自己从网上转帖和编辑了下，总结了包括语言学、语用学、翻译、跨文化交际、二语习得、测试、教学法等方向的参考书籍 社会心理语言学 上海外教 王德春 2000 对比语言学概论 上海外教 许余龙 2000 语义学 上海外教 李瑞华 2000 语义理论与语言教学 上海外教 王 寅 2001 国俗语义研究 上海外教 吴友富 1999 当代西方语法理论 上海外教 俞如珍 2000 英汉修辞比较研究 上海外教 胡曙中 1999 美国新修辞学研究 上海外教 胡曙中 1999 英汉语言文化对比研究 上海外教 李瑞华 2000 英汉对比研究论文集 上海外教 李自俭 1999 现代修辞学 上海外教 王德春 2001 辞格与词汇 上海外教 李国南 2001 中国英汉翻译教材研究(1949-1998) 上海外教 张美芳 2001 语篇分析的理论与实践 上海外教 黄国文 2001 系统功能语言学多维思考 上海外教 朱永生 2001 现代语言学丛书 上海外教 新编心理语言学 上海外教 桂诗春 2000 心理语言学 上海外教 桂诗春 2000 语言问题探索 上海外教 王宗炎 2000 生成语法理论 上海外教 徐烈炯 2000 美国语言学简史 上海外教 赵世开 1999 汉语的语义结构和补语形式 上海外教 缪锦安 2000 应用语言学 上海外教 刘涌泉 2000 语篇的衔接与连贯 上海外教 胡壮麟 2000 神经语言学 上海外教 王德春 2000 自然语言的计算机处理 上海外教 冯志伟 1996 现代语言学的特点和发展趋势 上海外教 戚雨村 2000 语言学和语言的应用 上海外教 王宗炎 2000 语言系统及其运作 上海外教 程雨民 1998 模糊语言学 上海外教 伍铁平 2000 汉英对比语法论集 上海外教 赵世开 2000 语言共性论 上海外教 程 工 2000 语义学教程 上海外教 李福印 2000 教学篇章语言学 上海外教 刘辰诞 2000 英语语言学纲要 上海外教 丁言仁 2001 交际法英语教学和考试评估 上海外教 徐 强 2000 英汉语篇衔接手段对比研究 上海外教 朱永生 2001 认知语言学概论 上海外教 赵艳芳 2001 新编语用学概要 上海外教 何兆熊 2000 语法的多视角研究 上海外教 金立鑫 2000 英语词汇学研究 上海外教 汪榕培 2000 英汉语篇综合对比 上海外教 彭宣维 2000 隐喻学研究 上海外教 束定芳 2000 第二语言习得研究 上海外教 Ellis 2000 第二语言研究方法 上海外教 Selinger 2000 话语与文学 上海外教 Cook 2000 客观语言测试 上海外教 Spolsky 2000 口语语法 上海外教 Brazil 2000 第二语言习得概论 上海外教 Ellis 2000 实用文体学 上海外教 Widdowson 2000 应用语言学的原理与实践 上海外教 Cook 2000 英语教学史 上海外教 Howatt 2000 语言教学交际法 上海外教 Widdowson 2000 语料库、检索与搭配 上海外教 Sindair 2000 语言测试实践 上海外教 Bachman 2000 语言测试要略 上海外教 Bachman 2000 语言教学的基本概念 上海外教 Stern 2000 语言教学面面观 上海外教 Widdowson 2000 语言教学的问题与可选策略 上海外教 Stern 2000 语言教学的环境与文化 上海外教 Kramsch 2000 语言学习认知法 上海外教 Skehan 2000 语言与理解 上海外教 Brown 2000 文学与语言教学 上海外教 Carter 2000 交际法语言教学 上海外教 Johnson 2000 模糊语言 上海外教 Channell 2000 习语与习语特征 上海外教 Fernando 2000 语篇中的词汇模式 上海外教 Hoey 2000 词汇短语与语言教学 上海外教 DeCarrio 2000 语言领域的帝国主义 上海外教 Phillipson 2000 第二语言学习的条件 上海外教 Spolsky 2000 论以语言学习者为中心 上海外教 Yule 2000 英语会话 上海外教 Tzri 2000 语用学 上海外教 Yule 2000 语言与文化 上海外教 Kramsch 2000 语言学 上海外教 Widdowson 2000 第二语言习得 上海外教 Ellis 2000 心理语言学 上海外教 Scovel 2000 社会语言学 上海外教 Spolsky 2000 隐喻的研究与应用 上海外教 Low 2001 对比修辞:第二语言写作的跨文化层面 上海外教 Connor 2001 第二语言教与学的文化因素 上海外教 Hinkel 2001 语言课程评估:理论与实践 上海外教 Lynch 2001 社会语言学与语言教学 上海外教 Hornberger 2001 学习者为中心的课程设置:第二语言教学研究 上海外教 Nunan 2001 语言的迁移:语言学习的语际影响 上海外教 Odlin 2001 第二语言习得的学习策略 上海外教 Chamot 2001 体裁分析:学术与科研英语 上海外教 Swales 2001 第二语言词汇习得 上海外教 Huckin 2001 文化构建——文学翻译论集 上海外教 Lefevere 2001 跨文化交际——翻译理论与对比篇章语言学 上海外教 Hatim 2001 目的性行为——析功能翻译理论 上海外教 Nord 2001 语用学与翻译 上海外教 Hickey 2001 翻译问题探讨 上海外教 Newmark 2001 翻译学——问题与方法 上海外教 Wilss 2001 翻译教程 上海外教 Newmark 2001 通天塔之后——语言与翻译面面观 上海外教 Steiner 2001 语篇与译者 上海外教 Mason 2001 翻译研究:综合法 上海外教 Hornby 2001 描述翻译学及其他 上海外教 Toury 2001 语言与文化:翻译中的语境 上海外教 Nida 2001 翻译的理论建构与文化透视 上海外教 谢天振 2000 翻译文化史论 上海外教 王克非 2000 比较与翻译 上海外教 汪榕培 1997 翻译论丛 上海外教 耿龙明 1998 中国翻译教学研究 上海外教 穆 雷 2000 实用翻译美学 上海外教 傅仲选 2000 语言、文化与翻译 上海外教 奈达 2000 译介学 上海外教 谢天振 2000 语言与文化 上海外教 顾嘉祖 2000 中国译学理论史稿(修订版) 上海外教 陈福康 2000 语法隐喻理论研究 外研社 范文芳 2001 应用语言学研究方法与论文写作 外研社 文秋芳 2001 认知语言学概论——语言的神经认知基础 外研社 程琪龙 2001 语言与语言学：实用手册 外研社 语用与认识--关联理论研究 外研社 2001 第二语言习得研究 外研社 蒋祖康 2000 理论文体学 外研社 胡壮麟 2000 语言文化差异的认识与超越 外研社 高一虹 1999 语言测试和它的方法(修订版) 外研社 刘润清 1991 语言的符号性 外研社 丁尔苏 2000 跨文化非语言交际 外研社 毕继万 2000 跨文化交际学概论 外研社 胡文仲 2000 英语习语与英美文化 外研社 平 洪 2000 跨文化交际面面观 外研社 胡文仲 1999 俄汉语言文化习俗探讨 外研社 刘光准 1999 语言与文化论文集 外研社 二十一世纪大学英语教学改革 外研社 中国辞书学文集 外研社 2000 汉英篇章对比研究 外研社 论新开端:文学与翻译研究集 外研社 文化与交际 外研社 许国璋先生纪念文集 外研社 陶渊明诗歌英译比较研究 外研社 语言与文化 外研社 邓炎昌 2001 中西人际称谓系统 外研社 田惠刚 1998 中国语言学的现状与展望 外研社 许嘉璐 1998 语言要略 外研社 方 立 1999 语言学方法论 外研社 桂诗春 1998 西方语言学流派 外研社 刘润清 1999 文化与语言 外研社 王福祥 2000 许国璋论语言 外研社 功能主义纵横谈 外研社 胡壮麟 2000 洪堡特--人文研究和语言研究 外研社 语言学教程 外研社 2000 当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库： 语言论:言语研究导论 外研社 Sapir 2001 普通语言学教程 外研社 Saussure 2001 语言论 外研社 Bloomfiefd 2001 语言学综览 外研社 Aronoff 2001 语言学理论:对基要原著的语篇研究 外研社 Beaugrande 2001 吉姆林英语语音教程 外研社 Cruttenden 2001 音系学通解 外研社 Gussenhouen 2001 汉语方言的连读变调模式 外研社 Chen 2001 优选论 外研社 kaqer 2001 汉语形态学:语言认知研究法 外研社 Packard 2001 转换生成语法导论:从原则和参数到最简方案 外研社 Ouhalla 2001 当代句法理论通览 外研社 Ballin 2001 乔姆斯基:思想与理想 外研社 Smith 2001 语言知识及其本质、来源和使用 外研社 Chomsky 2001 当代语义理论指南 外研社 Lappin 2001 关联性:交际与认知 外研社 Sperber 2001 语用学引论 外研社 May 2001 语用学 外研社 Leuinsou 2001 言辞用法研究 外研社 Grice 2001 如何以言行事 外研社 Austin 2001 言语行为:语言哲学论 外研社 Searle 2001 表述和意义:言语行为研究 外研社 Searle 2001 言语的萌发:语言起源与进化 外研社 Aitchison 2001 语言学简史 外研社 Robins 2001 英语学习词典史 外研社 Cowie 2001 现代词典学入门 外研社 Bejoint 2001 英诗学习指南:语言学的分析方法 外研社 Leech 2001 小说文体论:英语小说的语言学入门 外研社 Leech 2001 人类语言学入门 外研社 Foley 2001 英语:全球通用语 外研社 Crystal 2001 社会语言学通览 外研社 Coulmas 2001 认知语言学入门 外研社 Schmid 2001 语言的范畴化:语言学理论中的类典型 外研社 Taylor 2001 英语的衔接 外研社 Halliday 2001 作为社会符号的语言:从社会角度诠释语言与意义 外研社 Halliday 2001 英语的功能分析:韩礼德模式 外研社 Bloor 2001 历史语言学导论 外研社 Lehmamm 2001 英语史:从古代英语到标准英语 外研社 Baugh 2001 翻译与翻译过程：理论与实践 外研社 Bell 2001 儿童语言发展引论 外研社 Cohen 2001 语言学习与运用中的错误:错误分析探索 外研社 James 2001 第二语言教与学 外研社 Nunan 2001 第二语言课堂反思性教学 外研社 Richards 2001 ESL/EFL英语课堂上的学习风格 外研社 Reid 2001 语言学习与教学的原则 外研社 Brown 2001 根据原理教学:交互式语言教学 外研社 Broen 2001 词汇、语义学和语言教育 外研社 Hatch 2001 语言教学大纲要素:课程设计系统法 外研社 Brown 2001 外语学习与教学论 外研社 Johnson 2001 语言测试词典 外研社 Dauies 2001 语言测试指南:发展、评估与研究 外研社 Henning 2001 第二语言习得与语言测试研究的接口 外研社 Bachman 2001 评估与测试:研究综述 外研社 Wood 2001 语言学课题:语言研究实用指南 外研社 Wray 2001 用语料库研究语言 外研社 Thomas 2001 语法化学说 外研社 Hopper 2001 剑桥语言百科全书 外研社 Crystal 2001 应用语言学百科辞典:语言教学手册 外研社 Johnson 2001
1、汉语言文学专业的本科论文，按研究内容大致可以分为文学和语言学，其中又细分多个类别，例如古代文学、现当代文学、外国文学、比较文学、编辑出版学、语言学等等，每个学校的具体要求和设置不一样，一般来说是根据老师来设置的，在选择论文方向的时候，一是参考自己喜欢的方向、喜欢的作家，同时也要考虑论文老师可能带来的影响
2、在选择了方向以及确定了论文导师的前提下，要做的就是具体确定自己的论文标题和内容，
3、在确定了大的方向后，就要考虑具体写什么了。
4、构建目录，构建论文体系，是在正式写作前必备的。在这个阶段，你要大致清楚自己的创作动机、自己的研究对象、研究对象的特点、大概的结论以及所需要的论据，论文其实就是一个抛出问题，然后解决问题的过程。
5、一般的论文，大多是从艺术特色、语言、故事设置等方向来设计
6、确定了具体的选题以及大致的内容之后，就要为主体内容做准备了，格式上面按照学员给予的模板，按部就班去完成就行。
7、充实文献材料的话，知网是最好的选择，一般高校的图书馆，都是可以免费使用知网资源的，如果是自己使用，其中的文献也很便宜，2元到10元不等。
8、在论文撰写的过程中会遇到各种各样的问题，所以搭建好框架是很重要的
9、与伙伴、导师建立良好的关系，长期就论文保持密切的交流。由。
10、以认真严谨的态度对待
