A Contrastive Study between English and Chinese Idioms（题目：二号，黑体，加粗，居中,除了英语小词外，其他单词首字母都要大写；另外：除了题目外，论文中所有英文的字体均采用“Times New Roman”）（学院、专业、学号、作者姓名、指导教师姓名（小四号宋体字，加粗），依次排印在论文题目下，上空二行，居中）【Abstract】 This paper centers on the different expressions of …… （英文摘要：上空二行；题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用其他任何标点符号；采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗；单倍行距。）【Key Words】 idiom; comparison; English; Chinese （英文关键词：题目采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，加粗，两个单词的首字母要大写，置于粗体方括号【】内，顶格放置；随后的内容与前面的粗体方括号【】之间空一格，不用任何其他标点符号，采用五号“Times New Roman”字体，不加粗，除了专有名词外，其他单词的首字母不大写，各单词之间用分号“；”隔开，分号之后空一格；最后一个关键词之后不用任何标点符号；单倍行距。）1. Introduction (顶格，除了第一个单词及专有名词外，其他单词首字母都不要大写；标题最后不用任何标点符号，上空两行)In both English and Chinese, …. So, this essay is trying to focus on the differences between Chinese and English idoms in terms of their essential meaning, customary usage and typical expression (Chang Liang, 1993:44; Li Guangling, 1999). (段落第一行缩进4个英文字符；夹注的标注法：出现在夹注中的作者必须与文后的参考文献形成一一对应关系；注意一个或多个作者间的标点符号，时间、页码等的标注法；另外，汉语参考文献的作者要以拼音形式出现，不能出现汉语姓氏；夹注出现在标点符号之前)2. The similarities between English idioms and Chinese idioms In English, …. And it can be clearly seen in the below examples:(1) I don’t know。我不知道。 (2) I am not a poet. 我不是诗人。 (正文中的例子以（1），（2）…为序号排列，直至最后一个例子；而①, ②…则为脚注或尾注的上标序号)3. The differences between English idioms and Chinese idioms3.1 The characteristics of English idioms（正文章节序号编制：章的编号：1. ，2.， 3.，…；节的编号：1.1,1.2…，2.1,2.2…；小节的编号为：1.1.1, 1.1.2…。小节以下层次，采用希腊数字加括号为序，如（i），（ii）…；之后再采用字母加括号，如(a), (b),…;每章题目左顶格，小四号字，加粗；每节（及小节以下）题目左顶格，小四号字，不加粗但要斜体；所有章节的题目都单独一行，最后不加任何标点符号）….In conclusion, ….3.2 The characteristics of Chinese idioms….Feng (1998) found some problems as shown in the following examples (注意此句中夹注的另一种写法):(9) We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.(10) People take no thought of the value of time until they lose it.….3.2.1 The analysis of the differences between English and Chinese idioms… (i) ….….(ii) ….…. 4. Conclusion….Bibliography (References) （小四号，加粗，后面不加任何标点符号） Sanved, ed. The Oxford book of American literary anecdotes[C]. New York: OUP, 1981.常亮，“关于英语的偏离否定”[J] 。《外国语文》，1993，4：44。 冯树健，“否定之否定新说”[J] 。《英语辅导》，1998，6：11。 李光陵，“不完全否定浅析” [J] 。《大学英语》，2000，30：30。 （论文最后的参考文献中所有文献的排列顺序：尾注：按照编号顺序。夹注：英文文献----网络文献----汉语文献，各个文献的先后以作者的姓氏字母或拼音为序，不用单独加序号或编号；每个参考文献的第二行起必须缩进4个英文字符；1.5倍行距；另外，与文中的夹注一一对应；不同类型的参考文献写法请参照写作指南中附件2的内容）
英汉翻译过程包括理解和表达两个重要的阶段。只有在正确理解原文词义的基础上,才能正确地表达原文。下面是我为大家整理的，供大家参考。
论文导读：翻译是一种跨语言、跨文化的交际行为。语境与翻译有着密切的关系。本文就英汉翻译过程中的语境分析与翻译进行探讨。语境，语境分析与英汉翻译。
关键词：翻译，语境，语境分析
翻译是一种跨语言、跨文化的交际行为。语境与翻译有着密切的关系。
语境context，就是指语言文字一经使用后所处的言语环境。英国社会人类学家、功能学派创始人之一马林诺斯基Bronislaw Kaspar Malinowski，1884-1942最早提出语境的概念,并指出语境是决定语义的唯一因素，舍此别无意义可言。
英国语言学家、伦敦学派的创始人弗斯John Rupert Firth继承并发展了这一观点，认为意义就是语言成分在语境中的功能。弗斯把马林诺斯基的语言环境概念加以扩充套件，指出除了语言本身的上下文以外，除了在语言出现的环境中人们所从事的活动之外，整个社会环境、文化、信仰、参加者的身份和历史、参加者的关系等，都构成语言环境的一部分。
英汉翻译时，语言语境是首先要考虑的语境因素。本文就英汉翻译过程中的语境分析与翻译进行探讨。
1.词义语境
在我们英语学习当中一词多义的现象非常普遍，如果脱离了语句及语境就很难确定这些词的词义。在具体的句子中，经常发生对词语本意理解不透彻，造成翻译失误。这时，就需要跟据上下文选定多义词的具体意义，排除同形异义词的干扰，挖掘该词在特定的上下文中的真正意义。
context一词最早用来指某一特定词、前后的词句，即词、短语、语段的前后关系。左右邻词对词义的影响是最常见的一种现象，它决定词的意义及翻译选词。如英语中“head”一词有好几个词义:
From head tofoot从头到脚
A head ofstate国家元首
One hundredhead of sheep一百头羊
王海芸1979—，女，汉族，河南新乡人，讲师，主要研究方向：翻译理论与实践。
Use your head动动脑筋
Two headsare better than one两人智慧胜一人
从语用学角度来看，语用用意分两类:暗含的和明说的。前者指言下之意语用意义，后者指字面意义符号意义。语义核的“头”就是“head”的符号意义字面意义，但这一符号意义并不等于语用意义语境意义。如果翻译时不考虑该词与左右邻词的关联，即句子，所译出的句子就会生硬、呆板。只能说是形似，而不能达到神似的完美境界。
2.句子语境
在实际翻译中，译者须经常从句子语境来推出词语的含义。人人都知道like是“喜欢”的意思。请看下面的一组句子：
1He likes maths more thanphysics.
