank you very much!
Good morning， Distinguished professors and teachers， ladies and gentlemen， thank you for attending the oral defense. I am XX. First and foremost， I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor， professorXX， for his intellectual guidance， invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis. My topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points(Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van )The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative， evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic’s significance in the real society.
And the second part is going to analyze the figures’ background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part， the tragic heroes’ failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society.
Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part， and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part. Thank you!
首先是你大致介绍一下你的论文的主要内容，里面最好包括论文的layout，不要紧张。介绍完毕之后，老师会根据你的论文提问题，我答辩的时候，老师就针对我论文里面的某一内容，让我介绍一下，并举例子，只要你对论文熟悉，这样子的问题是比较容易回答的。总之，我的经验是你要对你的论文的每一章节都很熟悉，你自己可以看着目录对每一部分都可以用英文简单介绍一下，并举例子。Good luck~
Good evening, all the appraiser committee members. I come from HUST, majoring in foreign linguistics and applied linguistics. I am *** and my supervisor is prof.***. With her sincere and intellectual guidance, for nearly one whole year's hard work, I have finished my paper. Finally, it is the show time. This evening I will present my efforts to you all and I gratefully welcome any correction. The title of my paper is A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style in A Rose for Emily from a Feminist Perspective. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this short story as this is one of the texts in our intensive teaching course and I have taught this text for more than 3 times . Last but not the least ,as a female , I am keen on the study of feminism. For the above facts, I select the subject of A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style in A Rose for Emily from a Feminist Perspective as the title of my paper.
你对euphemism的定义，自己的总结、看法。委婉语的语言学和社会背景委婉语特点，最显著的一点，为什么？举例。也有的老师不会提问有关委婉语的问题，只是抓你的格式，所以一定保证格式符合要求。
比如黑人 不能说 black 要说 African American残疾人 不能说 disabled physical challenged之类，就是美国版文字狱和虚伪大全
topic1:简析英语委婉语应用领域一、日常生活领域1. 关于死亡的委婉语2. 关于贫穷的委婉语3. 表达疾病、生理和智力缺陷的委婉语4. 与性有关的委婉语二、社会政治、经济领域1. 社会政治方面2. 经济方面三、军事领域四、职业领域五、教育领域topic2: 英汉委婉语的文化内涵与语用功能一、英汉委婉语的定义二、英汉委婉语的文化内涵1. 宗教迷信与委婉语的起源2. 具有社会等级标志的委婉语3. 反映民族心理和社会生活的委婉语4. 反映人们道德价值观的委婉语三、英汉委婉语的语用功能1. 避免忌讳2. 表示礼貌和尊敬3. 化消极因素为积极因素4. 掩饰事实真相四、总结topic3：英语委婉语探究一、前言二、英语委婉语的语用特征（一）民族文化性（二）时代性（三）地域性（四）语域变异性三、英语委婉语的交际功能（一）避讳功能（二）润滑功能（三）礼貌功能（四）掩饰功能四、结束语
