为什么写综述从一篇文献开始，看几篇相关文献整理出大致思路，找出一个切入点就开始实验。在做实验的过程中还要看文献，针对不同问题有选择性的看。之后实验完成，整理成文章发表的时候，为了写前言部分而看一些文献。开题 - 实验 - 发表，每个步骤都要看文献，这是我的科研过程。但这些步骤里看文献是不全面的，从解决一个问题开始，到解决一个问题结束，涉及到的都是具体的文献。如果要对整个课题方向全面把握，写一篇综述是十分有必要的。而且，在做过较长时间的相关研究后，写综述文章有以下几个好处：大的方面，能够提高对整个课题方向的把握能力。通过详细的、全面的文献检索和阅读，可以对这个课题方向的发展脉络、研究进展和最新成果会有一个整体的把握和了解。其次，是对自己工作的总结升华。经过多年的相关研究，自己心中必定有不少思考和疑问，此时的大量阅读对自己的固有知识是一个归纳升华的过程。写完应该有顿悟之感。再次，对以后的实验研究具有重要的指导作用。写完综述后，通过对整个课题方向的了解，知道了哪些问题已经解决、哪些地方还存在问题、哪些问题是热点、哪些是难啃的骨头，是制约课题发展的关键所在。这样设计以后的实验时就能有的放矢。小的方面，综述也是一篇文章呢。现在国内评估要看个人成果，综述也是一种发文章的方法。另一个方面，能够提高自己在同行中的地位。一般来讲，综述文章的引用次数相对研究文章高，因此也就扩大了自己在同行中的知名度。准备工作之文献检索在开始写综述之前，很重要的一个准备工作是文献检索。虽然经过 "开题 - 实验 - 发表" 三个阶段的阅读，可能存储有足够的知识点，这对你的实验有用，这还不够一个综述文章。综述文章要全面，要综合概况所评述的问题，因此，详尽的文献检索是十分有必要的。这里说的全面不是说把几十年的文章全部下载下来读一遍，这样工作量太大了，这是其一；其二，早期的文章可能已经被总结过了。因此，找几篇综述文章看看就可以了。此处的全面是指多换几个关键词检索和多换几个数据库检索。先说关键词，每个作者倾向的关键词不同，而且新兴领域还没有约定俗成的术语时，更需要多换几个关键词了。再说数据库，因为每个数据库收录的期刊都是不全面的，这里重要的检索工具必不可少。例如 Scopus、Pubmed、Web of Science 和 google Scholar，会收录比较全面的信息，但会比专门数据库晚（晚多长时间不清楚，Pubmed 会晚几个月，Scopus 更新快些）。还有两个小技巧来获得相关文献。一是所读文章中引用的文献，这个好理解，文后的参考文献就是。另一个是看哪篇文章引用了所读文章，这也是相关文献。像 Google Scholar 有一个引用次数，点开里面就可以看到哪篇文章引用了此篇文章。通过以上几个方法，才能找全相关的文献。准备工作之大量阅读找全文献后，下一步就开始读了。首先，没必要全部通读，这样耗时太长，工作量太大。但是，近两年的文章要通读。两年，对比较热的领域来说是一个合理的综述文章的时间点。这两年的文章要通读，重点读，也是综述的重点所在。不通读不足以知晓解决了什么问题、如何解决问题；不通读就写综述有点不负责任。两年前的文章没必要通读，因为，可以从近两年的文章中的前言部分读到对这些文章的评述，也可以从综述文章中获得相关信息。这些文章着重读摘要就可以了，还有就是对某一个问题针对性阅读。文献的阅读方法阅读上百篇文献可不是一件容易的事，如果仅仅是浏览一遍，就只能留下一个大概印象，过一段时间或者说随着阅读文献的增多，这个模糊的印象也失去了。对知识点的记忆是写作和创作的基础，记不住怎么组织语言，即使是查，也不知道从几百篇文献上千页中哪里去查。我的导师教导我读书要辩证去读，在思考中记忆，不要在书上涂画。不否认这种方法适合聪明的大脑。我资质愚钝，试行几年之后，脑子里只有墨盒的味道，却没有文字，结果连我赖以凭借考上大学和研究生的写写划划也丢失了。对于我，更适合“好记性不如烂笔头”，这也适合我的德国同事们。他们把文献用 A4 纸打印出来，在重要的语句上用高亮笔划出。读完之后抄录到 A5 纸上，订到原来的文献上，作为精选。这个摘录是对你真正有用的知识点，其他大部分文章都是铺垫，或者是已经在你记忆中了。“高亮笔划出 + 读书笔记”能够有效的帮助记忆。这样读书虽然刚开始很慢，随着十几二十篇文献做下来，你的积累多了，后面的摘录就越来越少了。而且，你的阅读速度也越来越快了。因为人都是基于旧有的知识去领悟新知识。刚开始的时候，你的知识储备少，一篇文章的知识点难以用自己的语言解释，或者大脑中不能浮出有效的实例去解释，所以接收起来非常困难。而随着积累的增加，理解越来越容易，也理解越来越充分，速度也越来越快。阅读速度的增加一定不是线性的，而是指数型的，这就是知识的马太效应。你的读书笔记需要分类，你的知识需要管理。这与其他知识的管理一样，需要一套完整的系统。这得需要另辟一篇博文讨论，此处不再展开讨论。仅对文献的管理进行说明。文献的管理在下载了上百篇文献之后，文献的管路就成了一个问题。就像十个八个人的小公司，老板一个人可以兼职财务、人事、市场等多重角色，而上百上千人的大公司，其中任何一个角色，都足以让你忙的焦头烂额。这个时候，专业人士能够轻松处理让你手忙脚乱的杂事。对于文献管理，Endnote 就是这样一个专业人士，能够有效地把庞大的文献有效地组织起来，给你提供全面的信息，作者、期刊、年份、题目、卷期页码，以及摘要等信息。有些期刊在投稿时要求提供 DOI，Endnote 也能做到。Endnote 在文章编排中的作用是巨大的，是综述写作、论文写作、书籍写作的必备（其他文献管理工具也不错，ReferenceManager，Biblioscape，NoteExpress 等）。它的使用方法见王超的《ENDNOTE 使用方法，常用！》。虽然电子版很方便，我还是倾向于阅读用纸版。