他喜欢数学甚于喜欢物理学。
2 Like charges repel, unlikecharges attract.
相同的电荷相斥，不同的电荷相吸.
3 In the sun beam passing through the window there are finegrains of dust shining like gold.
在射入窗内的阳光里，细微的尘埃像金子一般在闪闪发光。免费论文，语境。
4 Like knows like.
英雄识英雄。
这四个句子中的同一符号like由于它所处的语境不同，因而它的意义也各不一样。根据其所处的语境应分别译为: “喜欢”、““相同的”、“像”、“英雄”。可见，离开了具体的句子语境，死死记住like就是“喜欢”，“喜欢”即是like，是很难理解翻译上述各句的。
3语篇语境
在实际翻译中，有时从一个句子中很难确定一个词的确切含义，往往需要从整个段落或整篇文章中获取其含义。篇章段落通常是一个有机整体，语言连贯语句关联，实际上就是一个语境，翻译的时候必须在语境中理解把握全文。免费论文，语境。
Last week I went to thetheatre, I had a very good seat. The play was very interesting I didn’t enjoyit. A young man and a young woman were sitting behind me. They were talking loudly.上星期我去剧院看戏。我的座位很好。这台戏也很有趣。可我没有得到乐趣。一对青年男女坐我的后面，他们高声交谈。
上例是《新概念英语》第二册中的一个故事，内容与文字都非常简炼。但是，翻译时如果不著眼于整个篇章，不考虑作者的意向和语篇情境，则完全可以将“I didn’t enjoy it”。译成“我并不欣赏此剧”。但这样翻译就完全背离了原作的本意，因为作者并非不喜欢该剧，而是被身后的两个年轻人搅得无法去欣赏。
4. 情景语境
情景语境指说话、语言、言语事件的时间地点。免费论文，语境。世界上的一切社会活动都是在一定的时间和空间中进行的。语言这个社会活动也不例外，每一话语行为都是在特定的时间和空间进行的。
一个词的词义和话语意义常常不仅仅是由其语言因素来确定，而是由词汇和话语所出现的情景来确定的。在“we looked for a long time before we found a spring”.句子中。“spring”在不同的情景中就有不同的意思:在安装弹簧床时，指的是弹簧。在修表时，指的是发条。免费论文，语境。如果几位旅行者在沙漠中终于找到点水喝时说了这句话，指的则是泉水。其“spring”所指的意思与前两种情况又大不一样。
任何语言活动都不可能脱离具体的语言环境。语言活动发生的时间、地点，交际活动的主题内容，参与者的相互关系等情景语境因素决定话语的真正意义。例如:美国前总统里根Ronald Reagan获悉撒切尔夫人下野后，回忆两人间融洽关系时说了一句话:“It was clear to me that we were soul- mates when it came toreducing government and expanding economic opportunity ”.此句中，“soa1-mates”有“性情相投的人”、“挚友”;“情人”、“情侣”两个含义。里根在此表示对老朋友下野的慰藉，结合当时情景，毫无疑问，前者为本句意义，全句可译为:“显而易见，涉及到减少 *** 干预和扩大经济机会这一问题上，我俩是心有灵犀一点通的”。
5.文化语境
语言是文化的载体，文化是语言的土壤。翻译涉及两种文化的交流沟通和移植。文化语境指的是源语和译入语所依附的文化、历史、社会背景。也就是指某一言语社团特定的社会规范和习俗。免费论文，语境。由于各民族区域生态环境、社会政治、经济制度、历史背景、风俗习惯、价值观念及行为模式等的不同而形成了各自独特的文化特性，在跨文化的翻译中时常会遇到诸如误解原文、译文词汇空缺等情况。由于复杂的文化难以用翻译技巧加以弥补，处理此类翻译必须要对源语和译入语的文化有全面、透彻的认识和了解。将一种语言译成另一种语言，必须了解两种语言的文化语境。如红楼梦中：
原文：子系中山狼，得志便猖狂第五回。
译文：For hu *** andshe will have a mountain wolf. His object gained he ruthlessly beratesher。
此处语境在寓言中。“中山狼”出自明朝马中锡的《山狼传》讲的是中山上的一只狼中箭后，欲食救命恩人东郭先生的故事，它的语用隐含是：孙绍组恩将仇报，虐待相濡以沫的妻子。英国汉学家霍克斯Hawkes先生，借用了汉语拼音将“中山狼”译为“the Zhongshan wolf”。在无脚注的情况下，西方读者很可能不得要领，感到满腹疑惑：“Zhongshan”是狼的品种还是产地，这种狼有什么特别的吗?而我国翻译家杨宪益先生采用了增译手法，作了些变通，将“中山狼”译为“mountain wolf”。明示夫妻关系，突出“忘恩负义”的特别意义，基本上实现了原作的语用意图。如不十分了解中国的文化背景，其翻译的译文语义偏离了原文的背景是不正确的。因此译者在翻译中一定要考虑译文的文化语境，才能在跨文化交际中少犯错误或不犯错误。
再看下面容易误译的句子:
He has no mercury in him.他没有精神或毫无活力。
如果按照“mercury”最基本的意思，这句话就会译成“他体内没有水银”实际上，西方古代哲学家将“mercury”水银视为大地万物的元气，故“mercury”一词今仍可用来指活力或精神。免费论文，语境。只有正确了解了“mercury”这层意思之后，我们才会翻译出正确的句子来。
6.结语
综上所述，在英汉翻译的过程中对语境进行分析有着极其重要的作用，因为语境制约翻译，而翻译又依赖于语境。我们在英汉翻译的过程中要清楚语言中字句的组合是临时的，它们产生的意义具有相对临时性，在脱离语境的情况下是不确定的，是潜在的。因此，在翻译时，不能只是局限于对孤立的词语或句子本身来进行逐字逐句的翻译，而是应把它们放在具体的语言环境中来进行。所以翻译的过程中只有对语境进行分析，把握好特定的语言语境，对文章既做巨集观的掌握又做微观的分析，字斟句酌，反复推敲，翻译才能做到准确无误、优美得体。
参考文献：
[1]Firth, J. R .Papers in Linguistics [ C ]Oxford: Oxford University Press 1957.
