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The development of modern financeFirst, the financial problem of the uncertainty(A) the uncertainty of the field in the application of asset pricing1. Portfolio Theory and Capital Asset Pricing ModelIn the framework of the financial analysis, introduction of the concept of uncertainty is a major role. First Kenes (1936) and Hicks (1939) proposed the concept of risk compensation that the financial products in the presence of uncertainty, should interest rates in different financial products in compensation for additional risks. Subsequently, Von Neumann (1947) applied the concept of expected utility of the proposed settlement in the decision-making under uncertainty in the method chosen, on this basis Markowiz (1952) developed a portfolio theory, he thought when investors choose portfolio concerned only with future cash flow of the mean and variance. He assumed that the expected utility of investors consistent with secondary distribution or multinomial distribution. Markowiz The main conclusions are subject to uncertainty, optimal decision-making is a diversified investment holding. Tobin (1958) that investor liquidity preferences for their own benefits and risks of different options for the balance. This further improved the framework of portfolio choice the field of asset pricing model is another well-known theory of capital pricing model (CAPM), Sharp (1994) and Lintner (1995) using the formula succinctly expressed the portfolio value and risk-free interest rate and the level of risk assets, the relationship between . Black (1972) introduced even in the non-risk assets zones remained the case, Sharp and the CAPM formula is still valid, just without the risk of interest rates are including the entire market on all assets of the portfolio rate of return instead of the 预期. Contemporary with the CAPM model of the asset pricing model also Ross (1977) arbitrage pricing model (APT) and Lucas (1978) the typical agent asset pricing by CAPM asset pricing model for asset pricing provides a simple method of calculation, and obtain some support from empirical studies (Fama and Macbeth, 1973), but in reality some of the anomalies is still a lack of effective explanatory power, Brennan (1989) that the CAPM is based on the expectations of all investors in the investment and risk are common in estimates and judgments, and all investors the same utility function based on the assumption that this assumption is inconsistent with the reality This is leading to some practical problems CAPM on the root causes of the lack of explanatory power. It is beyond doubt on these assumptions, to promote the introduction of the concept of asymmetric information and . Market efficiency hypothesisMarket efficiency hypothesis that in a perfectly competitive market, there is no asymmetric information and market frictions affect the future earnings of the average investment risk is different. 60s in the 20th century a large number of research workers on the market efficiency hypothesis was tested, Fama (1973) through empirical tests on the . stock market, that the efficient market hypothesis holds, but many researchers found that in the market, There are many market efficiency hypothesis or CAPM model can not explain the abnormal phenomenon. For example, Basu (1977) found that the average earnings assets, in addition to the β coefficient of the CAPM, but also with the price earnings ratio of assets (P / E ratio) is related to the same β coefficient, the higher the price earnings ratio stocks (growth stocks) better than the market price of the low price earnings ratio of stocks (value stocks); Benz (1981) found that the market price of the stock with the size of the listed company; Stattman (1980) found that stock prices and the ratio of book value (P / B ratio) is also an important factor affecting stock prices. Fama and French (1993) On the basis of the above three-factor model proposed that the impact of asset prices in the β factors, joined the P / E ratio and P / B ratio interpretation of these anomalies, the efficient market hypothesis seems powerless, someone had tried the "January effect" to the end of Shuishou interpreted as the impact of outflow, but in the United Kingdom, Australia, the annual revenue of the country is not in December, there are still "in January effect "can not be explained. Some scholars from a psychological perspective to explain these anomalies, such as, Dreman (1982) the stock price P / E ratio effect interpreted as the investor always overestimate growth stocks with high growth, leading to market high P / E ratio of stock market was overvalued, that it is a reason for low stock . Continuous time modelIn asset pricing theory is another important assumption: stock market is always in a continuous process, under this assumption, Merton (1969,1971) to develop instantaneous CAPM Capital Asset Pricing Model (ICAPM), the same information symmetry, frictionless market, asset price changes in line with Ito process under these conditions, asset prices and investor preference for independent effectiveness. In subsequent studies Merton (1973) and Black (1973) The application of these continuous-time model has been successful in the option pricing formula, the formula was later confirmed that a large number of empirical studies and has been widely applied in practice.(B) the uncertainty of financial management in the company ofFinancial analysis is another important area of financial management, major research firms in the investment decision-making in the proportion of the debt and equity options, the company's dividend policy and other issues. Results of the first studies in this area by the Modigliani and Miller (1958) made their study shows that full market (no market frictions and asymmetric information exists) the value of the company has nothing to do with the company's debt ratio (MM theorem). A similar study concludes that the value of the company's profit distribution policy has nothing to do. Obviously, these research findings and practical in reality. MM theorem based on the conclusions in the distribution of profits, due to the cash outflow will be sent found Jinhong Li, the Company repurchased shares will be more willing to choose policies, rather than the dividend policy, in reality, many companies prefer to dividends rather than Share buy-back, this phenomenon is Black (1976) referred to as "Company dividend puzzle (Dividend Puzzle)", which Miller (1977) can give the explanation, MM theorem conclusion is that the reason and the reality of different tax and the so-called bankruptcy costs on the financial structure is the result of certain liabilities of the company can achieve the role of tax relief, another company because of the existence of high debt ratio risk of bankruptcy, so the debt ratio to the value of existing shares affected, Miller and Other scholars make on these financial problems are not very satisfactory interpretation of the whole until later after the introduction of asymmetric information, it seems Caidui explain these issues to achieve a mentioned above, some of the phenomena of reality is difficult to simply use the uncertainty (risk) to get a satisfactory explanation, it is in the research of these issues raises the question of asymmetric information on financial concerns, plus last 60 years in the 20th century to game theory, represented a breakthrough in the information economy research methods, leading many scholars to the financial problems of asymmetric information in the study achieved a lot, especially the use of asymmetric information can explain a lot of perfectly the financial structure issues. Following is an overview of this still results in two parts, first in the results of financial decision-making, followed by the asset pricing results.(A) asymmetric information in corporate financial management application