英语中的委婉语英文euphemism（委婉语）一词系源自希腊语。词头"eu-"的意思是"good"（好），词干"phemism"的意思是"speech"（言语），整个字面意义是"word of good omen"（吉言）或（好的说法）。一般认为，凡是表示禁忌或敏感事物的含蓄、迂回或动听的言词，均在委婉语之列。英语委婉语一般可分成两大类：传统委婉语（traditional euphemisms)和文体委婉语stylistic euphemisms。所谓传统委婉语亦称是与禁忌语密切相关的。象生、病、死、葬、性、裸、拉、撒等禁忌事物，如果直接表达，那就是禁忌语，给人的感觉是粗鄙，生硬，刺耳，无礼。反之，如果间接表达，这就是委婉语，给人的印象是典雅，含蓄，中听，有礼。所谓文体委婉语，亦称实际上是恭维话、溢美之词，与禁忌语并无关系。英、美人（尤其是当代美国人）在交际过程中，为了表示礼貌，为了避免刺激，或是为了争取合作，有时会采用夸饰的手法，对一些令人不快的事物以美言相称。英语委婉语的构成方法各种各样，丰富多彩。一般可分为下面几种类型：构词手段，拼写手段，词汇手段，语法手段和修辞手段等。（1）合词法（compounding)：如：gezudna(goes+under+"床下放"，即夜壶）。（2）反成法(backformation)： 反成法是通过删除假想中的词缀来构成委婉词。由于这种构词法产词是不大，所以造出的词大多新颖别致，用来代替常见的敏感词，也能收到委婉的效果。如：bugle（盗窃，由burglar[夜盗]盗删去"词尾"而成，用以替代。（3）首字母组合法(acronym)：首字母组合法是将禁忌词语或敏感词语的第一个字母抽出来拼合在一起借以掩饰。如：BM(bowel movement,大便）the Big C (癌症）（4）截短法(clipping)：截短法是将一些词语斩头去尾以掩饰。如：gents(Gentlement's Room)（男厕所）lav (lavatory,厕所）（5）曲读异拼法(phonetic distortion)：曲读异拼法是有意将禁忌词语的发音略加变动，借以避讳。如：god, gosh（god 上帝）（6）压韵替代法(rhyming slang)：压韵替代法是利用一些词语与禁忌词语押韵的特点来取而代之。如：sis, (piss 小便）（7）逆拼法（backslang)：逆拼法是将一些禁忌或敏感的单词自后向前拼写，以便避讳。如：elly-bay（belly肚子）（8）首字母异拼法(respelling of initials)：首字母异拼法是将一些禁忌或敏感单词的首字母按照发音拼写出来，效果委婉。如：dee（damn,该死）（9）标点符号法（punctuation)：如：d--（damn该死的）son of a -- (son of a bitch,狗娘养的）（10）同义词替代法(synonyms)如：slim（苗条的，即skinny，皮包骨头）（11）借词法borrowing)：一般认为，英语中的本族词－盎格鲁撒克逊词－多为平民百姓的口语词，不登大雅之堂。所以很多人，尤其是知识分子和学生都喜欢借用法语词或拉丁词来婉指那些令人尴尬的事物。如：lingerie(内衣 underwear）（12）模糊词语法（fu words)：如：affair（事物，即桃色事件）（13）儿语法(nurseryism)：借用儿童用语来充当委婉语。小孩子讲话天真无 邪，如果大人,尤其是中年人模仿儿语，有时效果是既委婉又幽默。如：pee-pee（小便）poo-poo（大便）（14）反面着笔法(negation)：从相反的角度去表达那些令人不快的事物，效果有时会比正面直说婉转些。如：unwise（不聪明，即，愚蠢的）（15）比喻法(metaphorical transfer)：根据禁忌事物的特点，将其描绘成具有相同特点的可以接受的事物。如：go to sleep forever（长眠，即die死去）（16）借代法(metonymical transfer)：用整体来代替那些不便直言的局面。如：chest（胸部，即 breast）（17）低调说法(understatement)：如 一种明抑实扬、言轻义重的含蓄的说法，用来表达不愉快的事情时，效果委婉，听者易于接受。smelly （有味道，即stinking,发臭）（18）迂回说法(periphrasis)：迂回说法是将不便直言的事物用转弯抹角的方式表达出来。其结果是短词长写，"短话长说"。如：adjustment downward（向下调整，即drop下跌）（19）首字母曲解法(reinterpretation of initials)：首字母曲解法是有意对首字母词作出别的解释，效果不仅委婉，而且还带有幽默色彩。如：hot and cold （heroin and cocaine,海洛因可卡因合剂）以上这些方法，大体上都贯穿了两个原则：一是若即若离的原则，一是美好中听的原则。一般说来，委婉语有三个方面的作用。一是避免刺激，给人以安慰；二是消除粗俗，给人以文雅；三是摒弃陈腐，给人以新颖。善于委婉，这是心灵美、修养高的表现。选摘自《英语委婉语词典》刘纯豹在英语中，象生、死、如厕等话题直说很不文雅，这时我们可以用委婉的说法，下面是笔者收集的一些有关这些话题的说法。