[2]裴文现代英语语境学[[M}安徽大学出版社，2000.
[3]王建华语境层级与语义阐释[J]四川外语学院学报 1996.2
[4]曾绪语境分析与英汉翻译[J] 上海科技翻译 2004. 2
[5]杨宪益，戴乃迭.A Dream of Red Mansion [ M ].北京：外文出版社，1994.
[6]方祝根浅谈语境与翻译[J] 泰州职业技术学院学报 2002. 1
论文摘要：语言与文化有着密切的关系，任何语言都体现一定的文化特征，故文化因素对不同语言的翻译具有重要的影响。本文从中西文化的相似形和差异性，包括不同的生活方式、认知思维方式以及价值观等方面，对此问题进行深刻的分析和探讨，指出两种语言翻译中应注意的文化问题。
论文关键词：英汉翻译,文化因素,中西文化异同
1.引言
提高英汉翻译的水平涉及很多因素，但由于语言和文化的密切关系，文化因素在一定程度上制约语言的交流，文化差异对翻译产生重大影响。如果我们能正确处理其中涉及到的这些文化因素，对准确、标准地翻译将会起到很大的促进作用。
2.文化的概念
从广义上说，文化指人类社会历史实践过程中创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和，包括文学、艺术、宗教、哲学等社会科学以及各种自然科学的成果，集中反映了人类的精神文明和物质文明。[1]王鸽平，2001：15从狭义上讲，文化指社会的意识形态以及与之相适应的制度和组织结构，涵盖了生活方式、价值观念和思维方式等。
语言是人类进行交际的工具，由于地域、职业、性别、受教育程度、社会地位等的不同，人们所使用的语言也不相同。不同国家习俗各异，各自具有独特的文化特征，因而表现在语言上也有差异。[2]冯庆华，2002：122例如，在翻译汉语中的“四面楚歌”、“项庄舞剑”、“指鹿为马”、“鸿门宴”等成语和习语时，若不了解中国的历史文化，译出的文章就会令西方人士莫名其妙，不能确切理解。同样，在翻译以下习语："tocarrycoalstoNewCastle"运煤到纽卡索，指多此一举，不必要的事，"theTrojanhorse"特洛伊木马，比喻暗藏敌人或危险，"towerofirony"象牙塔，比喻世外桃源[3]张培基等，1991：P161-163时，如不能熟悉这些习语中具有的浓厚民族、地方色彩的文化知识，很难找到让读者准确理解的汉语表达方式。
中西文化有其共同点。同时，中西文化因其产生的条件的不同，又必然存在差异。可见，要想成为一个出色的翻译者，除精通相应的语言形式外，还要扎实地学习该语言对应的文化知识。
3.中西文化的共同性对英汉翻译的影响
3.1人类生活经历的共同性决定了两种语言不仅在表达形式上有着相同或相似的说法，而且它们在意义和修辞上也有相似之处。
例如在下列英汉翻译中，就利用英汉语言的这种相似性直截了当地套用两种语言对应的同义习语，即采用翻译中的直译法。例如："topraisetotheskies"捧上天去，"tofishintroubledwaters"浑水摸鱼，"toaddfueltothefire"火上浇油等，还有一些大体相同的形象比喻，如"tolaughoffone'shead"笑掉牙齿，"toshedcrocodiletears"猫哭老鼠，"tospendmoneylikewater"挥金如土，"atsixesandsevens"七颠八倒[2]P162等等。然而中西文化的相似只是相对的、个别的，而歧义则是绝对的、普遍的。汉英两种语言反映各自的民族或地方特色，在某些表达方式上存在差异。在互译时，应充分考虑这些文化因素的影响，保持其独特的文化特征，不宜生搬硬套对应语言中具有鲜明民族或地方色彩的表达方式去强译。例如，"Twoheadsarebetterthanone"，虽和汉语习语“三个臭皮匠胜过一个诸葛亮”有相同意义，但在翻译时不可简单地套用后者。因为诸葛亮是我国的一个历史人物，与原作上下文会形成矛盾。如果把它译为“一人不及两人智”，就比较合适，意思既接近，又可避免因历史文化因素引起的矛盾[3]张培基等，1991：P167。
3.2政治、经济、文化的渗透交流和传播导致两种语言中各自出现大量的外来词。
这些外来词在一定程度上改变或改造了引进国的语言。在以形意为词汇主干的汉语中，虽不排斥音译的办法，但尽可能地倾向于意译的做法，而英语对待外来词则以音译为主。例如英语词汇中的"Kang炕"，"litch荔枝"，"jiaozi饺子"等。在英汉翻译中有的干脆是原文照搬，如“VCD，DVD，DNA，CT，SARS”等，这种直译法一开始令读者感到陌生，但一旦熟悉并掌握后，就等于把原词汇中的资讯以近乎保持本来面目的方式贡献给另外一种语言，丰富了它的词汇，也推进了民族间的文化融合，尤其是在当今时代，它对语言、文化、科技等领域的全球化起到了重要的作用[4]潘绍中，2004：P9。
4.中西文化的相异性对翻译的影响
由于中西方在生活方式、价值观念、伦理道德、宗教信仰以及思维方式等方面的差异，导致中西两种语言在诸多方面的不同，既对语言学习造成一定障碍，也对英汉翻译产生很大的影响。
4.1生活方式的差异对英汉互译的影响