一是看电脑屏幕时间长了，眼睛疼，大脑容易木化，陷于僵滞的状态；二是多动手，有助于记忆。在电脑屏幕上看时，仅仅使用一根手指头：是指双击打开或关闭和滚动滑轮翻页。除了食指，整个身体的其他部分都一动不动。眼睛慢慢变成像死鱼眼一样，拉直了视线，呈现出发呆的神态来。这种阅读方式不适合长时间大量阅读，偶尔查阅还行。我喜欢把文献打印出来，统一编号（跟 Endnote 一致，Endnote 中的 Label 可以添加编号）后打孔，放入活页文件夹。活页夹和打孔器见图片。这里也提一下活页文件夹。这种简单、灵活、有效的文件管理方式，我竟然在我整个求学过程中闻所未闻，未见任何同学使用过。大家都是打印出来，订书机一订就摞在桌头上。文件多了经常滑落下来洒一地。更难受的是管理，你不能把它码整齐，也不能随手取出想要的文献。直到在歌德学院学德语才第一次接触文件夹。当时报名时，一人发一个活页文件夹，教室里有打孔器。老师发下的材料自己打孔后放入。而且还可以用隔页分类存档不同内容的资料。方方正正的文件夹，往桌子上一放就能站住，文件再多也能排放整齐。在实验室里，导师应该给每个研究生配发活页夹供学生使用，方便学生。而且学生毕业后，可以把文件夹和打印的文件同时收回，留给后续的学生使用。从而，既利于科研又避免浪费。文章的架构文献的阅读是一个从“无可非议”、“似是而非”、“大是大非”到“无事生非”的过程。刚开始阅读，由于自己的知识有限，前几篇文章提出的方法和结果对自己都是全新的，自己的知识储备不足以评判其中的观点。因而，刚开始阅读时会对文章中的所有内容全盘接受，很难产生质疑的观点出来，对看的任何内容都是“无可非议”。等看过十篇八篇的文献之后，所了解的方法和观点较多了，有些可能观点相左，这是怀疑会跳出来，对所阅读的论点进行挑剔，却又不能凭借一两篇文章而确定某种方法完全胜过另一种方法。每种方法都各有千秋，从而达到“似是而非”的境界。只有看过足够量的文章之后，才能够做出完整的评价，所获得的优劣比较结果也有充足的论据。这时候就达到了一种“大是大非”的境界。综述文章，一部分是综合别人的工作，另一部分，还在于论述自己的观点。大是大非也还只是综合的一步，应该更进一步，通过对“大是大非”的把握，要能发现新的问题、新的优点或者缺点、提出改进方法，以及对未来工作和发展前景的建议和设想，更有甚者，跳出对原有实验细枝末节的讨论，从一个更高的层面，从原理上、方法论上和系统性上加以评价。这当然很难，故而，多数综述文章综而不述，让读者看完之后，对过去有些了解，对未来仍是茫然。当然，论述的越多，耗费的时间和精力越大。鲜明的例子是，赵立平历时两年增删二十多次才写出为未来 5－10 年的发展方向提出自己独到的见解的文章，方知“述”之不易。如果阅读完成之后，能够达到“大是大非”的经济，即可提笔写作了。写作，要先搭框架，对所要综述的内容分门别类，不断细分。分的越细越好，至少要三级，三级标题下还可能有四级五级标题。这样做有以下好处：@框定要综述的问题，缩小范围。不要让自己的写作“随兴所至”而偏离了方向，失了重点。也容易分清主次，而不是眉毛胡子一把抓。这不是写书，没有太多的篇幅去展宽全面的讨论，所以要限定自己综述的范围。@写作压力小。想到写一篇文章时，会联想到“写下至少五千文字和阅读一百篇文献”，一霎那压力倍增，而且不知道从何处入手。而细分之后，所要想的仅仅是对某个方法的某个参数进行讨论，只需一个小段落的文字。这样简单的多，可以立即完成，没有太大压力。@有条不紊。所有要讨论的问题列在那里，就像一个 TO-DO LIST，完成一项划去一项，一件一件来，有条不紊，进度非常直观。写作的小细节文章细分成一个一个小节之后，就可以动手完成每个小段落了。在这里有几个小技巧，非常有效。@注重写作的连贯性：写作最好是一气呵成，不要在写 A 问题时去思考 B 的问题。这里有两层意思，写作 A 问题时发现了对 B 问题有用的材料；另一层意思是，写作 A 问题时发现了 B 问题存在的错误、疏漏或者其他。这个时候，不要停下来，只需要用便签备注一下（我习惯使用 ONENOTE 做备注还收集材料），备注完之后，继续对 A 问题的写作，直到完成。再回过头来，整理 B 问题。@二次文献：为了论证一个结论，可以需要引用文章主题之外的文献，或者需要从文献引用的文献里去找论据，是谓二次文献。对文献中引用他人的数据有必要去查证，避免错引文献和错引数据。@图片处理：一是图片的版权，这个不用担心。你投到期刊，期刊的编辑会去搞定；二是图片的质量。从其他文献中摘取图片时，不要使用截屏的方法，这样图片的分辨率不够。应该用 PHOTOSHOP 打开 PDF 文件，对所需的图片进行裁剪，再另存为 TIFF/JPEG 格式。在 PPT 中绘制的图，千万不要用 PPT 的“图片另存为”功能，那个分离度太弱了。应该讲 PPT 另存为 PDF，然后用 PHOTOSHOP 处理。@参考文献的修改。前期写作的时候，必须使用 ENDNOTE 对插入 WORD 中的文献进行索引。如果文章已经成型，ENDNOTE 已经导出参考文献了，经过其他作者修改后，要增删参考文献。增删一个文献，其他文献的索引号都要变更。这个时候容易出错。我使用以下方法：对每个要改动的文献索引后加“*”标注；“*”后加上新的参考文献索引号；使用查找功能确认每个需要改动的文献都与“*”相连（应该出现两次，比如增加一个参考文献 121，122 应该有两个，121*122，122*123，即是 121 变为 122，122 变为 123）；删除“*”和前面的索引号。改变完成。@英语句子，短句比长句好。被理解最重要，短句子容易理解，定语从句太多，能把人给绕晕了。文章的亮点一个篇文章，要有一些“干货”才能被更多地引用。因此在写作之前，看看你所下载的文章的被引用次数。哪个文章被引用次数最高？为什么？从个人引用文章的习惯看来，以下文章会被引用：@第一篇文章：本领域的开山之作，不引用没天理；@里程碑式文章：文章达到一个之最，最高、最大、最快等，或者突出的进展，是要引用的；@讨论的是核心问题。除此之外，我还喜欢引用有总结性结论的句子，比如某个技术的优点是。。。；和量化的句子，比如目前 70% 的文章采用了某方法。如果你的综述里能提供这些内容，必定会增加他引次数。前面三个干货，是研究型文章干的事，后面这两个也不容易。第一个要你自己概况总结，第二个要统计大量的数据。备注：这里把自己的一点经验拿出来与大家讨论，希望有经验的朋友多加指正，以冀对初次写综述的科研人员做个参考。