1)Being in Love (恋爱）assignation (本义）指定to be gone on (本义）一去不返to be shock up (本义）被震撼的to be taken (本义）被吸引住H2 (本义）hot and heavyto have a crush on (本义）捣碎meeting (本义）会面to set one's cap for (本义）指向某人to set one's sights at (本义）目光落在身上to take a fancy to (本义）喜欢上to walk out 出去溜达to cut one's eye at (本义）瞥一眼the glad eye (本义）高兴的眼光to look sweet on (本义）to make eyes at (本义）对某人使眼色wandering eye (本义）游荡的眼光2) Pregnancy (怀孕）a hole out in one(本义）一击入洞（高尔夫术语）an accident（本义）事故anticipating（本义）期待的awkward（本义）行动不便to be caught（本义）被捉住to be gone（本义）已过去了to beget（本义）产生break one's ankle（本义）脚骨折了clucky（本义）抱窝的eating for two（本义）吃双份饭expecting（本义）期待的an expectant mother（本义）期待的母亲to fall（本义）倒下了far gone（本义）去日苦多fragrant（本义）香喷喷的full of heir（本义）怀有继承人to have a hump in the front（本义）前身有块隆肉to have one watermelon on the vine（本义）藤上有瓜了to have one on the way （本义）有人要来in a bad shape（本义）身体不佳in a certain condition（本义）身处某种状态in a delicate condition（本义）身体虚弱in a (the) family way（本义）家常打扮in a familiar way（本义）熟悉地in a particular condition（本义）处于特殊状态in an interesting condition(situation, state)（本义）处于有趣状态in trouble（本义）惹上麻烦infanticipating（本义）期望得子irregularity（本义）不规则现象knitting（本义）绒衣to knock up（本义）敲门叫人lady-in-waiting（本义）有所期待的女子to learn all about diaper folding（本义）学叠尿布a mother-to-be（本义）未来的母亲on the nest（本义）在抱窝.(Pregnant)怀孕的preparing the bassinet（本义）准备摇篮rattle shopping（本义）采购玩具rehearing lullabies（本义）练唱催眠曲to spoil a woman's shape（本义）坏了女子体型to sprain an ankle（本义）扭伤脚踝to swallow a watermelon seed（本义）吞了棵西瓜子that way（本义）那样waiting for the patter of little feet（本义）等呆小脚牙声to wear the apron high（本义）围裙系高a waiting woman（本义）等呆中的妇女with a baby window（本义）有个凸窗肚with child（本义）怀孩子了3)Defcation (如厕）to be caught short (本义）给了个冷不妨the call of nature (本义）自然的需要Can I add some powder? (本义）我可以茶点粉吗?to cash(write) a check (本义）兑(开)张支票to do a job for oneself (本义）做点私事do one's business (本义）干自己的活to do one's duty (本义）尽职to ease oneself (本义）自我轻松一下to eliminate (本义）逐出evacuation (本义）排空to excrete (本义）排泄to find a haven of rest (本义）寻找安息所to fix one's face (本义）化装to freshen up (本义）梳洗打扮to get some fresh air (本义）去呼吸一点新鲜空气to give oneself ease (本义）使自己舒服一下to go (本义）to go into retreat (本义）去僻静to go somewhere (本义）出去一下to go to Egypt (本义）到埃及去to go to one's private office (本义）到私人办公室去to go to bathroom (本义）到洗澡间May I adjourn? (本义）我可以变换一下地方吗？May I please be excused? (本义）失陪了natural necessity (本义）自然的需要nature stop (本义）自然需要停车to pluck a rose (本义）摘朵玫瑰powder one's nose (本义）搽点粉to relieve oneself (本义）轻松一下to wash one's hands (本义）洗洗手4)Death(死亡）to be asleep in the Arms of God (本义）安睡在上帝的怀中to be at peace (本义）平静了to be at rest (本义）在休息to be called to God (本义）被召唤到上帝那to be called home (本义）被召回家to be home and free (本义）到家自由了to be taken to paradise (本义）被送进天堂The call of God (本义）上帝的召唤to depart (本义）离去The final departure (本义）最后离去final sleep (本义）最后一觉to go home (本义）回家to go to heaven (本义）进天堂to go to one's long home (本义）回到永久之家to go to one's own place (本义）回老家happy land (本义）乐土to have fallen asleep (本义）入睡了to have found rest (本义）得到安息to have gone to a better place(land,world,life)到一个更好得地方去了in heaven (本义）在天堂to join one's ancestors (本义）加入先人的行列join