INTO THE STORMFOR much of the past year the fast-growing economies of the emerging world watched the Western financial hurricane from afar. Their own banks held few of the mortgage-based assets that undid the rich world’s financial firms. Commodity exporters were thriving, thanks to high prices for raw materials. China’s economic juggernaut powered on. And, from Budapest to Brasília, an abundance of credit fuelled domestic demand. Even as talk mounted of the rich world suffering its worst financial collapse since the Depression, emerging economies seemed a long way from the centre of the storm.过去一年的大部分时间里，高速发展的新兴国家一直在远处观望着西方国家的金融风暴。他们的银行仅持有少量抵押资产，而类似的资产已经破坏了发达国家的金融公司。商品出口商因为原材料的高价格而日渐富有。中国不可抗拒的经济力量已然开启，而且信贷刺激的内需从布达佩斯到巴西利亚都表现得非常充足。尽管大萧条后关于西方国家受难于金融崩塌的话题与日俱增，但新兴国家似乎距离金融风暴的中心还有一段距离。No longer. As foreign capital has fled and confidence evaporated, the emerging world’s stockmarkets have plunged (in some cases losing half their value) and currencies tumbled. The seizure in the credit market caused havoc, as foreign banks abruptly stopped lending and stepped back from even the most basic banking services, including trade credits.不过目前的情况不再是那样了，随着境外资本的流失和经济信心的消失，新兴国家股市暴跌（有些地区已经腰斩），本币迅速贬值。由于外国银行突然中断贷款，并且收缩了包括贸易信贷在内的基础银行服务，新兴国家的信贷市场突发混乱，并引发了一场浩劫。Like their rich-world counterparts, governments are battling to limit the damage (see article). That is easiest for those with large foreign-exchange reserves. Russia is spending $220 billion to shore up its financial services industry. South Korea has guaranteed $100 billion of its banks’ debt. Less well-endowed countries are asking for help. Hungary has secured a EURO5 billion ($ billion) lifeline from the European Central Bank and is negotiating a loan from the IMF, as is Ukraine. Close to a dozen countries are talking to the fund about financial help.新兴国家的政府和发达国家的政府一样都在为控制损失程度而奋斗。不过对于外汇储备充足的国家来说难度会小一些：俄罗斯斥资2200亿美元重振金融服务行业；韩国政府担保了1000亿美元的银行债务。而那些储备并不充足的国家正在四处求援：匈牙利成功向欧洲央行求得了50亿欧元（约66亿美元）的生命线，同时也在同国际货币基金组织协商借款事宜，同时向国际货币基金组织求援的还有乌克兰。近一打儿的国家在向基金组织求助。Those with long-standing problems are being driven to desperate measures. Argentina is nationalising its private pension funds, seemingly to stave off default (see article). But even stalwarts are looking weaker. Figures released this week showed that China’s growth slowed to 9% in the year to the third quarter-still a rapid pace but a lot slower than the double-digit rates of recent years.有持续问题的国家正棋行险招：阿根廷正在将私人养老金国有化，意图阻止违约的发生。即使强有力的国家也表现出虚弱一面：本周公布的数字表明今年中国的增长率在第三季度减缓为9%，虽然增速还算快，但是与近些年的两位数增率相比缓慢了不少。Blowing cold on credit对信贷没兴趣The various emerging economies are in different states of readiness, but the cumulative impact of all this will be enormous. Most obviously, how these countries fare will determine whether the world economy faces a mild recession or something nastier. Emerging economies accounted for around three-quarters of global growth over the past 18 months. But their economic fate will also have political consequences.众多新兴经济的意愿并不相同，但是累计在一起的影响力却非同一般。最明显的就是这些国家的表现将会决定世界经济所面临的是一个较为缓和的衰退还是更可怕的情况。在过去18个月的全球经济增长中，新兴经济贡献了75%。但是他们的经济命运也会有一些政治后果。In many places-eastern Europe is one example (see article)-financial turmoil is hitting weak governments. But even strong regimes could suffer. Some experts think that China needs growth of 7% a year to contain social unrest. More generally, the coming strife will shape the debate about the integration of the world economy. Unlike many previous emerging-market crises, today’s mess spread from the rich world, largely thanks to increasingly integrated capital markets. If emerging economies collapse-either into a currency crisis or a sharp recession-there will be yet more questioning of the wisdom of globalised finance.在类似东欧的很多地区，金融混乱目前的打击目标是软弱的政府；但强硬的政权同样会尝到苦果。一些专家认为中国每年需要7%的增长率来阻止社会动荡的发生。总体来说，如此争端必将影响全球经济一体化的讨论。与以往数次新兴经济危机不同，这次的混乱始于发达国家，很大程度上要归咎于一体化的资本市场。一旦新兴经济崩溃，无论是货币危机还是剧烈的经济萧条，大家对于金融全球化是否属明智之举会有更多的质疑。Fortunately, the picture is not universally dire. All emerging economies will slow. Some will surely face deep recessions. But many are facing the present danger in stronger shape than ever before, armed with large reserves, flexible currencies and strong budgets. Good policy-both at home and in the rich world-can yet avoid a catastrophe.幸运的是上述恐怖的场景没有发生在全球的每个角落：所有的新兴经济都会减缓发展速度，有一些也必将面临深度萧条；但是更多的国家在面临当下危机的时候却拥有比以往任何时候都强壮的形式，用充足的储备、弹性的货币和强大的预算武装自己。新兴国家及发达国家良好的政策可以避免大灾难的发生。One reason for hope is that the direct economic fallout from the rich world’s disaster is manageable. Falling demand in America and Europe hurts exports, particularly in Asia and Mexico. Commodity prices have fallen: oil is down nearly 60% from its peak and many crops and metals have done worse. That has a mixed effect. Although it hurts commodity-exporters from Russia to South America, it helps commodity importers in Asia and reduces inflation fears everywhere. Countries like Venezuela that have been run badly are vulnerable (see article), but given the scale of the past boom, the commodity bust so far seems unlikely to cause widespread crises.至少有一个原因值得抱有希望：发达国家此次灾难的直接经济影响还是在可控的范围内。欧美锐减的需求对出口来说无疑是一个打击，特别是对亚洲和墨西哥。商品价格走低：原油价格与巅峰时期比较已经下降了60%，很多粮食和金属类商品跌幅更大。这两个现象有混合效果：尽管从俄罗斯到南美的商品（能源）出口企业备受打击，但却帮助了亚洲的商品（能源）进口商，并且缓和了各地对通胀的恐惧。委内瑞拉的情形一直很糟糕，也很脆弱；不过由于过去极度的繁荣，商品价格下跌目前还不会引发大范围传播的危机。The more dangerous shock is financial. Wealth is being squeezed as asset prices decline. China’s house prices, for instance, have started falling (see article). This will dampen domestic confidence, even though consumers are much less indebted than they are in the rich world. Elsewhere, the sudden dearth of foreign-bank lending and the flight of hedge funds and other investors from bond markets has slammed the brakes on credit growth. And just as booming credit once underpinned strong domestic spending, so tighter credit will mean slower growth.比商品价格更令人震惊的事情发生在金融领域。由于资产价格的下降，财富水平正在被挤压缩水。以中国房价为例，目前已经开始下跌。尽管新兴国家的消费者比发达国家的负债水平低很多，上述情况还是会挫伤国内的经济信心。在其他方面，国外银行借款骤然匮乏、对冲基金以及其他投资者逃离债券市场，这些因素给信贷增长踩了一脚急刹车。正如发达的信贷曾经强力支撑国内支出那样，信贷紧缩将意味着增长放缓。