文献综述是对论文选题研究现状的梳理，但并不仅仅是把文献进行简单的堆砌与罗列，而是需要在总结梳理别人研究的同时，对已有的研究做出评价，也就是说有述有评，这也是为什么文献综述也叫做文献述评的原因。
回答 您好鸭！很高兴能认识你并能为您解决问题，因为找资料和分析答案需要一定时间的请您耐心等待好吗，有答案我会第一时间给您回复的呢，希望您理解，请您稍等一会儿 文献综述是指作者在确定论文选题时，结合其他文献的观点、研究及发展的方向，最后提出自己独到的见解，还要根据自己对参考文献的认识，进行深入的、系统的、全面的论述和相应的评价。文献综述的字数也需要控制在合理的范围 第一，必须是最新几年的，第二，最具有代表性的。文献综述引用不需要太多，根据各学院要求与自己的论文要求所定，一般为13篇左右。给大家看一下大概框架。 结尾部分也是总结部分，它与研究性论文的小结有些类似，将全文主题进行扼要总结，提出自己的见解并对进一步的发展方向做出预测。 希望我的回答对您有所帮助，感谢您，祝您生活愉快！同时觉得回复很满意的话可以给个赞，谢谢亲！ 提问 一般结尾是多少个字 回答 结尾尽量控制在150个字左右差不多了呢 提问 一般这种参考文献在哪里找啊？ 回答 知乎，还有各大回答的平台，浏览器，百度都可以找到 呢 提问 好的 拜拜 更多10条
汉语言文学专业本科教育改革的可行之路 根据人才培养新规格,调整教学计划依据当代人才培养新规格及当前和未来的就业形势,我们必须对本科教学计划的内容作实质性的调整一是真正实施学分管理体制,强化学分、学位理念,淡化修业年限和学历意识允许学生只要拿到了足够的学分就可以提前毕业或推迟毕业,这样有利于学生根据自身条件和家庭情况做出适当的选择,既鼓励那些特别优秀的学生及早成才,同时又使那些学习勤奋刻苦但家境贫寒的学生在弹性机制下获得边学习边工作的机会,缓解一部分经济压力 尽管这会增加教学管理工作和学生管理工作的成本,但这却是新的人才培养规格所要求的二是增设创新学分,鼓励学生在校期间进行文学艺术创作和发表论文这样可以促使那些拔尖人才脱颖而出三是加重对传统文化和外语、计算机等课程所占学分的比重,这对塑造健康人格和培养社会适应能力将起到非常重要的作用四是在注重专业基础学习的同时,突现实践性强的教学环节像读书报告、学年论文、毕业论文、专业调查等都应该纳入正常的考核范围,应该与期末考试那种"终结式考核"方式结合起来,并予以同等对待五是根据当代就业新形势,提前开展毕业论文的准备工作,我们认为在大三下学期就可以进行选题、资料积累和导师选择工作了这样一来,那种毕业论文质量不高的现象可望有所改善 按照时代提出的新要求,完善课程设置根据新时代对汉语言文学专业人才的知识和能力要求,我们必须更新教学内容,完善课程设置首先,我们应改革课程体系现有的汉语言文学专业课程,通常由公修课、专业课(含基础课、限选课和任选课)和实践课三个部分构成粗粗一看,这种课程设置在大的框架方面并无任何不妥,但是其中却蕴涵着重专业、轻素质,厚基础、轻应用的弊端因此,我们建议将课程的板块构成改为综合公修课程(如大学英语、体育、两课等)、文理基础课程(如自然科学简史、当代科技概观、中国古代经典著作精读等)、专业课程(含基础课、限选课、任选课)、毕业实践课程(主要为论文写作和专业实习)等四部分组合;建议学分比例设置为3∶5∶5∶其次,我们要完善选修课程设置选修课是专业课程中最能体现教育改革观念和学科发展趋势的课程部分,限选课一般说来可动的空间不大,但任选课却有很大的可塑性,因此我们应该严把课程设置和开设门坎,既不因人设课,也不因人撤课,采取按课群设置,适时增加应用型课程分量的举措,并保持课群的相对稳定性 最后,我们要给新学科预留课程空间对于那些与专业相关的新学科,我们应在每次修订教学计划时,保留2~3门新开选修课程,使诸如"文艺生态学"、"网络文学"、"影像文化"、"广告语言学"等一些课程有迅速进入课堂的机会与此同时,我们还要认真研究中学语文和大学课程之间的衔接,研究本专业各课群之间的互补与衔接,避免课程简单重复更为重要的是,我们必须将"双语课程"纳入正常教学体系之中,以增强学生的外语能力,适应本专业对外交流的需要 适应当代大学生的需要,改进教育教学方法依据现代教育理念,改进教学方法也是本专业教育改革的题中应有之义一要变过去那种满堂灌的教学方式为教与学双向互动的方式在教学过程中,我们必须改变过去那种灌输式的教学方式,采取讲授、引导、讨论相结合的教学方法,积极发挥教师作为教学主体,学生作为学习主体的双向互动功能,在教学过程中引导学生发现问题、分析问题、讨论问题,直至最后解决问题有些比较容易的章节甚至可以组织学生自主教学,以增加他们学习的兴趣,培养他们的表达能力和应变能力二要适当地运用多媒体教学,进行现代化教学改革教师在教学过程中,应根据教学内容适时适度地采用多媒体教学,将知识性、形象性、趣味性和信息的密集性融为一体 三要以情景教学的方法进行教学在有些课程的教学中,我们还可以就语言和文学中的热点问题,设置一定的情景,引导他们参与讨论、分析和评价,使他们的心理、思维、想象、表达、普通话等综合素质和能力都能在这一过程中得到较大的提高 