the Great majority (本义）加入大多数to leave this world (本义）离开今世to pay one's fee (本义）付费to rest (本义）休息to rest in peace (本义）安息to return to dust (本义）归之尘土to sleep (本义）长眠with God (本义）和上帝在一起with their Father (本义）与圣父在一起to fall (本义）倒下了to do one's bit (本义）尽职了to lay down one's life (本义）放下自己的生命to be no longer with us (本义）不再与我们在一起了to be out of pain (本义）摆脱痛苦to breathe one's last (本义）呼了最后一口气to cancel one's account (本义）销帐pay one's last debt (本义）付最后一笔债to fade away (本义）消失to make one's exit (本义）退场to kick off (本义）开球to be free (本义）解脱了to be gone (本义）去了to be no more (本义）不复存在to close one's eyes (本义）瞑目to come to an end (本义）结束to go beyond (本义）到远方去to expire (本义）呼气to go off (本义）离去to go one's last (本义）走到自己的终点to go one's place (本义）回老家to go to one's resting place (本义）到休息地去to go to west (本义）西去to kick the bucket (本义）踢翻水桶to lose one's life (本义）失去了生命to pass away (本义）离去to stop living (本义）停止生存to take one's rest (本义）休息to shut up the shop (本义）关门
推荐两篇论文 1 英语中的委婉语及其交际功能 邱镭 湖北广播电视大学学报 2007-11-20 期刊 0 200 2 英语委婉语的产生及其交际功能 乐金声 安徽师范大学学报(人文社会科学版) 1995-08-15 期刊 9 290英语中的委婉语及其交际功能 邱 镭 [内容提要]委婉语是人类社会中普遍存在的一种语言现象，是为了达到理想交际效果而采用的一种策略,具有重要的交际功能。本文试从委婉语的交际功能——“避讳”、“礼貌”、“掩饰”谈英语委婉语的用法,以帮助英语学习者更好地进行跨文化交际。[关键词] 委婉语；交际功能委婉来自希腊语，eu 是好的意思，phemism 是speech （言语）的意思，整个字面的意思是word of good omen （吉祥）或好的说法。一般认为，凡是表示禁忌或敏感事物的含蓄、迂回或动听的语言，均属委婉语。由此可知，委婉语不仅是人们交际的需要，更是言语交际中维系人们社会关系和人际关系的重要手段。随着社会的进步，人类文明的发展，委婉语始终伴随着整个社会的言语交际过程，且表现出极强的言语交际功能。由于委婉语在英语中应用比较广泛，所以了解委婉语的交际功能对于我们学好英语、进行有效的跨文化交际有很大帮助。本文从社会语言学的角度，试图通过具体的语言实例，探究在特定的语言环境下英语委婉语的交际功能。一、委婉语的“避讳”功能 语言禁忌起源于古希腊，古罗马时期人们对神的敬畏。在人类文明的早期，科学尚不发达，人们对一些自然现象还不能认识和解释，对人的自身也认识不足，常常因感某种神秘力量而内心深怀恐惧，在口头语言表达上为一种不愿言、不敢言，久而久之就成为一种语言的禁忌，但因相互交流的需要，有时又不得不表达出此种意思，于是人们逐渐学会了用避讳的话委婉地表达；委婉语也因而产生，并被广泛应用。这样，避讳禁忌、消除恐惧便成了委婉语的第一功能。例如Satan 被称为the good man，the great fellow ，Devil 被称为the Big D 及Lord of the Flies. 人们对“死亡”的恐惧必然导致大量有关“死亡”的委婉语的产生。讲英语国家的人们和许多其他民族的人民一样，忌讳直接说“死”（to die）字，创造了很多表达“死”的意思的委婉语。例如，人们常[收稿日期]2007-06-23 用“去了”（to pass away），“离别了”（to depart），“离开了我们”（to leave us），“睡着了”（to go to sleep），“去天国”（to go to heaven），“心脏停止了跳动”（one’s heart has stopped beating），等词来代替说某人“死了”（to die），因为“死”太神秘、太痛苦、太让人恐怖了。人们在交流时，在涉及某种不便表达的生理器官或生理行为的情况下，如直言不讳地述说，往往会令人感觉不舒服，受话人也会认为对方没涵养，很粗俗。事实上，英语中有很多委婉的表达可以化解这种尴尬。如某先生急冲冲跑出办公室，某小姐问声“急啥?”通常他不会说“尿尿”（to urinate or defecate ）而说“去洗手间”（go to the bathroom），“有事”（do business）；“方便”（answer nature’s call）。“Men’s lavatory”（男厕所）也因此被委婉地说成“Gent’s”（gentlemen 的缩写）“the washroom”（洗手间）“water closet”（W. C ）（盥洗间），“Women’s lavatory” （女厕所）被委婉地说成“Ladies’”，“lade’s room”，“the powder room”，“Mrs. Jones”（女用盥洗间）。美国妇女们常用powder room 表示厕所，并风趣地说I’d like to powder my nose. （我想往鼻子上擦粉。）表示“我想上厕所”。再有妇女的“月经”则婉称为monthly，blue days，period friend 。