关于英语语言学的论文，论文题目和主要内容已列出，供参考。链接附后1.题目：语言学英文版论文。主要内容：该论文主要讲词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家D.A. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。http://wenku.baidu.com/link?url=SXkEsiMcpfqhM3IdT5ZZ97aNTmwfO_74dvJoNSWoCp2FIyudzpd1uBSgh2ccFJS6RN7xNBPb9WFk_matYEwCRT0EMxynK7D_vYN7D59Og5G2.题目：.英语专业毕业论文(语言学)——谈判英语文化差异。主要内容：该论文主要讲国际商务谈判中文化差异的影响，就是汉语习惯思维和西方语言文化之间表达的准确性对商务谈判带来的影响。http://wenku.baidu.com/view/ef2d20e09b89680203d825be.html4.题目：外国语言学及应用语言学硕士论文：商务英语信函的词汇特点研究，主要内容：商务英语信函词汇的选择和应用多呈现如下7种特点：1)简单词汇的选择。2)具体词汇多于笼统词汇。3)褒义词多于贬义词。4)缩写词的选择。5)确切词汇多于模糊词汇。6)礼貌、客气的词汇多于不礼貌的词汇。7)商业术语的选择。产生的原因多取决于商务活动的和商业伙伴的合作关系。商务活动的双方均为达至双赢的进行合作。这是本文所分析的词汇特点产生的主要原因。
形态学是用来特指一门专门研究生物形式的本质的学科。这门形态学同那种把有机体的生物分解成各个单元的解剖学不同，不是只注重部分的微观分析而忽略了总体上的联系，相反它要求把生命形式当作有机的系统看待形态学的方法，一方面是对接受研究中的历史学方法的补充，另方面是对比较文学的文学性的继续关注。作为生物学的主要分支学科，其目的是描述生物的形态和研究其规律性，且往往是与以机能为研究对象的生理学相对应。广义地来说，它包括研究细胞阶段形态的细胞学的大部分，以及探讨个体发生过程的发生学。狭义的形态学主要是研究生物的成年个体的外形和器官构造（解剖学、组织学和器官学）。从方法论上来讲，它分为重视器官和机能关系的生理形态学，以及重点放在比较研究上的比较形态学以至系统形态学和实验形态学或因果形态学（Causal morphology）。形态学方法被正式命名为“形态文艺学”（morphologisch Literaturwissenschaft ），这是关于文艺学的基础理论研究，其中心观点，认为诗的“构形”（Gestalt）是有机组成的大自然的“现象”（Erscheinung）；诗是“构形的整体”（Gestaltganzes），也即是有生命力的有机体，它通过和自然同等的创造力这样一个构形性的中介组成整体。总体构形中的每一个别要素与层次，组成诗的艺术品，则被视为这一整体构形的“变型”（Metamorphose）。形态学是研究动植物形态（form）的科学。它在生物学的理论框架中究竟占有什么位置一直有争议，而且在一定意义上来说，将来也会如此。值得十分注意的是，从18世纪晚期开始经常有人试图建立一种多少与生物学脱离的“纯粹形态学”（puremorphology），也就是生物学家、数学家和艺术家都同样爱好的一门科学。只有了解了形态学这个词常被人们用来表示一些互相无关甚至十分不同的事态发展后才有可能理解形态学的复杂历史。
越来越多的学者正显示有兴趣在通过语言的方法翻译研究。与1949年和1989年，一个不完整的调查，作者发现，有大约只有30教科书通道的讨论之间的关系，语言学和翻译，包括方面的普通语言学，语用学，文体学，篇章语言学，修辞学和机器翻译。从1990年至1994年，有一个令人难以置信的数目增加了通道，看翻译，从语言学的角度来看。几乎160发表的文章中对这些五年关心的翻译和普通语言学，文体学，比较语言学，语义，语用学，社会语言学，文字语言学，修辞学等新的条款，如话语分析，诠释学，动态等值，深部结构和表面结构，背景，主题和述位，合作的原则，更遑论只是一个数，出现在翻译领域的研究。我们一定可以找出一个趋势，应用语言学理论翻译研究在这些年。 今天，我们在点质疑语言学是一个必要组成部分的翻译。近年来，一些学者，谁是在赞成的免费翻译，曾多次提出这个问题向公众，并呼吁结束了语言的方法翻译。一些坚信，翻译是一种艺术和语言学，因此，既不是有用的，亦无帮助。这种说法是错误的，如果我们看看翻译作为一个整体，包括科学的翻译那里的意思是僵化和限制，自由度是有限的。灵活性，在这种情况下，既不需要也不赞赏。 但是，即使是在文学翻译，语言学，是难以负担。王宗炎指出， «如果一看到语言学作为一个机构的规则，规范的语言，翻译，最可能会哈欠与无聊。如果它标志使用的字和locutions以适合的场合，是没有任何停止译员从概括性的语言学» （王1991年： 38 ） 。争议«字面»银两«免费»翻译有着悠久的历史，与有说服力的支持者，一边一国。举例来说，古代西方学者一样，伊拉斯谟，奥古斯丁，和其他人赞成，直译。其中中国早期翻译，鸠摩罗什是被视为免费的学校，而轩zuang似乎字面和灵活性。在当代中国，严复主张诠释学的翻译，而鲁迅的首选一拙劣的版本，一个是免费的，但不精确。有没有错，在上述任何立场。当这些译员强调，免费翻译，他们从不否认的可能性直译，反之亦然。问题只出现时，讨论，轮流相当于翻译。 问题的等价性已引起很大的争议。有些人认为有可能是一个等价语文元素，独立设置他们在其中的发生。在此基础上假设，一些«字面»翻译试图分解一个文本到单一元素，希望找到等值在目标语言。这是一个天真的想法。 jakobson （ 1971年： 262 ）指出， «等价在不同的是枢机主教的问题，语言和关键的关注语言学。 » ，他并不是指«等价» ，但«的等值的不同之处»为枢机主教的问题。奈达也误解了很多，他的概念«等价， »他走上表示«翻译组成，在复制，在受体的语言最接近自然相当于源语言讯息，首先是在条款的含义和在第二条款作风» （ 1969年： 12 ） 。他进一步得出结论认为， «绝对的等值翻译是绝不可能» （ 1984年： 14 ） 。德beaugrande和德雷斯勒认为，成功或失败，无论是免费或直译的方法是不确定的：一不适当«字面»翻译可能会尴尬，甚至费解的，而过分«免费»之一，可能会使原来的文本，分化和完全消失。对他们来说，等价之间的翻译和原创，只能在实现的经验，与会者（参见德beaugrande和德雷斯勒1981 ： 216-217 ） 。卡特福德（ 1965年： 27 ）表达了同样的关注，相等于翻译只是«实证的现象，通过比较发现， SL和铊的案文。 »在列举上述例子，我有绝对无意坚持对不可译。我的意思是，一个翻译者应该把他或她自己的经验和加工活动，到文本：解决问题，减少polyvalence解释，远离任何不一致或不连续性。语言知识可以帮助我们对待不同类型以不同的方式，始终与意识，有没有确切的等价但只有逼近。因此，功放和简化成为可以接受的。 如果我们同意的文本可以翻译，那么，以何种方式是否语言学的贡献翻译？要回答这个问题，我们必须寻求在接受西方语言学在中国及其对翻译的影响。系统性，科学性的研究，中文应运而生年底才在上个世纪，当马建忠出版了一本书的语法马氏文通«马氏文通»于1898年，这是首次在中国了语法印支欧洲语言作为其模型。研究语言，反过来又影响，翻译研究在中国。在麻石wenton ，主要的重点是使用形态，这占用了6 - sevenths的这本书。影响占主导地位的趋势形态学研究，总之，被视为最低有意义的单位，和刑期，因此，合乎逻辑的组合的话，各种具体的类型。翻译，然后，主要是基于该单位的Word 。在西方，圣经的翻译提供了一个很好的例子，正如翻译佛经并在中国。 直到十九世纪末做了一些语言学家来认识到判刑，不只是总结了测序，换句话说，他们所载的。布拉格学派，创立于20世纪20年代，取得了相当大的贡献的研究语法。根据该分析方法的功能的角度来看，布拉格学派，一个句子可以分解成两部分：主题和述位。主题是反对述位在类似方式之间的区别的话题和评论，并定义为一个组成部分，句，至少这有助于推进的过程中的沟通。述位，另一方面，是一个组成部分，一句是增加最与时俱进的过程中的沟通和具有最高程度的交际动力。这两个名词，帮助启发的过程中中文翻译成英文。 在20世纪50年代中期，研究语法达到高峰，与乔姆斯基的建立转换-生成语法。这一理论的深部结构和表面结构的语言翻译的影响极大。奈达依赖于这一理论在发展中国家的他«分析- transfering -重建»模式的翻译。一些中国语言学家，在此期间，试图以提高语文研究，以更高的飞机。李进喜（ 1982年）扩大的作用句研究在他的书中一个新的汉语语法，其中三分之二是专门讨论句子的形成或语法。他写道， «没有的话，可以发现除语境中的一个句子。 »研究当时的改善，其他grammarians ，包括吕叔湘，王力。 与发展的语言学研究，翻译的基础上，单位的一句是所提出的一些学者。这是林语堂谁首先运用理论对翻译在他的文章«对翻译。 »他声称«翻译应该做的事的基础上一句[...]什么翻译应忠实，是不是个别的话，但意思转达他们» （林1984年为： r 3 ） 。的重要性的背景下，在理解句子，因此强调。超yuanren ，一个中国学者和哈佛大学教授，学者的批评和笔译谁往往忘记这一点，并采取语言为一些独立和自给自足。事实上，这是显而易见的，当我们翻译句子，我们取决于它的背景;当我们解释1话语，我们依赖的背景下的讲话（参见超1967 ） 。当一个句子，是从文字，它通常变得含糊不清，由于缺乏背景。因此，翻译成为困难。 在20世纪60年代，人们开始认识到学习语文的基础上的刑罚甚至没有足够的。完整的研究报告应作出的全文。一个简单的句子一样， «乔治通过»可能有不同的解释不同语境下。如果背景是一个考试，这意味着没有乔治，以及对测试;在一个卡片游戏，它会表明，乔治拒绝他的机会，出价;在体育这将意味着球达成的另一个球员。没有一个背景下，我们怎么能决定一个翻译？语言学家，因此他们的注意力转移到研究文本和话语分析。篇章语言学已成为越来越受欢迎的自那时起。范dijk是一个先驱在这一领域，和他的4卷版的手册，话语分析是具有极大的价值。哈利迪的凝聚力的中，英文介绍功能语法，帮助我们更好地了解英语语言对文字的水平。值得注意的是，德beaugrande和德雷斯勒（ 1981 ）提供了一个整体和系统的研究文本，这是有益的翻译研究。德beaugrande其实写了一本书所谓的因素，在一个理论的诗翻译在1978年。这本书并没有成为很受欢迎，因为它仅限于讨论诗歌的翻译。在同一时间内，书籍，语言学的方法，以翻译介绍到中国，如工程尤金奈达，彼得newmarks ， ， JC卡特福德，乔治mounin ，和其他人。这些书籍了很大的推动，应用语言学理论翻译研究在中国。 文本或discoursive的方式来研究翻译不能跟上发展的篇章语言学。一些研究仍留在句法或语义层面上，虽然甚至有文本装置被聘用。在谈到翻译单位的Word和文字，奈达写道： ...一般人天真地认为，语言是换言之，共同默契的假设，结果翻译涉及更换一个字，语文与一个字，语文乙和更多«认真»这类翻译的是，更为尖锐。在其他换句话说，传统关注的焦点，在翻译上字。人们认识到，这不是一个足够大的单位，因此，重点转移到判刑。不过，专家，翻译和语言学家已能证明个人的句子，在反过来，是不够的。重点应放在该段，并在一定程度上总的话语。 （奈达和tabber 1969 ： 152 ） 从这个声明可以看出，奈达的问候话语，作为大于一个段落，作为一篇文章，与一个开始和结束。奈达自己从未申请篇章语言学翻译，可能会有一些混乱，如果我们用他的任期在我们的解释话语，因为话语分析不仅是研究的基础上，较大的语言结构。 一些中国学者没有作出努力申请文本语言学的理论和实践的翻译。王秉勤的文章（ 1987年）是第一学术论文这一类的。他说，他的目标是研究和发现规则的内部结构，文字在根据篇章语言学。他分析，许多例子使用的词句分析，但不幸的是，所有的样品，他收集到的描述，风景或报价从书籍的伟大学者-没有对话，没有言外或成事部队在该语言。他未能提供了各种例子。基于这个原因，他的研究结果，主要是限于修辞文本在中国古代（参见王1981 ;罗1994年） 。 学者一样，他自然适用于pragamatics翻译。他的文章（ 1992 ）提出了两个新的条款， « pragmalinguistics »和«社会经济语用学» ，其中，在翻译，是指分别以«研究务实的武力或语言使用的观点，语言来源» ，并«务实研究其中，研究条件对语言使用所产生的社会和文化情况。 »他讨论的可能性，运用务实的态度，翻译，以达到一个务实的等效之间的来源和目标文本，即是重现的讯息，进行源语言本身，以及含义进行了由源语言其背景和文化。在这方面的文章，他也试图区分«语用语言学»从«社会经济语用学» ，但最后也承认， «其实，一个清晰的线之间的语用语言学和社会经济语用学有时可能难以得出。 »他仍然坚持认为，应用该务实的态度，翻译是有益的，甚至是必要的。柯莉（ 1992 ）认为，语义，而在广义相结合的语义和语用学的，应加以研究，以帮助理解，解释和解决遇到的一些问题在翻译中。在这篇文章中，他审查了4语义条款-«意义和参考， » « h yponomy， » «变化的意义»和«背景» -让许多例子，i l lusrate的重要性，有一些一般性的知识和语义理解之间的关系和语义的翻译。这篇文章中明确写道，读者可以很容易吸取灵感来自它。 这些语言学的方法，棚灯，对新标准的«信，达，雅»所界定的严复。中国学者开始批评含糊不清，这三个标准和努力给他们具体的意义，通过理论的西方语言学。结果是内容，这三个传统标准已大大丰富了，尤其是影响等值理论，这在广义上是指目标语言应相等于源语言从语义，务实和文体点查看。但我们仍无法评价翻译在一个非常科学的方法。因此，中国学者一样，范守，徐shenghuan和万亩鲤鱼走上了定量分析的翻译，用模糊集理论的数学在完成他们的分析。范发表的几篇文章，对这一领域的研究。他1987年至1990年的文章评价翻译根据的数值数量的忠诚。徐的文章«的数学模型，评价翻译质量的»提出了一种正常的数学模型。他说，是很难产生一个绝对准确的评价翻译与这个模式，因为不确定性和随机性的人的思考过程。作出这样的分析更准确和客观的，需要进一步研究。 该单位在翻译是很难啃的骨头。不解决这个问题，没有研究在翻译研究将以往任何时候都足够了。迄今为止，很少有人都集中在研究这方面的工作。奈达认为，股应判刑，并在一定意义上，话语。巴尔胡达罗夫（ 1993 ： 40 ） ，苏联的语言学家和翻译理论家，建议： 翻译是转变的过程中讲话的产品（或文字）产生的一种语言，成为一个讲话的产品（或文字）在另一种语言。 [ … … ]它如下认为，最重要的任务，译者谁进行的过程中转型，该理论家谁介绍或创建一个模型，这个过程中，是要建立最低限度的翻译单位，因为它是一般所谓，翻译单位，在源文本。 虽然他注意到的重要性，翻译单位在一个文本，并认为这个单位可以是一个单位，任何级别的语言，他没有指出是什么文字，是和它如何可能来衡量翻译。 Halliday的概念，该条文的可能显着在这种情况下。他说，一个条款，是我国的一项基本单位。他区别的三项职能的条款：文本，人际和概念。据哈利迪，这些职能是不具备的词或短语。但他是不太成功的在分析之间的关系，第和文本（参见哈利迪1985年） 。在中国，有些人曾试图解决这个问题。王春（ 1987年： 10 ）更多或更少的股份bakhudarov的看法，认为翻译单位不能局限于只为服刑。在某些方面，音素，词，词组，句，段，或什至文本都可以充当一个单位。在这一点上，我们无法找到任何特殊的治疗文本翻译，除因文本作为最高级别之间的翻译单位。这不是目的，篇章语言学或话语分析。如果我们想申请这些理论和实践的翻译，我们会要求考的做法。