Again, the impact will differ by country. Thanks to huge current-account surpluses in China and the oil-exporters in the Gulf, emerging economies as a group still send capital to the rich world. But over 80 have deficits of more than 5% of GDP. Most of these are poor countries that live off foreign aid; but some larger ones rely on private capital. For the likes of Turkey and South Africa a sudden slowing in foreign financing would force a dramatic adjustment. A particular worry is eastern Europe, where many countries have double-digit deficits. In addition, even some countries with surpluses, such as Russia, have banks that have grown accustomed to easy foreign lending because of the integration of global finance. The rich world’s bank bail-outs may limit the squeeze, but the flow of capital to the emerging world will slow. The Institute of International Finance, a bankers’ group, expects a 30% decline in net flows of private capital from last year.需要再次重申的是，冲击的表现会因国家的不同而有所区别。多亏中国和海湾产油国经常项目下的巨额顺差，新型经济整体还不断的向发达国家输送资本。但是80 多个国家的财政赤字已经超过GDP的5%，其中的多数是那些依靠国外救助过活得贫困国家；不过也有一些依靠私人资本的大国。对于类似土耳其和南非的国家来说，突然减缓的境外融资迫使其进行大幅调整。东欧的情况特别令人担忧，那里的不少国家赤字水平已经达到了两位数。另外，象俄罗斯这样处于顺差的国家，其银行也逐渐适应了可以轻易从外国取得的贷款，原因自然是全球金融一体化。发达国家的救助计划也许可以限制财富被挤压的水平，但资本流向新兴世界的速度无疑会减慢。国际金融研协会预测私人资本的净流量比去年回减少30%。A wing and a prayer飞行之翼与祈祷者This credit crunch will be grim, but most emerging markets can avoid catastrophe. The biggest ones are in relatively good shape. The more vulnerable ones can (and should) be helped.信贷紧缩必将令人生畏，不过多数新兴市场可以躲过一劫，最大的市场形势还相当不错。比较脆弱的市场可以（也应该）得到帮助。Among the giants, China is in a league of its own, with a $2 trillion arsenal of reserves, a current-account surplus, little connection to foreign banks and a budget surplus that offers lots of room to boost spending. Since the country’s leaders have made clear that they will do whatever it takes to cushion growth, China’s economy is likely to slow-perhaps to 8%-but not collapse. Although that is not enough to save the world economy, such growth in China would put a floor under commodity prices and help other countries in the emerging world.在那些坚强的巨人中，中国卓然不群：手握2万亿美元的储备，经常项下的顺差状态，与国外银行罕有关联，过剩的预算给推动支出留有足够空间。鉴于国家领导人已经明确表示将不惜一切代价为经济增长减速缓冲，中国的经济增长应该会减缓到大约8%的水平，但是决不会崩溃。虽然这不足以挽救世界经济，但是该增长率将会为商品价格建底并帮到新兴世界的其他国家。The other large economies will be harder hit, but should be able to weather the storm. India has a big budget deficit and many Brazilian firms have a large foreign-currency exposure. But Brazil’s economy is diversified and both countries have plenty of reserves to smooth the shift to slower growth. With $550 billion of reserves, Russia ought to be able to stop a run on the rouble. In the short-term at least, the most vulnerable countries are all smaller ones.其他的经济大国会受到更大的冲击，不过应该可以禁受住风暴侵袭。印度的财政赤字巨大，巴西很多公司面临巨大的外汇风险。但巴西经济已经实现多样化，同时上述两个国家拥有充足的储备来平稳过渡到缓慢的增长。俄罗斯掌握着5500亿美元的储备，应该能够阻止对卢布的抢购。至少在短期内，小国家才是最弱不禁风的。There will be pain as tighter credit forces adjustments. But sensible, speedy international assistance would make a big difference. Several emerging countries have asked America’s Federal Reserve for liquidity support; some hope that China will bail them out. A better route is surely the IMF, which has huge expertise and some $250 billion to lend. Sadly, borrowing from the fund carries a stigma. That needs to change. The IMF should develop quicker, more flexible financial instruments and minimise the conditions it attaches to loans. Over the past month deft policymaking saw off calamity in the rich world. Now it is time for something similar in the emerging world.受到紧缩信贷压力进行的调整必然带来痛苦，但快速的国际援助是明智之举，因为这会让结果很不相同。一些新兴国家已经向美联储求援以缓解流动性问题；有一些则希望中国可以拯救他们与水火。更佳的求救路线莫过于国际货币基金组织，因为它掌握大量的专门知识和2500亿美元的可出借款项。不幸的是人们认为向基金借款有辱其名，国际货币基金组织应该推出更快捷、更灵活的金融工具，同时实现借贷条件最小化。过去数月中，机敏的决策驱散了发达国家的灾难。现在也正是新兴世界发生类似事情的时候了。
中国社会科学院院报 陈佳贵 黄群慧 从经济发展角度看，长期以来我国的基本国情一直是农业大国。但是，在经过几十年的建设特别是改革开放20余年高速工业化进程以后，到20世纪末21世纪初，我国已经成为名副其实的工业大国。 一、各种证据表明，我国的基本经济国情已经从农业大国转为工业大国 第＿，我国形成了庞大的工业生产能力，工业主要产品产量居世界前列。迄今为止，我国已经在能源、冶金、化工、建材、机械设备和通讯设备制造、交通运输设备制造及各种消费品等工业主要领域，形成了庞大的生产能力。我国主要工业产品，如煤炭、钢铁、发电、原油、水泥、化肥、化学纤维、棉布、糖和电视机等，其产量已经居世界前列.其中，2000年化学纤维产量居世界第2位；2002年，煤炭、钢铁、水泥、化肥、棉布和电视机产量居世界首位、发电量居世界第2位、糖产量居世界第3位、原油产量居世界第5位。目前，我国工业产值和增加值总量，仅低于美国、日本和德国。考虑到工业技术水平等因素，虽然我国还够不上真正意义的“世界工厂”，但从工业产品生产数量看，毋庸置疑，我国已经是一个工业大国。 第二，工业经济在整个国民经济中已占主体地位。1952年，第﹁产业（农、林、牧、渔）在国内生产总值中的比重为，在国民经济中占主体地位，到1980年下降为，2003年进一步下降到。与此对应，1952年第二产业（工业和建筑业）在国内生产总值中的比重为，到1980年上升为；2003年，第二产业生产总值达到亿元，占国内生产总值的，其中工业生产总值亿元，占国内生产总值的。按照每天创造的财富计算，2003年工业为亿元，为第一产业亿元的倍，为第三产业亿元的倍。这表明，经过50余年工业化进程，尤其是改革开放以来20余年高速工业化进程，现在在我国国内生产总值构成中，工业几乎占有半壁江山，我国国民财富的主要来源是工业，国民经济结构已经实现从农业经济为主体到工业经济为主体的转变。虽然从人口的城乡比例看，我国仍是一个农业人口大国，2003年乡村人口和城镇人口比例为∶，但如果与1978年该比例为∶相比，考虑到现在亿的总人口，应该说，这25年城乡人口比例的巨大的“量”的变化，已经能够反映出工业经济主导的社会经济结构的“质”的变化。 第三，我国已经成为工业对外贸易大国，在出口商品总额中，工业制成品出口占绝大部分，工业品国际竞争力得到显著提高。1980年，我国进出口总额仅为亿元人民币，贸易依存度为。到2002年，我国进出口总额已经达到亿元人民币，贸易依存度为；我国进出口贸易总额占世界进出口贸易总额的，跃居世界第6位。2003年，我国进出口总额升至亿人民币，贸易依存度约为；我国进出口贸易总额占世界进出口贸易总额的，位居世界第4位，仅排在美国、德国和日本之后。2004年前11个月，我国外贸进出口总额达亿美元，同比增长，进口、出口总额分别跃过5000亿美元关口，累计实现贸易顺差亿美元，全年外贸进出口总额将达到万亿美元，位居世界第3位。这些数据表明，中国已经是一个对外贸易大国。在对外贸易规模扩大的同时，我国贸易结构也发生了巨大的变化。在1980年，我国出口商品中，初级产品出口额占出口商品总额的，工业制成品出口额占出口总额的。而到2000年以后，工业制成品的该项比例上升到90%以上，2001、2002、2003三年的数据分别为、、；初级产品的该项比例则相应下降到10%以下。不仅如此，工业品国际竞争力也得到显著改善和提高，自1994年以后，中国工业制成品的贸易竞争指数一直为正，1995~2003年中国工业制成品的贸易竞争指数分别为、、、、、、、、，而初级产品的贸易竞争指数自1995年一直为负。 第四，中国工业化进程已经到中期阶段，基本完成了工业数量扩张的任务，不仅彻底结束了利用工农产品“剪刀差”来支持工业发展的局面，而且国家开始利用工商业发展来“反哺”农业。根据钱纳里等关于经济发展阶段的6个变动时期的划分，我国多数学者实证研究表明，中国工业化的进程总体上属于工业化中期阶段。对于中国这样一个具有13亿人口的大国而言，进入工业化中期，意味着已经具有了庞大的工业总量。而工业生产技术特别是加工工艺的广泛扩散，企业间价格竞争日趋激烈，利润日趋平均化，产业集中化步伐加快，这些现象也表明中国工业发展已经完成了数量扩张，开始呈现出工业化中后期所具有的提升工业增长质量的特征。社会主义国家工业化初期利用工农产品“剪刀差”支持工业快速发展的局面已经结束，国家财政用于补贴农业、解决“三农”问题的支出逐年增多。2000年，国家来自工商业的税收亿元，占全部税收的；农业税收亿元，只占全部税收的；而同期国家财政用于农业的支出为亿元。2001、2002、2003年，国家来自农业的各项税收分别为亿元、亿元和亿元，而用于农业的支出分别为亿元、亿元和亿元。2004年，国家在吉林、黑龙江两个粮食主产省先行免征农业税改革试点，河北、内蒙古、辽宁、江苏、安徽、江西、山东、河南、湖北、湖南、四川11个粮食主产省(自治区)农业税税率降低了3个百分点，河南、江苏、宁夏等地已经宣布2005年取消农业税。按照我国税收制度改革计划，在未来5年内全国各地都将先后取消农业税。 二、认识到我国是一个工业大国这个基本经济国情，对于制订经济现代化战略和政策、进一步推进我国现代化的整体进程具有重要意义 我国从农业大国向工业大国的基本国情变化表明，我国经济现代化进程进入了一个新的阶段。根据现有的大国的经济现代化经验，与三次产业结构演变规律相适应，可以将现代化进程划分为从农业大国到工业大国、工业大国到工业强国、工业强国到服务业大国三个阶段，这大致应该对应工业化初中期、工业化中后期和后工业化社会三个时期。对我国成为工业大国这个基本经济国情的判断，意味着我国经济现代化进程步入了第二阶段，我国应该根据这个阶段的主要特征制定科学的经济发展战略和政策。 第一，实现由工业大国向工业强国的转变、推进工业现代化进程是这个阶段的核心任务。我国已成为工业大国，但还不是工业强国。在当今世界格局下，象我们这样一个人口众多的社会主义国家要实现现代化，仅仅成为工业大国是不够的，必须能够成为一个工业强国。这个由工业大国向工业强国转变的过程实质就是推进工业现代化过程。工业是国民经济的主导力量，工业现代化是国民经济现代化的“发动机”。现阶段我国工业总量的庞大并不能掩盖工业素质较低、工业现代化水平有待提高的问题。无论是具有国际竞争力的大型工业企业相对缺乏，还是我国工业生产技术水平和研究开发能力与世界先进水平存在较大差距，以及在出口产品构成中附加值高的技术密集型产品出口比例小，整体工业劳动生产率低，等等，都表明了这一点。而且，推进工业现代化进程不仅仅是工业自身发展到一定阶段的必然要求，对于我国这样一个人均占有资源很少的人口大国，这也适应了工业化中期阶段以后必然要走的科技含量高、资源消耗低、环境污染少的新型工业化道路的要求。 第二，该阶段农业的发展和现代化依赖于工业积累支持和现代化工业的推动。尽管我国经济体制改革最早从农业开始，并且取得了举世瞩目的成就，但是，目前我国农产品的国际竞争力并不高，近10年贸易竞争指数一直小于零。面对“入世”后国际市场的激烈竞争，今后农业的发展离不开工业积累的支持和现代工业技术的推动。从国际经验看，工业发达国家普遍实行通过工业积累来支持农业的政策，对农产品施行价格补贴、提供信息、发放贷款、关税保护、出口补贴等各种扶持措施。随着我国工业日益强大，必然要逐步加大工业对农业的支持力度。 第三，在该阶段第三产业将加速发展，成为吸收农业剩余劳动力主要渠道，同时也为进入新的现代化阶段奠定基础。在实现由工业大国向工业强国的转变、推进工业现代化进程中，我国工业发展的重点将由数量扩张向质量提升转移，第二产业吸收农村剩余劳动力速度将大幅度下降。在我国第一产业从业人员还占全部从业人员将近一半的情况下，农业剩余劳动力的转移主要依靠第三产业的快速发展。不仅如此，随着工业现代化水平的提高，工业劳动生产率必将得到大幅度的提升，工业也会产生富裕劳动力问题，第三产业的发展还将承担吸收第二产业剩余劳动力的功能。实际上，这些年第三产业在我国国有企业下岗职工再就业中已经发挥了关键作用。未来，第三产业将得到更大的发展，成为扩大就业的主渠道。不仅如此，只有第三产业得到快速发展，才有可能将现代化进程推进第三阶段———由工业强国到服务业大国。 望采纳!