由于英语国家的地理位置特征，无论是历史传统还是现实生活中，英语民族的生活多和海洋打交道，因而英语中有大量有关航海的词语;而在以大陆为主的汉语中很难找到相对应的形式，因而对中国人来讲，理解这些表达方式就较为困难。例如："ableseaman"一级水平，"belefthighanddry"陷于困境，"give *** .orsth.awideberth"远远地躲开等[4]P194-195。
可见这些谚语多和航海有关，代表岛屿文化;而在中国传统文化中则以陆地为主，“树”、“蝼蚁之穴”、“路”、“前车之覆”等都体现着陆地文化[5]王振亚，2000：p138。
反之，汉语有许多关于江湖、山川、四季、农耕等方面的习语，在英语中也难找到现成的对应表达形式，译为英语时一般用意译的办法。例如“种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆”，英语中虽有"Asyousow,soyoumustreap"的说法，但不如汉语具体形象。又如，青黄不接的季节Whencropwaseatenandthenextstillgreen，无孔不入totakeadvantageofeveryweakness，眉飞色舞tobeamwithjoy，运涛好久不来信了，一家子盼星星盼月亮tillhiswholefamilyworriedoverhimdayandnight。[6]吕瑞昌等，1985：P139
由于中国长期的农耕生活的影响，汉语中产生了大量与“食”有关的表达形式，而这些在英语中比较罕见，必须按实际含义和上下文去翻译。许多源自饮食的比喻，英语中没有对应形式，只有意译。例如，他抢了我的饭碗He'stakenthebreadoutofmymouth或He'stakenmyjobfromme，吃醋bejealous。[4]潘绍中，2004：P10
4.2中西民族情感心理、认知方式的差异对语言翻译的影响
由于中西方在风俗习惯、礼仪、思维方式等方面的不同，导致许多词语在中西两种文化中有着不同的文化内涵。缺乏对这些词语表达的文化含义的理解，会造成交际和翻译中的失误。英语民族的思维是个体的、独特的，而中国人注重整体、综合、概括思维。表现在语言上，英语偏好用词具体细腻，而汉语用词概括模糊。例如“说”一词，英语有“say，speak，tell”等，这些词使语言简洁准确，又富于变化，形象生动。而汉语往往趋向于泛指，在“说”前加副词修饰语，如，语无伦次地说，低声地说，嘟嘟囔囔地说[5]王振亚，2000：P217。
中国文化习惯从整体上、直观上看问题，强调社团和集体的价值;英美文化习惯于逻辑分析，强调个人为中心，因而导致语言表达上的种种差异。例如，在姓名、时间、地址的表达方式上，中英两种语言的行文方式明显地体现了这种思维方式的差异，中国文化从大到小，从整体到区域性;而西方文化则正好相反。
4.3中西文化中价值观的差异对英汉翻译的影响
价值观指人的意识形态、伦理道德、宗教信仰，以及风俗人情等为人处世准则的观念。一般认为是特定文化和生活方式的核心，表现在两种语言中，会对语言理解和翻译造成很多障碍，足以引起翻译工作者的重视。
中国文化中以儒家文化为主，其种族亲属和社会关系表达得十分清楚和严格，不容丝毫的含混和马虎;而对崇尚新教、个体文化价值的英语民族来说，这种亲属关系就笼统宽松得多。表现在两种语言中，英语一般只用uncle和aunt表示对非直系长一辈的称呼，对小一辈只用nephew和niece，而对同辈不分长幼用brother和sister，甚至不分男女概称cousin，这在汉语中是不容许的，因为汉语中对此类关系分得十分详细。所以在英译汉中，要找准汉语对应的词语，必须先弄清辈分和亲属、社会关系。而在汉译英中，这些复杂的亲属关系词语就要适当简化。
英语民族崇尚个人主义，个人至上主义价值观是西方文化的特点。体现在语言中，例如：AnEnglishman'shouseishiscastle英国人的家是他们的城堡，意味着没有理由不可以去无故打扰别人或没有预约不可以贸然拜访某人;Evenreckoningmakelongfriends明算账，友谊长;Tellmoneyafteryourownfather亲父子明算账[5]王振亚，2000：P128等，这些都表明西方人的个人主义价值观。
中国文化中以谦虚为美德，所以对别人的赞扬、夸奖常礼仪性地予以否认。如"YouspeakexcellentEnglish"，中国人常说"no,no";而西方人崇尚自我奋斗，常会对别人的赞扬乐于接受并表示感谢，积极地回答“Thankyou!”。
中西方文化中由于长期不同的宗教信仰，决定了两种语言中许多表达方式的差异。英美人有着根深蒂固的基督教传统，而中国人长期信仰佛教、儒家学说。因而在翻译时要顾及各自不同的宗教信仰，特别是有关宗教意义的词语。例如：Manproposes，Goddisposes谋事在人，成事在天，MillsofGodgrindslowbutsure天网恢恢，疏而不漏，Godhelpthosewhohelpthemselves自助者天助之[3]张培基等，1991：P188等。
5.结语
应该说，在从事英汉翻译时，我们必须要重视语言与文化的密切联络，掌握中西文化的相似性和差异性，正确处理翻译中所涉及到的文化因素，从而更标准、更准确地促进翻译质量的提高。
参考文献
1 王鸽平.关于《中国文化概况》中名词的翻译问题[A].语言文学与文化 [C]. 北京:智慧财产权出版社,2001.