转摘More and more scholars are now showing an interest in adopting linguistic approaches to translation studies. Between 1949 and 1989, an incomplete survey by the author revealed that there were only about 30 textbook passages discussing the relationship between linguistics and translation, including aspects of general linguistics, pragmatics, stylistics, text linguistics, rhetoric and machine translation. From 1990 to 1994, there was an incredible increase in the number of passages looking at translation from a linguistic point of view. Almost 160 articles published over these five years concerned translation and general linguistics, stylistics, comparative linguistics, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, text linguistics, rhetoric, etc. New terms such as discourse analysis, hermeneutics, dynamic equivalence, deep structure and surface structure, context, theme and rheme, cooperative principles, to mention just a few, appeared in the field of translation studies. We can definitely identify a trend of applying linguistics theories to translation studies in these years. Today, we are at the point of questioning whether linguistics is a necessary part of translation. In recent years, some scholars who are in favour of free translation, have repeatedly raised this question to the public and appealed for an end to the linguistic approach to translation. Some firmly believe that translation is an art and that therefore linguistics is neither useful nor helpful. Such a claim is wrong if we look at translation as a whole, including scientific translation where meanings are rigid and restricted and the degree of freedom is limited. Flexibility, in this case, is neither required nor appreciated. But even in literary translation, linguistics is hardly a burden. Wang Zongyan pointed out that « If one sees linguistics as a body of rules regulating language, translators most probably will yawn with boredom. If it signifies the use of words and locutions to fit an occasion, there is nothing to stop translators from embracing linguistics » (Wang 1991: 38). The controversy over « literal » versus « free » translation has a long history, with convincing supporters on each side. For example, ancient Western scholars like Erasmus, Augustine, and others were in favour of literal translation. Among early Chinese translators, Kumarajiva is considered to be of the free school, while Xuan Zuang appears as literal and inflexible. In modern China, Yan Fu advocated hermeneutic translation, while Lu Xun preferred a clumsy version to one that was free but inexact. There is nothing wrong in any of these stances. When these translators emphasized free translation they never denied the possibility of literal translation, and vice versa. Problems only arise when the discussion turns to equivalent translations. The problem of equivalence has caused much controversy. Some people believed that there could be an equivalence of language elements independent of the setting in which they of occurred. Based on this assumption, some « literal » translators tried to decompose a text into single elements in hopes of finding equivalents in the target language. This is a naive idea. Jakobson (1971: 262) notes that « Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics. » He does not refer to « equivalence » but to « equivalence in difference » as the cardinal problem. Nida was also misunderstood by many for his notion of « equivalence, » which he took to mean that « Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style » (1969: 12). He further concluded that « Absolute equivalence in translating is never possible » (1984: 14). De Beaugrande and Dressler believed that the success or failure of either free or literal approaches was uncertain: an unduly « literal » translation might be awkward or even unintelligible, while an unduly « free » one might make the original text disintegrate and disappear altogether. To them, equivalence between a translation and an original can only be realized in the experience of the participants (cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler 1981: 216-217). Catford (1965: 27) expressed the same concern that equivalent translation is only « an empirical phenomenon, discovered by comparing SL and TL texts. » In citing the above examples, I have absolutely no intention of insisting on untranslatability. What I mean is that a translator should incorporate his or her own experience and processing activities into the text: solving the problems, reducing polyvalence, explaining away any discrepancies or discontinuities. Linguistic knowledge can help us treat different genres in different ways, always with an awareness that there are never exact equivalences but only approximations. Therefore, amplification and simplification become acceptable. If we agree that texts can be translated, then, in what way does linguistics contribute to translation? To answer this question, we must look at the acceptance of western linguistics in China and its influence on translation. Systematic and scientific study of the Chinese language came into being only at the end of the last century, when Ma Jianzhong published a grammar book Mashi Wentong «马氏文通» in 1898, which was the first in China and took the grammar of Indo-European languages as its model. The study of language was, in turn, influenced by translation studies in China. In