妇女“怀孕”（pregnancy）也有很多委婉的说法，如: in the family way，eating for two，in a delicate condition，a mother - to - be 等。二、委婉语的“礼貌”功能 委婉语的第二个主要功能是在交际中避免伤害他人的面子，当迫不得已要涉及令人不快的事情时，应选择委婉的表达法以避免伤害对方的感情，这就是它的“礼貌”功能。在西方年龄是比较敏感的话题，人们竭力避用“old”一词，因而英语中有关“老”的委婉语特别多，如the elderly，senior citizen，golden age，venerable people，get on years，pass one’s prime，feel one’s age 等。再如人体缺陷，人们也常用委婉词语来谈论，以示礼貌。像肥胖的（fat）人，常用plump，stout，out-size 或over-weight 来形容。对于一位身体清瘦的妇女称之为slender 或slim。而一位相貌丑陋的（ugly）人则说成homely 或plain 。耳朵聋的（deaf）人说成hard of listening。盲人（the blind ）叫做the visually challenged 。如果你是教师，千万不要当着家长的面说他的孩子“笨”（stupid），你得小心地说成“他学得慢”（a slow learner），“他尚未发挥潜力”（under -achiever），因为每个父母都认为自己的孩子是很有潜力的。“发疯”（mad/ feeble - minded ）也常被说成“头脑不清醒”（not all there），“缺乏主见”（soft in head/ soft - headed），“神志不健全”（of unsound mind/ unsound - minded），甚至“单纯”（simple - minded ）。另外，当人们谈到低层的服务性行业或职业时也往往采用委婉的说法。现在服务性行业常用industry 来代替trade 。如: the tourist industry 旅游业、the hotel industry 旅馆业、the clothing industry 服装业、the garbage industry 垃圾清运业、the woman’s beauty industry 美容业、the motor vehicle industry 摩托车行业等。从事这些职业的人常冠以engineer 来代替worker，像pipe engineer 实际上就是plumber 管道工，sanitary engineer 是garbage collector 或dustman 清洁工，packing engineer 是porter 搬运工，dwelling engineer 是保姆，美容师则称为appearance engineer，等等。对于诸如种族、性别、国籍、宗教和年龄等这些敏感问题，委婉语的使用不仅体现出文明社会的文明风尚，还可以促进多民族社会的相互容忍和理解。三、委婉语的“掩饰”功能 随着社会的发展，在现代社会中委婉语的使用也发生了很大的变化。对性、死亡等传统的禁忌有所放松，委婉语也有明显减弱的趋势，使用委婉语的动机已不单纯是避讳或照顾听者或读者的感情，而往往是为了达到说话者自身难以告人、无法直言的目的。因此在政治事务中，多借用委婉语来混淆视听，歪曲真相，掩盖某些事情的本质。例如把invasion ，raid（侵略）叫做incursion，involvement（进入）或military action （军事行动）。把战争中成千上万的人流离失所叫做transfer of population （人口转移）。越战时，美国入侵越南被称为卷入U. S. involvement in Vietnam ，空袭利比亚为surgical strikes （外科手术式的打击），海湾战争时又出现了air operation （空中手术）和ground operation （地面手术）这类表示空中轰炸和地面战争的代用语，在战争中的伊拉克平民的伤亡civilian casualties 被轻描淡写为collateral damage （附带的损伤）。这类拐弯抹角、歪曲事实真相的委婉语的使用掩盖了战争的残酷性并为其侵略战争提供合法的理由。在经济领域委婉语也比比皆是，如英语中把economic crisis （经济危机）说成depression（萧条）或recession （衰退），商品匮乏是have the low availability factor ；商品降价/ 涨价是downgrade economic readjustment / upward price readjustment 。英语里看不到穷国poor nations，有的只是backward nations （滞后国家），underdeveloped nations（欠发达国家），developing nations （发展中国家）和emerging nations （新兴国家）。在西方，工人罢工go on strike 被说成industrial action（工业行动），没有了一点“罢工”的痕迹。总之，英语委婉语在实际交际中起的是一种润滑剂的作用。四、结语 委婉语的存在不仅丰富了英语的词汇，它具有的交际功能更能使人们自如地表达思想。需要强调是，委婉语的使用必需因时、因地、因人、因事而制宜，滥用委婉语只会显得荒唐、滑稽、适得其反。[参考文献] [1] 陈望道. 修辞学发凡[M] . 北京：作家出版社，1964. [2] 冯翠华. 英语修辞大全[M] . 北京:外语教学与研究出版社，1995. [3] 刘纯豹. 英语委婉语词典[M] . 南京：江苏教育出版社，1996. [4] 李国南. 辞格与词汇[M] . 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002. [5] Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary（1973）[ Z] . [6] New Edition of the Oxford Concise Dictionary（1976）.