2 冯庆华.实用翻译教程[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2002.
3 张培基等. 英汉翻译教程[M]. 上海:上海外语教育出版社, 1991.
4 潘绍中.谈谈汉英对译中的文化因素[J]. 中国翻译,2004 3.
5 王振亚. 语言与文化[M]. 北京: 高等教育出版社,2000.
6 吕瑞昌等. 汉英翻译教程[M]. 西安:陕西人民出版社, 1985.
就是你自己随便找一篇和你论文主题有一定相关性的英文文献然后把它翻译成中文，附在你的论文里面
不会～～～～～～～～～
不要什么格式，前面写Abstract：然后是摘要的内容。后面要列出文中主要的关键词，关键词是Key Words：如Research；Fiber（光纤）；用分号分开Abstract:This article describes ……。或The research on……is presented。Key words：……；……；
楼下的解释好详细啊
The military technology" column is the central television series 7 only with the introduction of a military science technology and advanced weapons and equipment primarily TV military columns. To host the studio series and the combination of films, introduced the domestic and foreign latest to the audience weapon equipment and hot military technology knowledge. From the Angle of science analysis its science and technology principle and applications in the military area, and adhere to the professional knowledge of science and the scientific knowledge of story creation concept, strive to professional interest in the point and fresh details for the audience show modern military science and technology and equipment changes. The young concerned about national defense, inspire love military, bold exploration of spirit.
company是连队。unit可以指小队，也可以泛指一定规模的武装力量。LZ想问的大概是那种十几二十个人的战斗群体，小队、分队section，team，subsection，甚至班组squad都可以形容。
Object discoveredObject lockedObject distroyedPlease indicateCall for air assistanceCrouch down
美国海军部关键基础设施保护工作组月度会议报告会议日期： 2001年1月18日在总统塔室1100A型列席名字代表了部门的电话正。邮件（非机密） CDR的这架Gaudreau在唐Ciao的团队带领703.607.5581 gaudreau.lynne @ hq.navy.mil 梅尔急于唐Ciao的支持703.601.1986 rushing.mel @ hq.navy.mil 布赖恩凯利hqmc/c4i dii/c3 703.604.7038 上尉史蒂夫奥尔森n41b日志/跨703.604.9933 olson.stephen @ hq.navy.mil 詹姆斯里韦拉ASN合作（调频及海外）金融202.685.6713 rivera.jim @ fmo.navy.mil 吉姆圣克莱尔唐Ciao的I及瓦特703.412.4611 病房masden唐Ciao公司收购703.758.2962 （ Colleen赫曼唐Ciao的MGMT的。实习生703.602.4412 herrmann.colleen @ hq.navy.mil 史蒂夫安德森hqmc （一及L ）的公共工程703.695.8321 lcdr琼baca OPA认为监督703.697.9152 baca.jon @ hq.navy.mil 也许马特霍维尔n20p的ISR 703.693.7125 howell.matthew @ hq.navy.mil 麦克莫思兰ASN合作（超短波和C ）金融202.685.6725 morthland.michael @ fmo.navy.mil lcdr吉姆佩蒂格鲁n63空间703.601.1217 pettigrew.james @ hq.navy.mil 罗恩gumbert N6的海军的CIO 703.968.2091 ronald.gumbert @ trw.com 部门没有派代表出席会议：分USN usmc 人事x x 的ISR x 物流x 卫生事务x 公共工程x 报告导入/唱名我们非常高兴地欢迎您： 罗恩先生gumbert ，代表着美海军的CIO 唐活动国防部指令： （ Colleen赫曼报道说，该草案已散发给工作组的评论。评论人因（ Colleen 1月16日修正，但目前仍有时间，因为她撰写的报告并提出建议。 南加州区域评估：梅尔急于报代表汉克大通： o日本特许厅- STC计算工作，是海军的资产清单中，包括了部分名单oplan相关资产，从营彭德尔顿。 o信息作战的红军团队的讨论将继续进行， 2月5日的会议上fiwc 。彭德尔顿营地，将不参加红军团队努力
论文（Paper）或：dissertation（论文）或：thesis（论文）经常说的：）~English dissertation(英语论文)Graduation thesis(毕业论文)
“论文”一词的英文表达很多，通常因场合、用处不同而有不同的表达，下面罗列了几种，请楼主斟酌一下那一种是适合自己。*dissertation（博士学位）论文，（专题）论文，学术演讲：长而正式的论文，尤指大学里由博士学位攻读者所写的论文；学位论*disquisition专题论文；专题演讲，专题讨论：关于一个论题的正式讨论，常为书面形式*thesis命题论文：尤指出于获得学位的研究需要而改进原来观点以作为研究成果的论文*discourse （学术）讨论，研讨用的论文*paper 作业形式的，为达到某一目的或效果（如学位）而写的
论文： paper ; thesis
经济学 | 计算机科学技术 | 法学 | 管理学
paper
The paper comprises seven chapters text.
论文共七章。
扩展资料
1、我们将在一起审阅这些论文。
We shall go through these papers together
2、我终于写完了李教授要的论文。
I finally popped that paper for Professor Li
3、教授已经把我的论文搁置一个月了。
The professor has turned aside my paper for a month
4、这里你列举出你的论文所做出的新知识的贡献。
Here you list the contributions of new knowledge that your thesis makes.