Mashi Wenton, the main emphasis is on the use of morphology, which takes up six-sevenths of the book. Influenced by the dominant trend of morphological studies, a word was regarded as the minimum meaningful unit, and a sentence was therefore the logical combination of words of various specific types. Translation was, then, principally based on the unit of the word. In the West, Biblical translation provided a very good example, just as the translation of Buddhist scriptures did in China. Not until the end of the 19th century did some linguists come to realize that sentences were not just the summary of the sequenced words they contained. The Prague School, founded in the 1920s, made a considerable contribution to the study of syntax. According to the analytic approach of the Functional Perspective of the Prague School, a sentence can be broken down into two parts: theme and rheme. Theme is opposed to rheme in a manner similar to the distinction between topic and comment, and is defined as the part of a sentence which contributes least to advancing the process of communication. Rheme, on the other hand, is the part of a sentence which adds most to advancing the process of communication and has the highest degree of communicative dynamism. These two terms help enlighten the process of translating Chinese into English. In the mid-1950s, the study of syntax peaked with the Chomsky's establishment of transformational-generative grammar. This theory of the deep structure and surface structure of language influenced translation tremendously. Nida relied heavily on this theory in developing his « analyzing-transfering-reconstructing » pattern for translation. Some Chinese linguists, in the meantime, tried to raise language studies to a higher plane. Li Jinxi (1982) enlarged the role of sentence studies in his book A New Chinese Grammar, two thirds of which was devoted to discussing sentence formation or syntax. He writes that « No words can be identified except in the context of a sentence. » The study was then improved by other grammarians, including Lu Shuxiang, Wang Li. With the development of linguistic studies, translation based on the unit of the sentence was put forward by some scholars. It was Lin Yu-Tang who first applied the theory to translation in his article « On Translation. » He claimed that « translation should be done on the basis of the sentence [...] What a translator should be faithful to is not the individual words but the meaning conveyed by them » (Lin 1984: r 3). The importance of context in the understanding of a sentence was therefore emphasized. Chao Yuanren, a Chinese scholar and professor at Harvard University, criticized scholars and translators who tended to forget this point and take language for something independent and self-sufficient. In fact, it is obvious that when we translate a sentence, we depend on its context; when we interpret an utterance we rely on the context of the speech (cf. Chao 1967). When a sentence is removed from the text, it usually becomes ambiguous due to the lack of context. Therefore, translation becomes difficult. In the 1960s, people began to realize that the study of language based on sentences was not even sufficient. A complete study should be made of the whole text. A simple sentence like « George passed » may have different interpretations in different contexts. If the context is that of an examination, it means George did well on a test; in a card game it would indicate that George declined his chance to bid; in sports it would mean the ball reached another player. Without a context, how could we decide on a translation? Linguists therefore shifted their attention to the study of texts and to discourse analysis. Text linguistics have become increasingly popular since that time. Van Dijk was a pioneer in this field, and his four-volume edition of the Handbook of Discourse Analysis is of great value. Halliday's Cohesion in English and Introduction to Functional Grammar help us to better understand the English language on a textual level. It is worth noting that de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) provided an overall and systematic study of text, which is useful to translation studies. De Beaugrande actually wrote a book called Factors in a Theory of Poetic Translating in 1978. The book did not become very popular as it confined the discussion to translating poetry. At the same time, books on a linguistic approach to translation were introduced into China, such as the works of Eugene Nida, Peter Newmarks, J.C. Catford, Georges Mounin, and others. These books gave a great push to the application of linguistic theories to translation studies in China. Textual or discoursive approaches to the study of translation could not keep pace with the development of text linguistics. Some studies remained on the syntactic or semantic level, though even there textual devices were employed. In talking about the translation units of word and text, Nida wrote: ... average person naively thinks that language is words, the common tacit assumption results that translation involves replacing a word in language A with a word in language B. And the more « conscientious » this sort of translation is, the more acute. In other words, the traditional focus of attention in translation was on the word. It was recognized that that was not a sufficiently large unit, and therefore the focus shifted to the sentence. But again, expert translators and linguists have been able to demonstrate that individual sentences, in turn, are not enough. The focus should be on the paragraph, and to some extent on the total discourse. (Nida and Tabber 1969: 152) From that statement we can see that Nida regards a discourse as something larger than a paragraph, as an article with a beginning and an ending. Nida himself never applied text linguistics to translation, and there might be some confusion if