依据系统、科学的原则,确立考核评估新标准一要改善考核方式如前所述,传统教育采取的期末考试定终身的"终结式"考核评估方式,已经严重滞后于教育理念的变革,它虽然操作起来简便易行,但却因其固有的僵化模式,并不能真正检测出学生的实际水平,而且容易导致学生在考试时产生投机的心理,平时不认真学习,单靠考前临时突击达到考试过关的目的我们应采用"质量标准多样化"的21世纪中国高等教育质量评价标准,重视对"过程"的全面考察,将平时成绩、期末成绩、创新成绩结合起来进行综合评价,提高平时成绩的比重,并制定切实可行的标准便于教师评分时进行科学、简便的操作,避免印象分、人情分等不良现象的出现建议将平时分提高到50%,其中25%为书面作业分,25%为问答、讨论、辩论分,同时对期末考试的内容严把质量关,加大对知识运用题目的考核力度二要改善学分结构,通过学分结构体现人才评价新理念建议将考核学分内容设置为必修课学分、选修课学分、活动课学分、专业实习课学分四大块,必修课和必选课的学分设定为一个基数如总学分为100分,必修课、必选课的学分设定为60分,实习成绩设定为10分,85分为及格分,选修课一门1学分,特长课一门2学分那么,剩下的15个以上的学分,可供学生自由选择,既可以通过选修课获得,也可以通过发表文学作品、发表科研论文获得,还可以通过参加各种活动以荣誉奖励的方式获得这种考评方式将改善目前人才评价不合理的方式,使学生的创造性和综合能力获得充分肯定 立足教育新理念,改革教师管理制度实施本科教育改革在很大程度上还要依赖教育教学主体---教师来完成,因此我们必须改革教师管理制度一要改变过去那种重科研、轻教学的传统做法,对教学一线的任课教师,实行教学、科研并重的办法,使其各占年度工作考核成绩的50%,刺激教师提高教学科研水平二要改变过去那种只看重学历,轻视能力的做法,将学历和能力并重,同时更看重能力,使真正有能力的人活出滋味三要对任课教师制定新的考评办法,对教师的业绩考核,可以采取听取所在班级学生、同专业教师、教学专家意见的方法,结合科研成果,将考核结果纳入教师的评优、评先、工资晋升、职称评聘等项目中去四要关心教师的继续教育问题,对各种职称段,各种年龄段的教师都要纳入继续教育计划,着重加强专业知识更新和教育理念转化方面的培训,使之成为业务素质高,又了解学生思想实际和心理发展动态的专家 来自:标准论文网,原文:
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
维基百科找到的Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes There are a number of subdisciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain become more and more widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn Areas of studyPsycholinguistics is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science, and There are several subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components that make up human Linguistic-related areas:Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation) Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form Semantics deals with the meaning of words and Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of Psychology-related areas:The study of word recognition and reading examines the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn and process language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on the development of children) [edit] TheoriesTheories about how language works in the human mind attempt to account for, among other things, how we associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how we use syntax—that is, how we manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words we call "" The first of these items—associating sound with meaning—is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have at least some things