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去下个金山翻译吧！
“热钱”是只为追求最高报酬以最低风险而在国际金融市场上迅速流动的短期投机性资金。 "Hot money" is only for the pursuit of the highest reward with minimum risk in the international financial market speculative capital flows rapidly the short-term. 近年来，随着我国经济持续向好，国内投资机会增多，资产价格不断上扬，我国自然是“热钱”流入流出的热土，并且规模还呈现出不断扩大趋势。 In recent years, with China's economy continued to better off, domestic investment increased opportunities, asset prices continue to rise, China's nature is "hot money" hometown of inflow and outflow, and expanding the scale also presents trend. 这对我国宏观经济的稳定性产生了巨大影响，加大了宏观流动性金融风险，并且对资产价格和人民币汇率造成了冲击。 This macroeconomic stability of our country has made an enormous impact, increase the macro liquidity to financial risk, and asset prices and the RMB exchange rate caused a shock. 例如我国股市、楼市均出现过不正常的较大幅波动。 For example our stock and property are seen more unusual fluctuations. “热钱”日益成为社会各界关注的话题。 "Hot money" social from all walks of life has increasingly become an issue of concern. 我国在相关法律法规及制度方面还并不是十分完善，难以应对“热钱”的流入流出逐渐的多样化、隐蔽性的方式。 Our country in the relevant laws, regulations and systems also is not very perfect, difficult to deal with "hot money" inflow and outflow gradually diversification, covert way. 本文分析了“热钱”流入流出途径和对经济我国带来的影响。 This paper analyzes the "hot money" inflows in ways and on the economy out the impact of. 为地让“热钱”合理健康的为我国经济服务，在监管对策上建立金融稳定监控和预警系统提供理论参考。 For to let "hot money" for our country economy the reasonable health service, in the regulatory measures established on the financial stability monitoring and warning system to provide theoretical reference. [关键词] 短期投机性 金融风险 宏观经济稳定性 人民币汇率 [key words] short-term speculative financial risk macroeconomic stability of RMB exchange rate
Under current financial situation, how financial institutions slove its funding is a both practical and pressing problem. Therefore, many famous scholars nation-wide had made researches regarding this issue and had made several great achievements. How effectively could financial institutions slove its limitations of funding is both crucial to the developement of itself and also to maintain the balance of financial markets to a larger essay based on relative funding theories, is aimed to analyse our country's current funding situations and led to the conclusion that national financial institutions are all faced with serious funding limitations. Moreover, I would tend to analyse its implications from different perspectives. Further discussions would be foucused on its causes, including legislations, operating environments also problems related to the institution sloving its limited funding would involve systematic changes, it comes to two final aspects: one being expanding its funding sources and the other would be to build a system that better-fit in our country for financial institutions seeking for fund or sercurities. Based on studies from successful foreign experiences, In this essay, I had made several detailed analysis regarding to the two aspects previous mentioned, and offered some well-considered suggestions on buliding a effective and securied financial system in our country. Risks associated with financial funding would be of the most importance to consider,thus lastly this essay had further added some discussions on how to take precautions against these a free market of finance, how do we improve our national financial institutions' performaces had become the key for providing capital market balances and quick developements. Being a capital-concentrated industry, one that had just been started in our country, financial institutions' development would largely be dependent on how sucessfully they can be capital-funded. Changes made to
蛮困难的~终于弄到了！In the current financial situation, the securities companies financing is a strong practical and very pressing issues. Numerous well-known scholars have done a lot of fruitful research. How effective solution to the financing constraint securities companies, for securities firms to grow and develop their own, the smooth functioning of financial markets are of great significance. In this paper, the related financing based on the theory, with emphasis on China's securities companies, financial status were analyzed with the existence of China's securities firms are more serious financial constraints this conclusion, and then on this basis, the financing from various point of view of constraints on China's a profound impact on securities further explored in a detailed analysis of financial constraints caused by the reasons for securities firms - both of which the legal system, operating environmental factors, more security company's own reasons. Securities firms to solve the financing constraint problem is a systematic project, but in the end can be summarized into two aspects: First, to broaden the financing channels, the second is to establish conditions suited to China's securities companies margin trading system. By drawing on the experience of mature foreign countries, the article did focus on these two aspects of a more detailed study of China's securities companies to broaden the financing channels for financing the establishment of an effective security system, to mentionFor a more mature proposal. Because the financing risk is currently securities firms should consider financing the focus, so papers in the final also on how to guard against the risk of corporate finance in the securities discussed. The full liberalization in the financial industry situation, how to fully enhance the security of our country's overall strength has become the capital market to ensure healthy and stable operation, and rapid development. As a capital-intensive industry, a little has just begun in China industry, securities companies to grow and develop to a large extent depends on its ability to smoothly into the required funds. "Securities Law" and "Company Law"Changes to the securities company, provides a more generous financing of the external environment, but the ultimate solution to this problem, but depends on the further improvement of the economic system and the securities company's own tireless efforts.
In the current financial situation, the securities companies financing is a strong practical and very pressing issues. Numerous well-known scholars have done a lot of fruitful research. How effective solution to the financing constraint securities companies, for securities firms to grow and develop their own, the smooth functioning of financial markets are of great significance. In this paper, the related financing based on the theory, with emphasis on China's securities companies, financial status were analyzed with the existence of China's securities firms are more serious financial constraints this conclusion, and then on this basis, the financing from various point of view of constraints on China's a profound impact on securities firms. And further explored in a detailed analysis of financial constraints caused by the reasons for securities firms - both of which the legal system, operating environmental factors, more security company's own reasons. Securities firms to solve the financing constraint problem is a systematic project, but in the end can be summarized into two aspects: First, to broaden the financing channels, the second is to establish conditions suited to China's securities companies margin trading system. By drawing on the experience of mature foreign countries, the article did focus on these two aspects of a more detailed study of China's securities companies to broaden the financing channels for financing the establishment of an effective security system provides a more mature proposal. Because the financing risk is currently securities firms should consider financing the focus, so papers in the final also on how to guard against the risk of corporate finance in the securities discussed. The full liberalization in the financial industry situation, how to fully enhance the security of our country's overall strength has become the capital market to ensure healthy and stable operation, and rapid development. As a capital-intensive industry, a little has just begun in China industry, securities companies to grow and develop to a large extent depends on its ability to smoothly into the required funds. "Securities Law" and "Company Law" amendment to the securities company, provides a more generous financing of the external environment, but the ultimate solution to this problem, but depends on the further improvement of the economic system and the securities company's own tireless efforts.
其具体操作可翻译为：shorting and margin financing 如果是名词性短语的话用：Security financing 或者 Financing security
This paper introduced the theory of Markowitz portfolio, including the use of geometry in the three securities have an effective portfolio (efficient portfolios) method, as well as the use of the critical line method (critical line) and the simplex method (simplex method) in any kind of Access to effective securities portfolio approach and use of China's Shanghai Stock Exchange's 50 listed stocks was verified.