we use his term in our interpretation of discourse, because discourse analysis is not merely a study based on a larger language structure. Some Chinese scholars did make the effort to apply text linguistics to the theory and practice of translation. Wang Bingqin's article (1987) was the first academic paper of this sort. He stated his aim to study and discover the rules governing the internal structure of a text in light of text linguistics. He analyzed numerous examples using textual analysis, but unfortunately, all the samples he collected were descriptions of scenery or quotations from the books of great scholars--no dialogue, no illocutionary or perlocutionary forces in the language. He failed to provide a variety of examples. For this reason, his research findings are largely restricted to rhetorical texts in ancient China (cf. Wang 1981; Luo 1994). Scholars like He Ziran applied pragamatics to translation. He's article (1992) put forth two new terms, « pragmalinguistics » and « socio-pragmatics » which, in translation, refer respectively to « the study of pragmatic force or language use from the viewpoint of linguistic sources » and to « the pragmatic studies which examine the conditions on language use that derive from the social and cultural situation. » He discusses the possibility of applying the pragmatic approach to translation in order to achieve a pragmatic equivalent effect between source and target texts; that is, to reproduce the message carried by the source language itself, as well as the meaning carried by the source language within its context and culture. In this article he tries to distinguish « pragma-linguistics » from « socio-pragmatics » but finally admits that « Actually, a clear line between pragma-linguistics and socio-pragmatics may sometimes be difficult to draw. » Still he insists that the application of the pragmatic approach to translation is helpful and even necessary. Ke Wenli (1992) argued that semantics, which in a broad sense combines semantics and pragmatics, should be studied to help understand, explain and solve some of the problems encountered in translation. In this article, he examines four semantic terms--« sense and reference, » « hyponomy, » « changes of meaning » and « context »--giving many examples to illusrate the importance of having some general knowledge of semantics and of understanding the relationship between semantics and translation. This article is clearly written and readers can easily draw inspiration from it. These linguistics approaches shed new lights on the criteria of « faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance » defined by Yan Fu. Chinese scholars began to criticize the vagueness of these three criteria and endeavored to give them concrete significance through the theories of western linguistics. The result is that the content of these three traditional criteria has been greatly enriched, especially by the effect equivalence theory, which in a broad sense means that the target language should be equivalent to the source language from a semantic, pragmatic, and stylistic point of view. But we are still unable to evaluate translations in a very scientific way. Therefore, Chinese scholars like Fan Shouyi, Xu Shenghuan and Mu Lei embarked on quantitative analyses of translations and used the fuzzy set theory of mathematics in accomplishing their analysis. Fan published several articles on this field of study. His 1987 and 1990 articles evaluate translations according to a numerical quantity of faithfulness. Xu's article « A Mathematical Model for Evaluating a Translation's Quality » presents a normal mathematical model. He states that it is difficult to produce an absolutely accurate evaluation of translations with this model because of the uncertainty and randomness of man's thought process. Making such analysis more accurate and objective would require further research. The unit in translation is a hard nut to crack. Without solving this problem, no research in translation studies will ever be sufficient. To date, very few people have focused their research on this area. Nida holds that the unit should be the sentence, and in a certain sense, the discourse. Barkhudarov (1993: 40), Soviet linguist and translation theorist, suggests that: translation is the process of transforming a speech product (or text) produced in one language into a speech product (or text) in another language. [...] It follows that the most important task of the translator who carries out the process of transformation, and of the theorist who describes or creates a model for that process, is to establish the minimal unit of translation, as it is generally called, the unit of translation in the source text. Though he notes the importance of the unit of translation in a text and considers that this unit can be a unit on any level of language, he fails to point out what a text is and how it might be measured in translation. Halliday's notion of the clause might be significant in this case. To him, a clause is a basic unit. He distinguishes three functions of a clause: textual, interpersonal and ideational. According to Halliday, these functions are not possessed by word or phrase. But he is not quite successful in analyzing the relationship between clause and text (cf. Halliday 1985). In China, some people have tried to solve this problem. Wang Dechun (1987: 10) more or less shares Bakhudarov's view that the translation unit cannot be confined just to sentences. In some ways, the phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or even text can all serve as a unit. At this point, we cannot find anything special in treating text translation except for having text as the highest level among translation units. This is not the aim of text linguistics or discourse analysis. If we want to apply these to the theory and practice of translation, we will require a textual approach.