5、此时此刻，这个系统仅存在于论文和电脑里。
Right now the system exists only on paper and in the computer
6、在经济发展方面，这是最优秀的论文之一。
It’s one of the best papers on economic development
参考资料百度百科-英语单词
gavin7991 - 举人 四级 说的很详细，但更加简洁明了的说法是：硕士论文用thesis，eg. MA thesis (文学硕士论文），博士论文用dissertation, 学期论文或发表的文章可用paper，essay指篇幅较短小的文章，相当于作文类或散文类
没翻译的，留邮箱，发给你吧
作文常用句式总结开头 Recently, the problem of … has aroused people’s concern. 最近,…问题已引起人们的关注. Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well. 互联网已在我们的生活中扮演着越来越重要的角色.它给我们带来了许多好处,但也产生了一些严重的问题. Nowadays, (overpopulation) has become a problem we have to face. 如今,(人口过剩)已成为我们不得不面对的问题了. It is commonly believed that… / It is a common belief that… 人们一般认为… Many people insist that… 很多人坚持认为… With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that… 随着科技的发展,越来越多的人认为… A lot of people seem to think that… 很多人似乎认为… 引出不同观点: People’s views on… vary from person to person. Some hold that… . However, others believe that…. 人们对…的观点因人而异.有些人认为….. 然而其他人却认为．．． People may have different opinions on… 人们对…可能会有不同的见解. Attitudes towards (drugs) vary from person to person. 人们对待吸毒的态度因人而异. There are different opinions among people as to… 关于…. 人们的观点大不相同. Different people hold different attitudes toward (failure). 对(失败)人们的态度各不相同. 结尾 Taking all these factors into consideration, we naturally come to the conclusion that… 把所有这些因素加以考虑,我们自然会得出结论… Taking into account all these factors, we may reasonably come to the conclusion that… 考虑所有这些因素,我们可能会得出合理的结论… Hence/Therefore, we’d better come to the conclusion that… 因此,我们最好得出这样的结论… There is no doubt that (job-hopping) has its drawbacks as well as merits. 毫无疑问,跳槽有优点也有缺点. All in all, we cannot live without… But at the same time we must try to find out new ways to cope with the problems that would arise. 总之,我们没有…是无法生活的.但同时,我们必须寻求新的解决办法来对付可能出现的新问题. 提出建议: It is high time that we put an end to the (trend). 该是我们停止这一趋势的时候了. It is time to take the advice of … and to put special emphasis on the improvement of … 该是采纳…的建议,并对…的进展给予特殊重视的时候了. There is no doubt that enough concern must be paid to the problem of … 毫无疑问,对…问题应予以足够的重视. Obviously,…. If we want to do something… , it is essential that… 显然,如果我们想做某事,很重要的是… Only in this way can we… 只有这样,我们才能… It must be realized that… 我们必须意识到… 预示后果: Obviously, if we don’t control the problem, the chances are that… will lead us in danger. 很明显,如果我们不能控制这一问题,很有可能我们会陷入危险. No doubt, unless we take effective measures, it is very likely that… 毫无疑问,除非我们采取有效措施,很可能会… It is urgent that immediate measures should be taken to stop the situation. 很紧迫的是,应立即采取措施阻止这一事态的发展. 论证 From my point of view, it is more reasonable to support the first opinion rather than the second. 在我看来,支持第一种观点比支持第二种观点更有道理. I cannot entirely agree with the idea that… 我无法完全同意这一观点…. Personally, I am standing on the side of … 就个人而言,我站在…的一边. I sincerely believe that… 我真诚地相信… In my opinion, it is more advisable to do … than to do…. 在我个人看来,做…比做…更明智. Finally, to speak frankly, there is also a more practical reason why… 给出原因: This phenomenon exists for a number of reasons. First, … Second, … Third, … 这一现象的存在是有许多原因的.首先, … 第二, … 第三, … Why did… ? For one thing… For another…. Perhaps the primary reason is… 为什么会…? 一个原因是… 令一个原因是… 或许其主要原因是…. I quite agree with the statement that… the reasons are chiefly as follows. 我十分赞同这一论述,即…,其主要原因如下: 列出解决办法: Here are some suggestions for handling… 这是如何处理某事的一些建议. The best way to solve the troubles is… 解决这些麻烦的最好办法是… People have figured out many ways to solve this problem. 人们已找出许多办法来解决这个问题. 批判错误观点和做法: As far as something is concerned, …. 就某事而言,… It was obvious that… 很显然,…. It may be true that…, but it doesn’t mean that… 可能…是对的,但这并不意味着… It is natural to believe that… , but we shouldn’t ignore that… 认为….是很自然的,但我们不应忽视…. There is no evidence to suggest that… 没有证据表明… 如何连接 强调 still, Indeed, apparently, oddly enough, of course, after all, significantly, interestingly, also, above all, surely, certainly, undoubtedly, in any case, anyway, above all, in fact, especially. Obviously, clearly. 比较 like, similarly, likewise, in the same way, in the same manner, equally. 对比 by contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas, on the other hand, unlike, instead, but, conversely, different from, however, nevertheless, otherwise, whereas, unlike, yet, in contrast. 列举 for example, for instance, such as, take …for example. Except (for), to illustrate. 时间 later, next, then, finally, at last, eventually, meanwhile, from now on, at the same time, for the time being, in the end, immediately, in the meantime, in the meanwhile, recently, soon, now and then, during, nowadays, since, lately, as soon as, afterwards, temporarily, earlier, now, after a while. 顺序 first, second, third, then, finally, to begin with, first of all, in the first place, last, next, above all, last but not the least, first and most important. 可能 presumably, probably, perhaps. 解释 in other words, in fact, as a matter of fact, that is, namely, in simpler terms. 递进 What is more, in addition, and, besides, also, furthermore, too, moreover, furthermore, as well as, additionally, again. 让步 although, after all, in spite of…, despite, even if, even though, though, admittedly, whatever may happen. 转折 however, rather than, instead of, but, yet, on the other hand, unfortunately. whereas 原因 for this reason, due to, thanks to, because, because of, as, since, owing to. 结果 as a result, thus, hence, so, therefore, accordingly, consequently, as consequence. 总结 on the whole, in conclusion, in a word, to sum up, in brief, in summary, to conclude, to summarize, in short. 其他 Mostly, occasionally, currently, naturally, mainly, exactly, evidently, frankly, commonly, for this purpose, to a large extent, for most of us, in many cases, in this case, 图表作文常用句型 As is shown in the graph… 如图所示… The graph shows that… 图表显示… As can be seen from the table,… 从表格中可以看出… From the chart, we know that… 从这张表中,我们可知… All these data clearly prove the fact that… 所有这些数据明显证明这一事实,即… The increase of …. In the city has reached to 20%. ….在这个城市的增长已达到20%. In 1985, the number remained the same. 1985年,这个数字保持不变. There was a gradual decline in 1989. 1989年,出现了逐渐下降的情况.