The subprime mortgage crisis in 2008 of the . has exerted a strong impact on countries around the globe, causing the obvious decline of the economic growth of our country, the bankruptcy of numerous enterprises in small and medium size, and the severe unemployment. This crisis has been bringing enormous damage to the economy of China on a wide scale. This article analyses the financial problems faced by the enterpries in small and medium size of our country and gives some initial suggestions on how to overcome the difficult situation by evaluating the financial environmentTo Foreignize or To Domesticate Abstract1： Domesticating translation and foreignizing translation are two different translation strategies. The former refers to the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers, while the latter designates the type of translation in which a target text deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreigness of the original. But what is the translation practice like in China? Do translators tend to use foreignizing methods or domesticating ones? What are the factors that affect their decision making? This paper tries to find answers to the questions by looking into the translation of English metaphors into Chinese. Key words: domesticating translation; foreignizing translation; metaphor; target language reader 1. Introduction "Domesticating translation" and "foreignizing translation" are the terms coined by L. Venuti (1995) to describe the two different translation strategies. The former refers to the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers, while the latter designates the type of translation in which a target text "deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreigness of the original" (Shuttleworth &Cowie, 1997:59). The roots of the terms can be traced back to the German philosopher Schleiermacher’s argument that there are only two different methods of translation, " either the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader towards him; or he leaves the reader in peace, as much as possible, and moves the author towards him" (Venuti, 1995: 19-20). The terms "foreignization" and "domestication" may be new to the Chinese,
The financial crisis in terms of the world is a huge disaster, as a result of the development of economic globalization, China can not survive naturally. In that context, the outbreak of the crisis in-depth study of a variety of reasons, and prevention, has now become urgent problems. In this paper, the research has been based on research literature and descriptive study of the crisis emerged in some of the practices and theories to be described and explained by the phenomenon of nature to explore. The crisis is the American model of market economy treatment ideology, the neo-liberal ideas and distorted the international monetary system, as well as lack of supervision of the joint effect of factors such as the results. Growing crisis, the slowdown in global economic growth environment, starting from the root causes and adopt appropriate strategies to deal with the crisis brought about by a variety of negative effects, is particularly urgent and important. Keywords: financial crisis, the international monetary system, the new liberalism, regulation, high-leverage ratio
Mortgage-backed Securitization (MBS) is in the field of finance in recent 40 years, the most important innovation in its research in the field of finance has always been a hot issue. This paper developed by the MBS market research compared to the current combination of our MBS of the actual situation, to explore ways to learn from the advanced experience of foreign countries in China to better implementation of the mortgage 's MBS began in 2005, although the rapid development of China's implementation of the MBS in the process of facing many difficulties and obstacles, difficulties and obstacles in both of these market-based reasons as well as environmental reasons for the system; existing mortgage A reason for the market as well as the secondary market. I come to the following conclusions of the , our MBS market should be a draw on the experience of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region; MBS in the secondary market system and the system can learn from the experience of the United States; in the securities of the law-making may refer to Japan. In learn from these countries (regions) of experience, not copying machine must be combined with China's actual conditions, step by step, out of the MBS in line with the national conditions of China's development , our mortgage payment in advance of the risks and the level of income, housing prices and mortgage rates are a positive correlation between income levels which affect the role of the largest income growth in the average level of 1% of the mortgage was ahead of schedule The payment will increase the possibility of , on the strengthening of our MBS system building and construction markets, I believe that in the MBS market level, should establish and improve mortgage risk prevention mechanism, the Government has to consider the establishment of the nature of the mortgage loan guarantees or insurance system; in the secondary Markets should continue to expand the scope of MBS issuance and distribution of the main scale, MBSs improve the credit rating service system, regulate credit rating, and further growth of institutional investors to cultivate and improve the mobility of MBSs;MBS in the system of environmental construction, the need to improve the legal system and the securitization of personal credit system and improve the MBS related to the accounting system and tax , the United States sub-loan crisis of our MBS to carry out a wake-up call. Although the loan-to-dimensional crisis, we can not totally reject the MBS, but the use of MBS in the process of the MBS must risk control in a prominent position to strengthen the MBS in the process of the link and the regulation of participants, especially from the source A guard on the mortgage market risks.
英汉翻译过程包括理解和表达两个重要的阶段，只有在正确理解原文词义的基础上,才能正确地表达原文。下文是我为大家整理的关于英汉翻译论文范文的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!
探析英汉翻译陷阱
【摘 要】英语陷阱的表现形式多种多样，常常是句子或词语的表层结构与其要表达的真实含义相反。为了避免落入英语陷阱，学习者对英语的某些词句、语义应克服表面化的理解，也不能简单照搬辞典上的释义，更不能望文生义;对中西文化差异也必须有深刻的了解。只要对英语陷阱多注意、多分析、多体会，便可避免误入一些似是而非的“陷阱”。
【关键词】英汉翻译;陷阱;表层结构;深层含义
英语陷阱的表现形式多种多样，对学习者来说的确是一个必须要注意的问题。在英汉翻译中，初学者往往从语法角度对英汉两种语言做机械对比，有时还下意识地将词典释义不加斟酌，拿来就用。在审查译文表达是否准确时，又习惯于将自己的母语思维定势用作衡量正误的标准。这些做法实际上都很容易造成释义与原文真实含义的脱节，甚至南辕北辙，落入英语“陷阱”。
一、短语翻译中的陷阱
例子如下：
1、confidence man
误译：值得信赖的人
正译：
2、sleep late
误译：睡觉很晚
正译：起床很晚
3、black tea
误译：黑茶
正译：红茶
4、gas mask
误译：赌气面具
正译：防毒面具
5、mad-doctor
误译：发疯的医生
正译：精神病医师
6、lightning rod
误译：闪电针
正译：避雷针
7、trouble man
误译：制造麻烦的人
正译：故障检修员
8、be in control
误译：被控制
正译：掌控……，控制……
9、flu mask
误译：流感口罩
正译：卫生器具
10、fire engine
误译：点火机器
正译：救火车、消防车
11、fire wall
误译：着火的墙
正译：防火墙
对这些短语均须准确理解，否则便会落入陷阱之中。
二、习语翻译中的陷阱
在翻译英语习语时，初学者有时总想找一个汉语的习语或成语，使之与英语习语相对应。虽然这种对应在某种程度上可以做到，但却不一定在所有情况下都能成功。英语陷阱的特点就是其表层意思和深层含义常常貌合神离，甚至南辕北辙，若抛开语言文化差异而不顾，盲目追求“形似”，就难免会落入英语陷阱。如：
1、Gild(或Paint)the lily
该习语似乎与“锦上添花”意思相近，但实际上却相差甚远。在汉语中，“锦上添花”比喻使美好的事物更加美好，而这个习语的意思是指对已经很完美的东西做不恰当甚至过分的修饰，结果是破坏了原来的美。这有点近似于汉语的“画蛇添足”。
2、Strange bedfellows
这个习语不等于“同床异梦”。“Strange bedfellows”指走到一起的不同类型的人，萍水相逢的人;或有些人性格、兴趣、习惯等都不相同，本来不会碰到一起，而现在却成了伙伴。“同床异梦”指的是虽然共同生活或共同从事某项活动，但各有各的打算，面和心不合。可见“strange bedfellows”和“同床异梦”所指很不一样。
3、Turn the table
这个习语很容易被误译为“把桌子掀翻”，而且好像还带有气愤至极的味道。其实，这种理解是不对的，“turn the table”在含义上并不带有这种激动的成分。譬如，一对夫妻吵架、闹离婚，经过调解之后，终于化干戈为玉帛。丈夫的一位美国朋友打来电话，询问情况，当知道是这么一种结果时，便说:“Oh，thank God!You turned the table.”这位男士听后很不理解：朋友是不是以为自己对妻子动粗了?其实，这个习语的意思和掀翻桌子一点关系也没有，也不带有什么负面的感情色彩，它的意思是“扭转了局面”。
4、The last straw
如：The service in this shop has been bad before，but this is the last straw.
误译：这家商店的服务一向不好，这可是救命稻草。
学习者对这句英文容易误译的原因就是在阅读时容易忽略中西方文化因素，望文生义。因为在我们的文化中，很容易把“the last straw”和“最后一根稻草(救命稻草)”联系起来。可是在英语中，“the last straw”指的是“the last in a series of bad events， makes it impossible for somebody to accept a situation any longer(令人忍无可忍之事;终于使人不堪忍受的最后一件事或一个因素等)”。该习语源于谚语“It is the last straw that breaks the camel’s back”。(最后添加的一根稻草压断骆驼脊背。)可见，它的指称意义与汉语的“救命稻草”大相径庭。所以，“The service in this shop has been bad before，but this is the last straw.”应该译为：这家商店的服务一向不好，这一次更是叫人受不了。
三、句型翻译中的陷阱
释义与原义南辕北辙，这种现象在某些英语句型和特殊结构的翻译中也很常见。当然，之所以出现“南辕北辙”的现象，归根到底还是由于没有掌握英语陷阱的规律。由于英语中一些固定结构的深层含义与表层含义相反，所以，若仅仅按照句子的表层结构进行翻译，那就很容易会落入英语陷阱之中。
1、For all 结构
如：For all I care，you can throw it away.
误译：你把它丢了，我很在乎。
正译：你把它丢了，我也不在乎。
2、It + be + adj.+ n.+ that 结构
著名翻译家钱歌川教授认为像这一类的句型应从反面理解，以适应英语语言的独特意境。
如：It is a good workman that never blunders.
误译：一个好的技工从来不会犯错。
正译：智者千虑，必有一失。
It is a wise father that knows his own child.
误译：聪明的爸爸会了解自己的孩子。
正译：聪明的爸爸也未必了解自己的孩子。
3、being + a.
如：They are being friendly.
误译：他们现在很友好。
正译：他们装出一副友好的样子。
“being friendly”之所以是“装出一副友好的样子(或姿态)”，是因为从深层结构看，“being”表示的意思是“目前”或“现在”，其含义短暂。它说明这是主语有意识的一个动作，因而在这类句子里面就隐含着一个意思：他们平时并不这么友善，现在是故意作秀。在这个句型里，“being”的含义相当于“故意地”。
4、形式否定，实为肯定
(1)….cannot…….too
如：You cannot be too careful when driving.
误译：你开车的时候不能太小心了。
正译：你开车的时候越小心越好。
此结构在形式上是否定的，但意义却是肯定的。表示一个人“无论怎么…..也不过分”，“越……越好”。
(2)……never……but……
如：I never go to that city but I want to eat the characteristic food there.