自己从网上转帖和编辑了下，总结了包括语言学、语用学、翻译、跨文化交际、二语习得、测试、教学法等方向的参考书籍 社会心理语言学 上海外教 王德春 2000 对比语言学概论 上海外教 许余龙 2000 语义学 上海外教 李瑞华 2000 语义理论与语言教学 上海外教 王 寅 2001 国俗语义研究 上海外教 吴友富 1999 当代西方语法理论 上海外教 俞如珍 2000 英汉修辞比较研究 上海外教 胡曙中 1999 美国新修辞学研究 上海外教 胡曙中 1999 英汉语言文化对比研究 上海外教 李瑞华 2000 英汉对比研究论文集 上海外教 李自俭 1999 现代修辞学 上海外教 王德春 2001 辞格与词汇 上海外教 李国南 2001 中国英汉翻译教材研究(1949-1998) 上海外教 张美芳 2001 语篇分析的理论与实践 上海外教 黄国文 2001 系统功能语言学多维思考 上海外教 朱永生 2001 现代语言学丛书 上海外教 新编心理语言学 上海外教 桂诗春 2000 心理语言学 上海外教 桂诗春 2000 语言问题探索 上海外教 王宗炎 2000 生成语法理论 上海外教 徐烈炯 2000 美国语言学简史 上海外教 赵世开 1999 汉语的语义结构和补语形式 上海外教 缪锦安 2000 应用语言学 上海外教 刘涌泉 2000 语篇的衔接与连贯 上海外教 胡壮麟 2000 神经语言学 上海外教 王德春 2000 自然语言的计算机处理 上海外教 冯志伟 1996 现代语言学的特点和发展趋势 上海外教 戚雨村 2000 语言学和语言的应用 上海外教 王宗炎 2000 语言系统及其运作 上海外教 程雨民 1998 模糊语言学 上海外教 伍铁平 2000 汉英对比语法论集 上海外教 赵世开 2000 语言共性论 上海外教 程 工 2000 语义学教程 上海外教 李福印 2000 教学篇章语言学 上海外教 刘辰诞 2000 英语语言学纲要 上海外教 丁言仁 2001 交际法英语教学和考试评估 上海外教 徐 强 2000 英汉语篇衔接手段对比研究 上海外教 朱永生 2001 认知语言学概论 上海外教 赵艳芳 2001 新编语用学概要 上海外教 何兆熊 2000 语法的多视角研究 上海外教 金立鑫 2000 英语词汇学研究 上海外教 汪榕培 2000 英汉语篇综合对比 上海外教 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2000 跨文化非语言交际 外研社 毕继万 2000 跨文化交际学概论 外研社 胡文仲 2000 英语习语与英美文化 外研社 平 洪 2000 跨文化交际面面观 外研社 胡文仲 1999 俄汉语言文化习俗探讨 外研社 刘光准 1999 语言与文化论文集 外研社 二十一世纪大学英语教学改革 外研社 中国辞书学文集 外研社 2000 汉英篇章对比研究 外研社 论新开端:文学与翻译研究集 外研社 文化与交际 外研社 许国璋先生纪念文集 外研社 陶渊明诗歌英译比较研究 外研社 语言与文化 外研社 邓炎昌 2001 中西人际称谓系统 外研社 田惠刚 1998 中国语言学的现状与展望 外研社 许嘉璐 1998 语言要略 外研社 方 立 1999 语言学方法论 外研社 桂诗春 1998 西方语言学流派 外研社 刘润清 1999 文化与语言 外研社 王福祥 2000 许国璋论语言 外研社 功能主义纵横谈 外研社 胡壮麟 2000 洪堡特--人文研究和语言研究 外研社 语言学教程 外研社 2000 当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库： 语言论:言语研究导论 外研社 Sapir 2001 普通语言学教程 外研社 Saussure 2001 语言论 外研社 Bloomfiefd 2001 语言学综览 外研社 Aronoff 2001 语言学理论:对基要原著的语篇研究 外研社 Beaugrande 2001 吉姆林英语语音教程 外研社 Cruttenden 2001 音系学通解 外研社 Gussenhouen 2001 汉语方言的连读变调模式 外研社 Chen 2001 优选论 外研社 kaqer 2001 汉语形态学:语言认知研究法 外研社 Packard 2001 转换生成语法导论:从原则和参数到最简方案 外研社 Ouhalla 2001 当代句法理论通览 外研社 Ballin 2001 乔姆斯基:思想与理想 外研社 Smith 2001 语言知识及其本质、来源和使用 外研社 Chomsky 2001 当代语义理论指南 外研社 Lappin 2001 关联性:交际与认知 外研社 Sperber 2001 语用学引论 外研社 May 2001 语用学 外研社 Leuinsou 2001 言辞用法研究 外研社 Grice 2001 如何以言行事 外研社 Austin 2001 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语言学可以写的内容很多。基本上不外乎以下一些:一，语音类如语音的属性、音韵与语音的关系、强弱、轻浊、音节等二，词汇类如词汇形态学，语义学，构词，词化，语义场等等三，语法类如语法结构，层次，修辞等四，句子类如分析句子的各种成分，语序，基本句型等五，语篇类如连贯性，思维逻辑性，结构修辞，主体与客体意识等这方面的教材很多，就看你的要求了。现在英语与汉语的对比语言学和对比文学比较热，从这方面下手也不错。
转摘More and more scholars are now showing an interest in adopting linguistic approaches to translation studies. Between 1949 and 1989, an incomplete survey by the author revealed that there were only about 30 textbook passages discussing the relationship between linguistics and translation, including aspects of general linguistics, pragmatics, stylistics, text linguistics, rhetoric and machine translation. From 1990 to 1994, there was an incredible increase in the number of passages looking at translation from a linguistic point of view. Almost 160 articles published over these five years concerned translation and general linguistics, stylistics, comparative linguistics, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, text linguistics, rhetoric, etc. New terms such as discourse analysis, hermeneutics, dynamic equivalence, deep structure and surface structure, context, theme and rheme, cooperative principles, to mention just a few, appeared in the field of translation studies. We can definitely identify a trend of applying linguistics theories to translation studies in these years. Today, we are at the point of questioning whether linguistics is a necessary part of translation. In recent years, some scholars who are in favour of free translation, have repeatedly raised this question to the public and appealed for an end to the linguistic approach to translation. Some firmly believe that translation is an art and that therefore linguistics is neither useful nor helpful. Such a claim is wrong if we look at translation as a whole, including scientific translation where meanings are rigid and restricted and the degree of freedom is limited. Flexibility, in this case, is neither required nor appreciated. But even in literary translation, linguistics is hardly a burden. Wang Zongyan pointed out that « If one sees linguistics as a body of rules regulating language, translators most probably will yawn with boredom. If it signifies the use of words and locutions to fit an occasion, there is nothing to stop translators from embracing linguistics » (Wang 1991: 38). The controversy over « literal » versus « free » translation has a long history, with convincing supporters on each side. For example, ancient Western scholars like Erasmus, Augustine, and others were in favour of literal translation. Among early Chinese translators, Kumarajiva is considered to be of the free school, while Xuan Zuang appears as literal and inflexible. In modern China, Yan Fu advocated hermeneutic translation, while Lu Xun preferred a clumsy version to one that was free but inexact. There is nothing wrong in any of these stances. When these translators emphasized free translation they never denied the possibility of literal translation, and vice versa. Problems only arise when the discussion turns to equivalent translations. The problem of equivalence has caused much controversy. Some people believed that there could be an equivalence of language elements independent of the setting in which they of occurred. Based on this assumption, some « literal » translators tried to decompose a text into single elements in hopes of finding equivalents in the target language. This is a naive idea. Jakobson (1971: 262) notes that « Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics. » He does not refer to « equivalence » but to « equivalence in difference » as the cardinal problem. Nida was also misunderstood by many for his notion of « equivalence, » which he took to mean that « Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style » (1969: 12). He further concluded that « Absolute equivalence in translating is never possible » (1984: 14). De Beaugrande and Dressler believed that the success or failure of either free or literal approaches was uncertain: an unduly « literal » translation might be awkward or even unintelligible, while an unduly « free » one might make the original text disintegrate and disappear altogether. To them, equivalence between a translation and an original can only be realized in the experience of the participants (cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler 1981: 216-217). Catford (1965: 27) expressed the same concern that equivalent translation is only « an empirical phenomenon, discovered by comparing SL and TL texts. » In citing the above examples, I have absolutely no intention of insisting on untranslatability. What I mean is that a translator should incorporate his or her own experience and processing activities into the text: solving the problems, reducing polyvalence, explaining away any discrepancies or discontinuities. Linguistic knowledge can help us treat different genres in different ways, always with an awareness that there are never exact equivalences but only approximations. Therefore, amplification and simplification become acceptable. If we agree that texts can be translated, then, in what way does linguistics contribute to translation? To answer this question, we must look at the acceptance of western linguistics in China and its influence on translation. Systematic and scientific study of the Chinese language came into being only at the end of the last century, when Ma Jianzhong published a grammar book Mashi Wentong «马氏文通» in 1898, which was the first in China and took the grammar of Indo-European languages as its model. The study of language was, in turn, influenced by translation studies in China. In Mashi Wenton, the main emphasis is on the use of morphology, which takes up six-sevenths of the book. Influenced by the dominant trend of morphological studies, a word was regarded as the minimum meaningful unit, and a sentence was therefore the logical combination of words of various specific types. Translation was, then, principally based on the unit of the word. In the West, Biblical translation provided a very good example, just as the translation of Buddhist scriptures did in China. Not until the end of the 19th century did some linguists come to realize that sentences were not just the summary of the sequenced words they contained. The Prague School, founded in the 1920s, made a considerable contribution to the study of syntax. According to the analytic approach of the Functional Perspective of the Prague School, a sentence can be broken down into two parts: theme and rheme. Theme is opposed to rheme in a manner similar to the distinction between topic and comment, and is defined as the part of a sentence which contributes least to advancing the process of communication. Rheme, on the other hand, is the part of a sentence which adds most to advancing the process of communication and has the highest degree of communicative dynamism. These two terms help enlighten the process of translating Chinese into English. In the mid-1950s, the study of syntax peaked with the Chomsky's establishment of transformational-generative grammar. This theory of the deep structure and surface structure of language influenced translation tremendously. Nida relied heavily on this theory in developing his « analyzing-transfering-reconstructing » pattern for translation. Some Chinese linguists, in the meantime, tried to raise language studies to a higher plane. Li Jinxi (1982) enlarged the role of sentence studies in his book A New Chinese Grammar, two thirds of which was devoted to discussing sentence formation or syntax. He writes that « No words can be identified except in the context of a sentence. » The study was then improved by other