in common (See animal communication) Syntax, on the other hand, is controversial, and is the focus of the discussion that There are essentially two schools of thought as to how we manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a "universal " This view holds that the human ability for syntax is "hard-wired" in the This view claims, for example, that complex syntactic features such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most intelligent and social non- (Recursion, for example, includes the use of relative pronouns to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence—"The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my ") The innate view claims that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the grammatical rules that produce Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among possible human grammars, settling, logically, on the language(s) spoken or signed in their own community of Such syntax is, according to the second point of view, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal The first view was prevalent until about 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf C As well, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by BF Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is behavior shaped by conditioned The second point of view (the "innate" one) can fairly be said to have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 in the pages of the journal L[1] That review started what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in The field of psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and The pro view still holds that the human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal That ability might have resulted from a favorable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, BUT precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary—or no—syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristics of which might have later been useful for In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be said to be "pre-adapted" for syntax (see also exaptation) Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research—or, at least, The con view still holds that language—including syntax—is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands of years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands of years of human From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for Language—syntax and all—is a cultural This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms, nor does it prove that such forms couldn't exist or couldn't be Contemporary theorists, besides Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff and Steven P[edit] MethodologiesMuch methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments incorporating a lexical decision In these types of studies, subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task ( make a judgment, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud) Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word [2]Such tasks might include, for example, asking the subject to convert nouns into verbs; , "book" suggests "to write," "water" suggests "to drink," and so Another experiment might present an active sentence such as "Bob threw the ball to Bill" and a passive equivalent, "The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob" and then ask the question, "Who threw the ball?" We might then conclude (as is the case) that active sentences are processed more easily (faster) than passive More interestingly, we might also find out (as is the case) that some people are unable to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards understanding certain types of language deficits (generally grouped under the broad term, aphasia)[3]Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy) Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in Computational modeling - the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues[4] - is another It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis One example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech [5]More recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language Beginning with Rayner (1978)[6] the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was Tanenhaus et ,[7] have performed a number of visual-world eye-tracking studies to study the cognitive processes related to spoken Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic [edit] Issues and areas of researchPsycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic [8][2]Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily) Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned [9] A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn [10]The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes
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