误译：我从来不去那个城市，但是我想吃那里的特色食品。
正译：我每次去那个城市都要吃那里的特色食品。
在“……never……but……”这个结构中，never和but是用来加强语气的，实表肯定的意思，可译为“每次……都/必……”。
(3)……nothing if not……
如：The book is nothing if not interesting.
误译：这本书没有什么意思。
正译：这本书相当有意思。
在这里，“nothing if not”是一个双重否定，实际上它是一个强调肯定意义的结构。“nothing if not”相当于“extremely”、“very”，意思是“极其……”，“非常……”。
5、形式肯定，实为否定
(1)……the last…… + 不定式短语/定语从句
如：This is the last thing I expect him to do.
误译：这是我希望他做的最后一件事。
正译：这是我最不希望他做的事。
在这个句型中，“last”应理解为“最不可能的”。
(2)……anything but……
如：This math text is anything but easy.
误译：这次数学考试很容易。
正译：这次数学考试一点也不容易。
“……anything but……”应理解为never，意思是“决不”。
6、貌似全部否定，实为部分否定
如：All of the students did not turn up.
误译：所有的学生都没有出席。
正译：并非所有的学生都出席了。
Both of us are not teachers.
误译：我们俩都不是教师。
正译：我们俩并不都是教师。
英语中，当all，both，every，each等表示整体意义的代词与否定词not连用时，一般只表示部分否定，而不是全部否定。
7、否定转移
如：He was not ready to believe something just because Aristotle said so.
误译：他不会相信此事，因为亚里士多德这样说过。
正译：他并不会因为亚里士多德说过如何如何就轻信此事。
否定转移结构往往貌似一般否定结构，not的位置与一般否定结构中的not完全相同，但实际上却是一种部分否定，not由一部分转移到了另一部分。
英汉翻译中稍不留意就会出现意思南辕北辙的现象还有很多，例子不胜枚举，限于篇幅，这里不再赘述。
四、如何避免落入陷阱
从上面所举的这些例子不难看出，英语陷阱的表现形式多种多样，学习者可谓一不留神就会落入陷阱。如何避免这种情况的发生呢?
首先，学习者对英语的词句、语义应努力克服机械理解，不能简单照搬辞典上的释义，更不能想当然。在翻译时，望文生义是最要不得的。
第二，学习者对中西文化差异必须要有深刻的了解。
语言是文化的载体，是折射不同民族文化的一面镜子。有时，英汉翻译之所以会掉入陷阱，一个很重要的原因就是学习者忽视对中西文化差异的学习和掌握，这种忽视势必会使学习者误入歧途，掉入文化的“陷阱”。只有在文化中去探寻词语或某些特殊表达方式的真实内涵，才会有效地避免翻译中的“南辕北辙”;只有了解不同国度的文化差异，在英汉翻译过程中才不会落入陷阱。正如王佐良先生所指出的：“在寻找与原文相对的‘对等词’的过程中，就要做一番比较，因为真正的对等应该是在各自文化的含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等各个方面都相当。这当中，陷阱是不少的，如果我们望文生义就会出毛病……译者做的文化比较远比一般人细致、深入。他处理的是个别的词;他面对的则是两大片文化。”由此可见，学习者对中西文化的了解何其重要。
第三，对英语陷阱的规律要多注意、多分析、多体会。
英译汉有时可以做到形式结构上的对等，但并不是每个英文习语、短语都能在汉语中找到意义对等且形式结构也相当的习语或惯用法。在这种情况下，译者可采用音译加注、意译、增译等其他技巧来表达某些英语特殊结构或词语的真正含义，这样才能避免误入一些似是而非的“盲区”或“陷阱”。
参考文献：
[1]孙海运.英语成语来龙去脉[M].中国对外翻译出版社,1989.
[2]鲁迅.准风月谈[M].人民文学出版社,2006.
[3].牛津高阶英汉双解词典(第七版)[M].牛津大学出版社,2010.
[4]董乐山.英译汉理论与实例[M].北京出版社,2005.
[5]王佐良.翻译中的文化比较[J].中国翻译,1984(01).
英汉翻译的词序差异
摘要：本文主要研究英汉翻译中经常出现但又不被重视的词序问题。通过以词序中的副词、形容词为研究对象来体现在英汉翻译中词序使用正确的价值与意义，从而促进英汉翻译技能的成熟与完整。
关键词：词序渊源;副词词序;形容词词序
在平时的练习中我们不难发现英译汉的过程中词序的一些变化，这种差异值得学习的人研究和琢磨。因此，在英汉翻译中应首先了解这种差异中的一种，即词序的变化对翻译者而言是有价值的。价值何在?通过以下的比较研究，让我们来认识这一点，并且让这一点服务于翻译。
一、练习
妇女要求同工同酬。他们终于找到了一个能应付这种局面的人。译者的对应结构式：“Woman demands equal pay for equal work.”这句话没有问题。但对第二句话的词序就犯了愁，怎么写呢?“They finally found a man equal to the they found an equal man to the occasion.”前一句的翻译正好是在说汉语原句的意思，这句是对的，而后一句会产生歧义。看的人会认为意思是：他们终于找了一个公平公正的人去应付这种局面。这些经常出现的问题体现了译者的基础薄弱。对词序的不甚了解而导致了问题的出现。这种问题在翻译中会带来一些不必要的甚至是负面的影响，好在初学者大多是在练习中而已。试想，对于一个翻译工作者来讲，掌握且精通词序是有意义的。
这便给我们提了个醒。要怎样才能掌握好副词在句中的词序呢?“diligently”，“characteristically”等置于动词之前时，仅修饰动词本身。而置于句末时，其修饰对象及句意均有变化。对比以下句子可以看出这种特点。The people in the show their capacity on settling the diligently complex problems，for instance，the colleague ，Lillian showed Parent Zhang all around Beijing City，who comes from Shanghai.
二、给出的例句
The kitty nearly touched the back of herself as she would be the greatest painter around Town Sony.翻译成：这可爱的猫咪一伸手就能摸到自己个儿的背，看起来像是索尼镇上最了不起的画家。这显示猫咪并不真的是画家，只是有一种能显示出猫咪妖娆的色彩，让人觉得她是灵活的、聪明可爱的。我们也能感受到，似我们在其他情绪中如“蕴酿”一般，没有体现一个什么过程，只是有一种“身临其境”的感受，没多想就写出来了。
从以上的比较中我们可以看出这两句中的副词“nearly”与“too”是相反的。置于不同的词之前，会产生不同的句意。而“too”只是强调所紧跟的词，无论该词是人称代词还是地点名词。如：I，too，brushed the yellow 此处强调主语I。而My grandpa and I brushed the yellow shoes，too.该处仔细读来是在强调“爷爷也刷了他的黄色的鞋子”这件事情。
因为副词在语法上的功能是做状语使用，所修饰的是一个完整的句子，或是某个形容词，使语言本身更富色彩。在词序的学习研究中，副词的研究很具代表性。
下面我们来研究一下形容词在词序上的位置给句子带来的变化。例句：Young Chairman Mao，proper pioneer of the Chinese Communist Party(which put him involved into the liberation of whole China)had gained the support from the bosom friends as in his student year.(作为身兼解放全中国伟大事业及带领中国共产党的合适的领袖，年轻的毛主席以自己学生时代的志同道合者们作为开展工作的基石。)They failed to trust the matter to a responsible man.(他们未能将此事委托给一个负责任的人.)The man responsible was at last punished.(应负责任的当事人最终受到了处罚。)三个形容词proper，bosom，responsible在两组句子里不同的位置可以看出形容词作前置定语与后置定语所产生的在汉语上的效果。“合适的领袖、志同道合的朋友、一个负责任的人、应负责任的人”，这些理解把形容词带给语言的修饰功能已经带出来了。让语言本身拥有多变的外貌，统一的思想，即：实现语言所表达的色彩。
三、除了以动词、副词和形容词的例句来研究词序外，还涉及到的内容
这些包括连贯(Coherence)、强调(Emphasis)、悬念(Suspense)，分别来了解一下。
In the inn the Kuomintang set for the so-called Hot Red liberators，Yuan Juemin kneed on the cold looked like that he would say no other words from now a slim light put on his white and skinny face as a shower that made him feel so smiled then，no other words，just smile that also covered the roommates from the front corner to the back roommates also said no other words knew clearly what waited before them.