grammarians, including Lu Shuxiang, Wang Li. With the development of linguistic studies, translation based on the unit of the sentence was put forward by some scholars. It was Lin Yu-Tang who first applied the theory to translation in his article « On Translation. » He claimed that « translation should be done on the basis of the sentence [...] What a translator should be faithful to is not the individual words but the meaning conveyed by them » (Lin 1984: r 3). The importance of context in the understanding of a sentence was therefore emphasized. Chao Yuanren, a Chinese scholar and professor at Harvard University, criticized scholars and translators who tended to forget this point and take language for something independent and self-sufficient. In fact, it is obvious that when we translate a sentence, we depend on its context; when we interpret an utterance we rely on the context of the speech (cf. Chao 1967). When a sentence is removed from the text, it usually becomes ambiguous due to the lack of context. Therefore, translation becomes difficult. In the 1960s, people began to realize that the study of language based on sentences was not even sufficient. A complete study should be made of the whole text. A simple sentence like « George passed » may have different interpretations in different contexts. If the context is that of an examination, it means George did well on a test; in a card game it would indicate that George declined his chance to bid; in sports it would mean the ball reached another player. Without a context, how could we decide on a translation? Linguists therefore shifted their attention to the study of texts and to discourse analysis. Text linguistics have become increasingly popular since that time. Van Dijk was a pioneer in this field, and his four-volume edition of the Handbook of Discourse Analysis is of great value. Halliday's Cohesion in English and Introduction to Functional Grammar help us to better understand the English language on a textual level. It is worth noting that de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) provided an overall and systematic study of text, which is useful to translation studies. De Beaugrande actually wrote a book called Factors in a Theory of Poetic Translating in 1978. The book did not become very popular as it confined the discussion to translating poetry. At the same time, books on a linguistic approach to translation were introduced into China, such as the works of Eugene Nida, Peter Newmarks, J.C. Catford, Georges Mounin, and others. These books gave a great push to the application of linguistic theories to translation studies in China. Textual or discoursive approaches to the study of translation could not keep pace with the development of text linguistics. Some studies remained on the syntactic or semantic level, though even there textual devices were employed. In talking about the translation units of word and text, Nida wrote: ... average person naively thinks that language is words, the common tacit assumption results that translation involves replacing a word in language A with a word in language B. And the more « conscientious » this sort of translation is, the more acute. In other words, the traditional focus of attention in translation was on the word. It was recognized that that was not a sufficiently large unit, and therefore the focus shifted to the sentence. But again, expert translators and linguists have been able to demonstrate that individual sentences, in turn, are not enough. The focus should be on the paragraph, and to some extent on the total discourse. (Nida and Tabber 1969: 152) From that statement we can see that Nida regards a discourse as something larger than a paragraph, as an article with a beginning and an ending. Nida himself never applied text linguistics to translation, and there might be some confusion if we use his term in our interpretation of discourse, because discourse analysis is not merely a study based on a larger language structure. Some Chinese scholars did make the effort to apply text linguistics to the theory and practice of translation. Wang Bingqin's article (1987) was the first academic paper of this sort. He stated his aim to study and discover the rules governing the internal structure of a text in light of text linguistics. He analyzed numerous examples using textual analysis, but unfortunately, all the samples he collected were descriptions of scenery or quotations from the books of great scholars--no dialogue, no illocutionary or perlocutionary forces in the language. He failed to provide a variety of examples. For this reason, his research findings are largely restricted to rhetorical texts in ancient China (cf. Wang 1981; Luo 1994). Scholars like He Ziran applied pragamatics to translation. He's article (1992) put forth two new terms, « pragmalinguistics » and « socio-pragmatics » which, in translation, refer respectively to « the study of pragmatic force or language use from the viewpoint of linguistic sources » and to « the pragmatic studies which examine the conditions on language use that derive from the social and cultural situation. » He discusses the possibility of applying the pragmatic approach to translation in order to achieve a pragmatic equivalent effect between source and target texts; that is, to reproduce the message carried by the source language itself, as well as the meaning carried by the source language within its context and culture. In this article he tries to distinguish « pragma-linguistics » from « socio-pragmatics » but finally admits that « Actually, a clear line between pragma-linguistics and socio-pragmatics may sometimes be difficult to draw. » Still he insists that the application of the pragmatic approach to translation is helpful and even necessary. Ke Wenli (1992) argued that semantics, which in a broad sense combines semantics and pragmatics, should be studied to help understand, explain and solve some of the problems encountered in translation. In this article, he examines four semantic terms--« sense and reference, » « hyponomy, » « changes of meaning » and « context »--giving many examples to illusrate the importance of having some general knowledge of semantics and of understanding the relationship between semantics and translation. This article is clearly written and readers can easily draw inspiration from it. These linguistics approaches shed new lights on the criteria of « faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance » defined by Yan Fu. Chinese scholars began to criticize the vagueness of these three criteria and endeavored to give them concrete significance through the theories of western linguistics. The result is that the content of these three traditional criteria has been greatly enriched, especially by the effect equivalence theory, which in a broad sense means that the target language should be equivalent to the source language from a semantic, pragmatic, and stylistic point of view. But we are still unable to evaluate translations in a very scientific way. Therefore, Chinese scholars like Fan Shouyi, Xu Shenghuan and Mu Lei embarked on quantitative analyses of translations and used the fuzzy set theory of mathematics in accomplishing their analysis. Fan published several articles on this field of study. His 1987 and 1990 articles evaluate translations according to a numerical quantity of faithfulness. Xu's article « A Mathematical Model for Evaluating a Translation's Quality » presents a normal mathematical model. He states that it is difficult to produce an absolutely accurate evaluation of translations with this model because of the uncertainty and randomness of man's thought process. Making such analysis more accurate and objective would require further research. The unit in translation is a hard nut to crack. Without solving this problem, no research in translation studies will ever be sufficient. To date, very few people have focused their research on this area. Nida holds that the unit should be the sentence, and in a certain sense, the discourse. Barkhudarov (1993: 40), Soviet linguist and translation theorist, suggests that: translation is the process of transforming a speech product (or text) produced in one language into a speech product (or text) in another language. [...] It follows that the most important task of the translator who carries out the process of transformation, and of the theorist who describes or creates a model for that process, is to establish the minimal unit of translation, as it is generally called, the unit of translation in the source text. Though he notes the importance of the unit of translation in a text and considers that this unit can be a unit on any level of language, he fails to point out what a text is and how it might be measured in translation. Halliday's notion of the clause might be significant in this case. To him, a clause is a basic unit. He distinguishes three functions of a clause: textual, interpersonal and ideational. According to Halliday, these functions are not possessed by word or phrase. But he is not quite successful in analyzing the relationship between clause and text (cf. Halliday 1985). In China, some people have tried to solve this problem. Wang Dechun (1987: 10) more or less shares Bakhudarov's view that the translation unit cannot be confined just to sentences. In some ways, the phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or even text can all serve as a unit. At this point, we cannot find anything special in treating text translation except for having text as the highest level among translation units. This is not the aim of text linguistics or discourse analysis. If we want to apply these to the theory and practice of translation, we will require a textual approach.