高中英语实用模版1.书信开头：How nice to hear from you again.Let me tell you something about the activity.I’m glad to have received your letter of Apr. 9th.I’m pleased to hear that you’re coming to China for a visit.I’m writing to thank you for your help during my stay in America.结尾：With best wishes.I’m looking forward to your reply.I’d appreciate it if you could reply earlier.二、口头通知呼语及开场白部分：Ladies and gentlemen, May I have your attention, please? I have an announcement to make.正文部分：All the teachers and students are required to attend it.Please take your notebooks and make notes.Please listen carefully and we’ll have a discussion in groups.Please come on time and don’t be late.结束语部分：Please come and join in it.Everybody is welcome to attend it.I hope you’ll have a nice time here.That’s all. Thank you.三、议论文模板1.正反观点式议论文导入：第1段：Recently we’ve had a discussion about whether we should... （导入话题）Our opinions are divided on this topic.（观点有分歧）正文：第2段：Most of the students are in favour of it.（正方观点）Here are the reasons. First... Second... Finally...(列出2~3个赞成的理由)第3段：However, the others are strongly against it. （反方观点）Their reasons are as follows. In the first place... What’s more... In addition...(列出2~3个反对的理由)结论：第4段：Personally speaking, the advantages overweigh the disadvantages, for it will do us more harm than good, so I support it.（个人观点） オ2.“A或者B”类议论文模板：导入：第1段：Some people hold the opinion that A is superior to B in many ways. Others, however, argue that B is much better. Personally, I would prefer A because I think A has more advantages.正文：第2段：There are many reasons why I prefer A. The main reason is that ... Another reason is that...(赞同A的原因)第3段: Of course, B also has advantages to some extent... (列出1~2个B的优势)结论：第4段: But if all these factors are considered, A is much better than B. From what has been discussed above, we may finally draw the conclusion that ...(得出结论) オ3.观点论述类议论文：导入：第1段：提出一种现象或某个决定作为议论的话题As a student, I am strongly in favour of the decision. （亮明自己的观点是赞成还是反对）The reasons for this may be listed as follows. （过渡句，承上启下）正文：第2段：First of all... Secondly... Besides...(列出2~3个赞成或反对的理由)结论：第3段：In conclusion, I believe that... （照应第1段，构成"总—分—总"结构）4."How to"类议论文模板：导入：第1段：提出一种现象或某种困难作为议论的话题正文：第2段：Many ways can help to solve this serious problem, but the following may be most effective. First of all... Another way to solve the problem is ... Finally...(列出2~3个解决此类问题的办法)结论：第3段：These are not the best but the only two/ three measures we can take. But it should be noted that we should take action to...(强调解决此类问题的根本方法)四、图表作文写作模板The chart gives us an overall picture of the 图表主题. The first thing we notice is that 图表最大特点 . This means that as (进一步说明).We can see from the statistics given that 图表细节一 . After 动词-ing 细节一中的第一个变化， the动词-ed+幅度+时间(紧跟着的变化) . The figures also tell us that图表细节二 . In the column, we can see that accounts for (进一步描述).Judging from these figures, we can draw the conclusion that (结论). The reason for this, as far as I am concerned is that (给出原因). / It is high time that we (发出倡议).五、图画类写作：1.开头Look at this picture./The picture shows that.../From this picture, we can see.../As is shown in the picture.../As is seen in the picture...2.衔接句As we all know, .../As is known to all,.../It is well known that.../In my opinion,.../As far as I am concerned,.../This sight reminds me of something in my daily life.3.结尾句In conclusion.../In brief.../On the whole.../In short.../In a word.../Generally speaking.../As has been stated...