如果翻译只达到“信”，这让人觉得这橡皮筋被拉扯得太过费劲，且那么不自然，让业内人士一看就觉得动力火候欠缺，不够专业。那要如何处理呢?我们不妨来剖析剖析这个句子。主人翁是袁觉民，一个被国民党当成赤色分子关在监狱里的革命人。当我们看到因为长久没见到阳光，而现在哪怕见到从窗户里挤进来的一丝阳光就满足得心甘情愿接受折磨也不透漏出卖同志的一个字。他跪在冰冷的地上时，我们按一般的思维会产生一个悬念：接下来他要哭还是难受还是怎样。待全句读完，这个悬念才待释。原来他不难受不伤心，而是很满足，很知道从这一刻起生命、人生对他来讲的意义是什么。一个大转折，让读者读完也产生一种“生的伟大，死的光荣”的豪情壮志。一瞬间那种所谓的民族豪情便油然而生。而且全句都是连贯且有强调的，强调袁觉民的表现。译句中体现出悬念再加上深具节奏，读来抑扬顿挫，语句丰润有泽，所以佳句便呈现出来了。
四、我们来检验检验词序在翻译上的作用与之服务的意义
The young sisters told their teacher all their young sisters told all their troubles to their teacher.从前译者认为这两句话所说的是一个意思，译作同一个句子便可。便直接译为：这对姐妹把他们的烦恼全都告诉了他们的老师。这样看似是对的。但严格的放到词序这个问题上来分析，前一句的信息核心是all their troubles——告诉了老师什么?后一句的信息核心是to their teacher——告诉谁?因此，该译文只适合后一句，而前一句当译成：这对姐妹对老师讲了他们所有的烦恼。
仅以本文的陈述、论述和例证来让译文在对待英汉翻译上从大局出发，从小节着手，如词序问题，从而译出叫人拍手称好、张嘴叫绝的文字，从理论上更上一个研究的新台阶。从实践中印证英汉翻译的细节讲究，为英汉翻译积累更多更好的原始佐证材料，促使译文的发展和完整。
参考文献：
[1]郑立信，王菊泉.英汉语言文化对比研究[M].北京：上海外语教育出版社，2004.
[2]从莱庭，徐鲁亚.西方修辞学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2007.
题目是论文内容的高度概括，它对读者具有影响力，可使读者首先明确论文研究的主题。下面我给大家带来翻译方向论文题目选题参考2022，希望能帮助到大家!
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翻译硕士论文题目选题参考
1、《中国古代 足球 》古汉语专名与古诗词的英译处理
2、英文合同汉译中规范性的实现策略
3、以目 标语 读者为导向的 广告 翻译策略研究
4、盐城旅游文本中特色词汇的翻译问题
5、从接受美学视角探究文学作品中模糊语言翻译
6、法律文献中专业术语英译的探讨
7、扬州旅游文本里 文化 因素的翻译
8、网络辅助下英语缩略语的翻译策略研究
9、有道词典在翻译中的应用
10、 英语 散文 120篇汉译项目 报告
11、徐州景点 导游词 翻译中文化负载词的处理
12、徐州特产食品 说明书 汉英翻译研究
13、从文本功能的角度探究报刊时政新闻的汉译
14、英语长句的英译汉翻译策略实证研究---以<基于语料库的英语教学>为例
15、《物华名胜》中复合式翻译 方法 的运用
16、《苏斯 儿童 绘本汉译过程中儿童语言的处理》
17、目的论指导下企业介绍的英译研究
18、新闻发布会口译项目报告
19、目的论视角下看中国高校宣传片的字幕翻译策略
20、《杨澜访谈录》同声传译项目报告
21、VOA经济报道口译过程中顺句驱动法运用的实践报告
22、预测在英语 财经 新闻口译活动中运用的实践报告
23、中国饮食文化词的口译技巧—《舌尖上的中国》口译实践报告
24、影响英汉交替传译中笔记有效信息筛选障碍的项目报告——以VOA时事新闻口译实践为例
25、视译停顿形成因素及解决方法报告
26、外事口译中译者主体性的把握
27、学生译员汉英交传训练中停顿现象研究
28、商务合同英汉互译技巧
29、英文品牌汉译
30、知识对于翻译的重要性
31、中英文化差异及其对英汉互译的消极影响
32、英语广告中修辞手法的应用及其翻译
33、<<红楼梦>>金陵判词两种译文的比较及评析
34、从红楼梦诗词翻译看翻译中的文化补偿
35、关于李后主“虞美人”的3种英译本的鉴赏
36、跨文化交际与商标翻译
37、中式菜肴的命名与翻译
38、浅谈英语电影片名的翻译
39、英文电影片名的翻译策略
40、英文化妆品广告之美学翻译
41、数字在中西文化中的内涵差异及数字习语翻译初探
42、浅析原语文本在目标语文本中文体的适应性
43、英语习用语翻译中的等效性研究
44、论语境在英汉翻译中的作用
45、浅析英语动画片翻译的基本原则
46、中英服饰广告的翻译
47、论英汉翻译中语篇连贯的重要性
48、论译者的风格与译风
49、经济英语中的隐喻及其翻译
50、从翻译的美学角度浅析旅游资料的中英译
51、翻译中的文化因素
52、影视字幕翻译的原则
53、影响长句翻译的因素
54、例析英译汉中形象语言的处理
英语专业 毕业 论文翻译方向题目
1、 图里规范理论视角下的《四洲志》翻译研究
2、 翻译伦理视域下杨曙辉和杨韵琴《喻世明言》英译本研究
3、 《围城》英译研究
4、 余华小说《兄弟》中的文化专有词英译研究
5、 汉语形容词重叠式及其基式英译对比研究
6、 英汉交流虚构运动事件中路径和方式表征的对比研究
7、 汉语情态动词“能”字结构的翻译
8、 英汉运动事件表征方式对比研究
9、 顺应论视角下视觉动词的汉英互译研究
10、 语用顺应论视阈下汉语听觉动词的英译研究
11、 基于交往能力理论的翻译主体间性实证研究
12、 目的论视角下的电气英语翻译
13、 从符号视角看翻译中视觉非语言符号的信息处理
14、 功能对等理论视角下政府公文英译策略研究
15、 女性主义视角下影视字幕翻译策略研究
16、 操纵论视角下政治文本的汉英翻译研究
17、 从功能对等原则看中国上古神话中神话意象的翻译
18、 从德国功能派翻译理论视角分析领导人演讲口译
19、 文化翻译理论指导下《黄帝内经》英译策略研究
20、 四字格中医术语动词的英译对比研究
21、 《红楼梦》服饰文化翻译研究探析
22、 英文传记汉译实践报告
23、 生态翻译视角下：《尘埃落定》英译本的研究
24、 奈达的功能对等理论在Harry Potter and The Chamber of Secrets两个译本中的体现
25、 描写性翻译理论框架下《西敏寺》译文的风格分析
26、 目的论视角下张爱玲《金锁记》自译本的比较研究
27、 从功能理论视角看戴译本《边城》中文化负载词的翻译策略与方法
28、 英译诗歌韵律的定量对比分析
29、 功能对等理论视角下鲁迅小说《药》《孔乙己》《风波》两个英译本的对比研究
30、 奈达功能对等视角下对《瓦尔登湖》两个中译本的对比研究
31、 语义翻译/交际翻译视角下文化特色语的翻译
32、 从关联理论看《了不起的盖茨比》的两个汉译本
33、 目的论视角下的《三体》英译研究
34、 性别与翻译：从女性主义翻译观对比分析《飘》的两译本
35、 目的论指导下的《舌尖上的中国》菜名英译策略
36、 功能对等理论视角下的美国情景喜剧字幕翻译
37、 功能对等理论视阈下的商标翻译研究
翻译理论与实践论文题目
1、德国功能翻译理论的宏观性及其对教学的启示
2、翻译美学的文化考量
3、解构视角下翻译中的二元对立分析
4、传教士翻译与晚清文化社会现代性
5、跨文化传播视域下的翻译功能研究
6、英语专业本科翻译教学主体交往体系建构研究
7、许渊冲唐诗英译研究
8、论英汉翻译写作学的建构
9、 文章 学视野下的林译研究
10、口译研究的生态学途径
11、郭建中翻译思想与实践研究
12、跨文化语用学视角下的外宣翻译策略研究
13、文学文本中的视觉翻译
14、外宣翻译研究体系建构探索
15、异化翻译思想探究
16、翻译的修辞学研究
17、新月派文学观念研究
18、文章学视野下的林纾翻译研究
19、翻译批评原则的诠释学研究
20、蒯因的翻译不确定性及其对英汉互译的启示
21、近代中国 留学 生 教育 翻泽研究(1895~1937)
22、叙事学视域下的外宣翻译研究
23、修辞劝说视角下的外宣翻译研究
24、中国传统翻译理论观照下的林少华文学翻译研究
25、易学“象”视角下的译学研究
26、对比语言学元语言系统的演变研究
27、俄语本科翻译教材研究
28、情境翻译与翻译情境
29、西班牙语委婉语的多元翻译
30、从《哥儿》林译本的 句子 结构调整看奈达功能对等翻译理论
31、功能对等理论与信达雅翻译论的比较研究
32、《翻译理论与实践》(第二章)翻译报告
33、从中国文化语境视角出发解读西方女性主义翻译
34、证券翻译理论与实践
35、叶维廉汉诗英译研究
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文化自信时代我国翻译话语重构的意义和对策论文
在个人成长的多个环节中，大家总免不了要接触或使用论文吧，借助论文可以有效训练我们运用理论和技能解决实际问题的的能力。那要怎么写好论文呢？以下是我为大家收集的文化自信时代我国翻译话语重构的意义和对策论文，仅供参考，欢迎大家阅读。
摘 要：
全球化时代需要翻译通过能动性干预助推本国文化向世界文化舞台中心迈进，拥有翻译话语者在文化传播过程中更具主导性。本文从翻译话语概念和中国翻译话语特点出发，讨论了文化自信理念下中国翻译话语重构的意义，并提出中国翻译话语重构策略，即：增强中国翻译理论自信，增强中国译者的主体性意识，树立文化自信做好文化典籍外译研究，助推中国文化走出去，讲好中国故事。
关键词 :
文化自信；中国翻译话语；重构策略；
引言：
随着全球化时代的到来，多元多样的文化在世界文化大舞台上各放异彩。中国璀璨的文化若想迈进舞台中心，必经翻译架起之长桥，因为“翻译的一个重要作用就在于对全球化时代的不同文化（cultures）进行重新定位（relocation）”。（王宁，2013:5）在定位过程中，翻译通过能动性的干预助推本国文化进一步走向世界，即拥有翻译话语者在文化传播过程中更具有主导性。然而，多数翻译理论和术语均来自西方学界，中国翻译话语却近乎“失声”，“西强我弱”的局面导致中国文化在世界上被误读、曲解的情况时有发生，这与中国文化走出去和讲好中国故事的初衷相悖。
事实上，中国传统文化滋养的传统译论、国内翻译名家的真知灼见不胜枚举，虽然近百年来为西方翻译理论所冲击，但鉴于中西语言的极大差异，对中国文化外译具有较之西方理论更强的指导作用。本文拟从中国翻译理论、中国译者的自我主体性意识和做好文化典籍外译研究等方面探讨中国翻译话语的重构策略，助推中国文化走出去，从而建立中国文化大国的形象。
一、中国话语与中国翻译话语
“话语”的概念最早由语言学家索绪尔提出，即人类语言现象中的“言语”维度。随后，不同领域的学者对其意义进行多视角解读，其概念也得到延伸。米歇尔·福柯便是其中一员，其话语观从社会学维度探讨了话语的权力属性：话语是人们必争的权力。“张佩瑶（Cheung,2009:223）曾认为，翻译话语是指‘作者表达的任何有关翻译的观念、想法和理论化的文本（包括译作），具体涉及翻译操作模式、动因研究、原则与方法、翻译的哲理、知识论、本体论和阐释学，同时它强调权力与知识之间不可分割的关系’”。（耿强，2020:7）由此可见，话语和翻译话语都有权力属性。
中国翻译话语涵盖翻译话语应有之意，但也有别于西方翻译话语。中国翻译话语基于中国翻译实践，立足于中国文化，解决中国翻译问题，满足中国文化对外传播和正确建立中国国际形象需求；既有对中国传统译论的继承与发展，又有对西方译论的甄别与吸收，使其符合中国翻译实际，从而跻身世界翻译话语体系，让中国话语在国际舞台上更加掷地有声。
二、文化自信理念下中国翻译话语重构的意义
“文化自信是一个国家、一个民族、一个政党对自身文化价值的充分肯定，对自身文化生命力的坚定信念”。（云杉，2010:4-8）悠久灿烂的华夏文明曾是世界文明的代表，但鸦片战争的炮火遮住了中国文化的耀眼光芒，西学东渐使一些国人一味盲目尊崇西方思想，对本土文化妄自菲薄。加之囿于西方话语的主导地位和中国话语的边缘化地位，中国文化对外传播中频繁出现被误读、曲解的现象。若想摆脱“西方塑造中国”的谬论，必须建设文化自信，其核心就是根植于中国传统文化重构中国话语，翻译则起到桥梁作用。中国文化走出去，讲好中国故事，就需要有中国特色的翻译话语做支撑，增强中国在国际上的话语权。因此，重构中国翻译话语迫在眉睫。
三、中国翻译话语重构策略
重构中国翻译话语离不开对传统译论的继承，也不能少了翻译研究者理论的创新，更不能脱离开翻译实践和中国文化而孤立进行。
（一）增强中国翻译理论自信
中国翻译历史悠久，虽非翻译强国，但堪称翻译大国。众多学者在中国翻译实践中积淀了很多翻译思想、理论、标准、原则、方法等，这些传统译论可谓中国翻译话语重构的基石。从支谦佛经翻译的“文质”到严复的“信、达、雅”等，这些传统译论起源于中国传统的文章学，极具中国文化特色。同时，绝大多数传统译论来源于中国文化典籍翻译实践。中国翻译话语重构应重新阐释传统译论，形成历史与传统的相互观照。这样，中国翻译话语才会具有独特的个性、一定的自信和自豪，以及明确的文化身份。
潘文国（2016）认为，中国正处于“大变局”中，中国翻译学术研究必须实现转向，其中最根本的是要重新建立中国文化和学术的自信，从中国关注出发，变西方视角为东方视角、中国视角，打破西方翻译话语领跑的局面。因此，许多中国翻译研究者在整理国故、筛选和借鉴西方翻译理论的同时，也注重理论创新，涌现了一批原创性的翻译理论话语，如“谢天振的译介学、胡庚申的生态翻译学、黄忠廉的变译论、周领顺的译者行为批评、傅敬民的应用翻译学、陈东成的大易翻译学、任东升的国家翻译学”。（耿强，2020:8-9)
“理论从本质上来说就是话语权。”（潘文国，2012:5-11）“中国翻译理论唯有跻身世界翻译话语体系之林，方能为世界打开一扇了解中国文化之窗，也才能为中国打开一扇通往世界的门。”（姜燕，2015:116)
（二）增强中国译者的主体性意识
福柯的话语权力属性说明世界对中国文化和价值观念等的认同和接受绝不是自发的，而是通过主动译介让世界了解中国。这期间中国文化的'保留与价值观念的传播取决于中国在国际上的话语权，也与译者的主体性意识密切相关。
首先，中国译者应明确他们是中国文化外译的主体译者。汉学家在译介中国文化中发挥了重要作用，但能够完全浸润在中国历史和文化中并客观传播中国文化的汉学家少之又少。因此，中国译者必须有担负中国文化与世界文化交流融合重任的主体性意识。
其次，中国译者在翻译过程中应增强主体性意识。让世界了解中国的悠久历史、灿烂文化、飞速发展，都离不开中国译者对所译介材料的精心筛选。选材既要彰显中国文化特色，又要与译者的文化取向、审美情趣等相契合，选材过程中的主体性意识能让选材和译者最相适切。
译者的翻译立足点和视角决定中国文化走出去的翻译目标的达成度，也充分体现了译者主体性意识的重要性。东西方语言和文化的巨大差异导致译文完全保留原文本中中国文化是不可能的。主动向世界展现中国文化的立足点就要求译者在翻译过程中要改变一百年来的西方视角为东方视角、中国视角，不再迎合西方读者或以译语读者接受为翻译的终极目标，而是采取不同的策略在译文中凸显中国优秀文化，适度扬弃糟粕文化，让世界重新正确认识中国。
在翻译实践中，中国译者的主体性意识增强其实也是逐步重构中国翻译话语的过程。语言必然刻有本民族历史及文化的烙印，同时也带有表达情感、观点和态度的自我表现的印记。译者在翻译这一语言活动中，自然或有意识地在译语中留下或彰显译者文化身份及本土民族语言的独特印记，从而奠定了译本在异质文化中的文化地位，增强了翻译文化的话语权，提升了国家的文化沟通与传播能力。
（三）增强文化自信做好文化典籍外译研究
中国是一个文化大国，中国人对自己的灿烂文化首先要有一种文化自觉和文化自信，在中国文化传播过程中既不夜郎自大，也不妄自菲薄，以实现东西方文化平等对话为目标，讲好中国故事，传播好中国声音。
“走出去”的中国文化必须是中国文化中最本质、最优秀、最精华的部分。而文化典籍是中国五千年历史的文化积淀，是中国传统文化的优秀内核，体现了传统文化的价值观。因此，做好中国文化典籍外译研究是讲好中国故事的重要内容，同时也是重构中国翻译话语的一个有效路径。中国文化典籍中众多的传统思想核心词、传统文论核心词、历史文化关键词均是中国传统文化的精髓，带有中国历史和文化独有的特质。这些词语的首译和定译是中国文化在世界的传播和认同的过程，也是话语权争夺的过程。同时，中国文化典籍外译研究为重构中国翻译话语提供了实践基础，“真正适合中国翻译需求的翻译理论只能建立在中国自身的翻译实践和文化传统之上。”（潘文国，2016:10)
四、结语
全球化时代需要话语权来构建一国在国际上的地位和形象，翻译话语是为之架起的一座桥梁。树立文化自信，重构有中国特色的翻译话语，使中国翻译话语跻身世界翻译话语体系之林，与西方翻译话语对话，让中国话语在国际舞台上更加掷地有声，助推中国文化走出去，让世界正确了解和认识中国，树立良好大国形象。
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