① 网上聊天越来越流行 ② 有人反对它，有人赞同。 ③ 我的看法 With the development of IT, online chatting is becoming increasingly popular with many people. However, people’s opinions about it vary from person to person. Some think that it has more problems than benefits. First, it is a waste of time, energy and money as it doesn’t produce any useful information and products. Second, it is misleading to its users because cyberspace is actually an imaginary space where things are unreal or fictional. But the advocates of online chatting support it because it is another way of recreation which is both exciting and relaxing. Besides, it helps them release their emotions and worries freely and safely. To them, it is very useful and wonderful. As far as I am concerned, whether online chatting is good or bad depends on the person who does it. So long as we can keep ourselves under good control, we can use it scientifically and properly without its bad effects. 议论文范文 2 As students, we always have a lot of exams/tests every term. Tests are used nowadays to check/examine/measure how well /effectively students study. Exams are a very useful and important educational tool of measurement. However, exams have some side effects of their own. First, some exams can’t reflect the real progress students make. Second, too difficult or too many exams force students to cheat in exams. Too many exams force students to study for the sake of exams only, to name just a few. In my opinion, advantages of exams far outweigh their disadvantages. Despite their side effects, exams can on the whole check and show how well students study scientifically and accurately. At least so far there has been not any method that take their place in education. Besides, exams seem to be fair to all students as they are objective and everyone is equal before test results. To conclude, exams may continue to exist in our education for a long time before they are replaced by some better measurement methods. 记叙文范文 Eye-witness account of a traffic accident 假如你在某日某地某时目击一起车祸，就此写一份见证书。见证书如下： 1. 车祸发生的时间和地点 2. 你所见到的车祸的情况 3. 你对车祸原因的分析 I witnessed a traffic accident on the street at about 5p.m. yesterday. Here is my account of it. It happened at 5p.m. yesterday at the Xiao Zai intersection when I was on my way back to my school. A taxi ran into a cycling boy riding across Chang An Road near the crossroad. When the taxi pulled up abruptly after the driver realized what had happened, the boy was already lying on the ground, bleeding and crying aloud. In 5 minutes, an ambulance came and took away the wounded boy. There is no knowing how it came about. But I suppose it was because the boy ran the red light and the taxi driver took it for granted that there would be no pedestrian or cyclist would cross the road at that moment. This accident warns us of the danger of ignoring traffic regulations. 图表文范文 1. 描写该图并用数字说明 2. 分析其原因及未来的趋势 3. 结论 With the rapid economic growth in China, there has been an increasingly great demand for fuel resources. Among them, natural gas is clean, convenient and inexpensive. The above graph shows the output of natural gas in China between 1991 and 1995. As can be seen from the graph, there had been a steady increase in its output since 1991. In 1991, there was only 15.5 billion cubic meters of natural gas produced in China. After that, almost every year witnessed a steady increase by 0.5 billion cubic meters. By 1995, the output had increased to 17.5 billion cubic meters, an increase by about 13% over that of 1991. There are many factors leading to this sharp increase in its output. To name only a few, the greater industrial demand, demands from daily life, convenience and cleanness in itself, etc. stimulate its output increase. In conclusion, we can safely predict the output will continue to increase in the foreseeable future because of the greater demands for it. Sample 5. A Letter of Complaint Directions: Write a letter of no less than 120 words to your neighbour, who lives above your apartment in the same building and makes a lot of noise recently at night. Your letter should be polite but tell him or her clearly that you want him/her to stop making noise at night and why. Write a letter in the space provided on the Answer Sheet.Dear Sir/Madam: I am your neighbor living downstairs under your apartment in the same building. I am writing you to make a complaint to you./I am writing you to complain of the noise you make during the night. Recently you are making noise during the night that has disturbed my rest. Almost every night, there comes some noise from your apartment just as I go to bed and am on my way to a dream. I wonder what the noise is. Are you repairing your furniture? Are you doing physical exercises? However, whatever you do at that time of the night, you have to take your neighbors and their rest into consideration. In a word, you are disturbing both your other neighbors and me. Therefore/So, please stop making noise at night. Take care. Yours friendly neighbor Sample 6. Natural Gas Output in China With the rapid economic growth in China, there has been an increasing demand for fuel resources. Among them, natural gas is clean, convenient and inexpensive. The above graph shows the output of natural gas in China between 1991 and 1995. As can be seen from the graph, there had been a steady increase in its output since 1991. In 1991, there was only 15.5 billion cubic meters of natural gas produced in China. After that, almost every year witnessed a steady increase by 0.5 billion cubic meters. By 1995, the output had increased to 17.5 billion cubic meters, an increase by about 13% over that of 1991. There are many factors leading to this sharp increase in its output. To name only a few, the greater industrial demand, demands from daily life, convenience and cleanness in itself, etc. stimulate its output increase. In conclusion, we can safely predict the output will continue to increase in the foreseeable future because of the greater demands for it. Sample 7. The Importance of Interpersonal Communication. 1. 人人需要与他人交流 2. 人际交流的重要性 3. 结论 Entering the 21st century, man is now in an age of information and knowledge. In such an age, interpersonal communication plays an increasingly important role and all people have to communicate with others. Why is interpersonal communication so important? First, it helps people understand each other better. Second, it helps people get more information and knowledge. Third, without interpersonal communication, our life would become a desert of emotion and friendship. Last but not the least, communication between people makes our life lively, interesting and lovely. In a word, humans, as social animals, have to communicate with each other, the importance of which can never be overemphasized. Why is interpersonal communication so important? Interpersonal communication is just like a bridge of understanding between people. For example, it helps students to learn more effectively if one can communicate more with his teachers and classmates. In a family, communication makes the family members understand each other better and get closer. In the workplace, communication between the employer and the employed creates a friendly and helpful working environment.Sample 8 How to Study Effectively As students, we have to study almost every day. However, how can we study effectively? Probably not everybody knows. Have a look at the following graph and we may know better about this. This graph shows the relationship between the amount of study efficiency and the hours spent in studying in a day. From it, we can see that more hours of study do not necessarily result in better or higher study efficiency. In the graph, the best amount of efficiency or the optimum of efficiency comes when one has studied for about 5.5 hours. However, the efficiency begins to drop as he studies longer than 5.5. By the time when one has studied for 10 hours in a day, his efficiency of study may become nothing or zero. In conclusion, there is always a maximum of efficiency and time for study in a day. More time spent in study doesn’t always mean better efficiency. This may tell us how we can study effectively.