转摘More and more scholars are now showing an interest in adopting linguistic approaches to translation studies. Between 1949 and 1989, an incomplete survey by the author revealed that there were only about 30 textbook passages discussing the relationship between linguistics and translation, including aspects of general linguistics, pragmatics, stylistics, text linguistics, rhetoric and machine translation. From 1990 to 1994, there was an incredible increase in the number of passages looking at translation from a linguistic point of view. Almost 160 articles published over these five years concerned translation and general linguistics, stylistics, comparative linguistics, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, text linguistics, rhetoric, etc. New terms such as discourse analysis, hermeneutics, dynamic equivalence, deep structure and surface structure, context, theme and rheme, cooperative principles, to mention just a few, appeared in the field of translation studies. We can definitely identify a trend of applying linguistics theories to translation studies in these years. Today, we are at the point of questioning whether linguistics is a necessary part of translation. In recent years, some scholars who are in favour of free translation, have repeatedly raised this question to the public and appealed for an end to the linguistic approach to translation. Some firmly believe that translation is an art and that therefore linguistics is neither useful nor helpful. Such a claim is wrong if we look at translation as a whole, including scientific translation where meanings are rigid and restricted and the degree of freedom is limited. Flexibility, in this case, is neither required nor appreciated. But even in literary translation, linguistics is hardly a burden. Wang Zongyan pointed out that « If one sees linguistics as a body of rules regulating language, translators most probably will yawn with boredom. If it signifies the use of words and locutions to fit an occasion, there is nothing to stop translators from embracing linguistics » (Wang 1991: 38). The controversy over « literal » versus « free » translation has a long history, with convincing supporters on each side. For example, ancient Western scholars like Erasmus, Augustine, and others were in favour of literal translation. Among early Chinese translators, Kumarajiva is considered to be of the free school, while Xuan Zuang appears as literal and inflexible. In modern China, Yan Fu advocated hermeneutic translation, while Lu Xun preferred a clumsy version to one that was free but inexact. There is nothing wrong in any of these stances. When these translators emphasized free translation they never denied the possibility of literal translation, and vice versa. Problems only arise when the discussion turns to equivalent translations. The problem of equivalence has caused much controversy. Some people believed that there could be an equivalence of language elements independent of the setting in which they of occurred. Based on this assumption, some « literal » translators tried to decompose a text into single elements in hopes of finding equivalents in the target language. This is a naive idea. Jakobson (1971: 262) notes that « Equivalence in difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics. » He does not refer to « equivalence » but to « equivalence in difference » as the cardinal problem. Nida was also misunderstood by many for his notion of « equivalence, » which he took to mean that « Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style » (1969: 12). He further concluded that « Absolute equivalence in translating is never possible » (1984: 14). De Beaugrande and Dressler believed that the success or failure of either free or literal approaches was uncertain: an unduly « literal » translation might be awkward or even unintelligible, while an unduly « free » one might make the original text disintegrate and disappear altogether. To them, equivalence between a translation and an original can only be realized in the experience of the participants (cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler 1981: 216-217). Catford (1965: 27) expressed the same concern that equivalent translation is only « an empirical phenomenon, discovered by comparing SL and TL texts. » In citing the above examples, I have absolutely no intention of insisting on untranslatability. What I mean is that a translator should incorporate his or her own experience and processing activities into the text: solving the problems, reducing polyvalence, explaining away any discrepancies or discontinuities. Linguistic knowledge can help us treat different genres in different ways, always with an awareness that there are never exact equivalences but only approximations. Therefore, amplification and simplification become acceptable. If we agree that texts can be translated, then, in what way does linguistics contribute to translation? To answer this question, we must look at the acceptance of western linguistics in China and its influence on translation. Systematic and scientific study of the Chinese language came into being only at the end of the last century, when Ma Jianzhong published a grammar book Mashi Wentong «马氏文通» in 1898, which was the first in China and took the grammar of Indo-European languages as its model. The study of language was, in turn, influenced by translation studies in China. In Mashi Wenton, the main emphasis is on the use of morphology, which takes up six-sevenths of the book. Influenced by the dominant trend of morphological studies, a word was regarded as the minimum meaningful unit, and a sentence was therefore the logical combination of words of various specific types. Translation was, then, principally based on the unit of the word. In the West, Biblical translation provided a very good example, just as the translation of Buddhist scriptures did in China. Not until the end of the 19th century did some linguists come to realize that sentences were not just the summary of the sequenced words they contained. The Prague School, founded in the 1920s, made a considerable contribution to the study of syntax. According to the analytic approach of the Functional Perspective of the Prague School, a sentence can be broken down into two parts: theme and rheme. Theme is opposed to rheme in a manner similar to the distinction between topic and comment, and is defined as the part of a sentence which contributes least to advancing the process of communication. Rheme, on the other hand, is the part of a sentence which adds most to advancing the process of communication and has the highest degree of communicative dynamism. These two terms help enlighten the process of translating Chinese into English. In the mid-1950s, the study of syntax peaked with the Chomsky's establishment of transformational-generative grammar. This theory of the deep structure and surface structure of language influenced translation tremendously. Nida relied heavily on this theory in developing his « analyzing-transfering-reconstructing » pattern for translation. Some Chinese linguists, in the meantime, tried to raise language studies to a higher plane. Li Jinxi (1982) enlarged the role of sentence studies in his book A New Chinese Grammar, two thirds of which was devoted to discussing sentence formation or syntax. He writes that « No words can be identified except in the context of a sentence. » The study was then improved by other grammarians, including Lu Shuxiang, Wang Li. With the development of linguistic studies, translation based on the unit of the sentence was put forward by some scholars. It was Lin Yu-Tang who first applied the theory to translation in his article « On Translation. » He claimed that « translation should be done on the basis of the sentence [...] What a translator should be faithful to is not the individual words but the meaning conveyed by them » (Lin 1984: r 3). The importance of context in the understanding of a sentence was therefore emphasized. Chao Yuanren, a Chinese scholar and professor at Harvard University, criticized scholars and translators who tended to forget this point and take language for something independent and self-sufficient. In fact, it is obvious that when we translate a sentence, we depend on its context; when we interpret an utterance we rely on the context of the speech (cf. Chao 1967). When a sentence is removed from the text, it usually becomes ambiguous due to the lack of context. Therefore, translation becomes difficult. In the 1960s, people began to realize that the study of language based on sentences was not even sufficient. A complete study should be made of the whole text. A simple sentence like « George passed » may have different interpretations in different contexts. If the context is that of an examination, it means George did well on a test; in a card game it would indicate that George declined his chance to bid; in sports it would mean the ball reached another player. Without a context, how could we decide on a translation? Linguists therefore shifted their attention to the study of texts and to discourse analysis. Text linguistics have become increasingly popular since that time. Van Dijk was a pioneer in this field, and his four-volume edition of the Handbook of Discourse Analysis is of great value. Halliday's Cohesion in English and Introduction to Functional Grammar help us to better understand the English language on a textual level. It is worth noting that de Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) provided an overall and systematic study of text, which is useful to translation studies. De Beaugrande actually wrote a book called Factors in a Theory of Poetic Translating in 1978. The book did not become very popular as it confined the discussion to translating poetry. At the same time, books on a linguistic approach to translation were introduced into China, such as the works of Eugene Nida, Peter Newmarks, J.C. Catford, Georges Mounin, and others. These books gave a great push to the application of linguistic theories to translation studies in China. Textual or discoursive approaches to the study of translation could not keep pace with the development of text linguistics. Some studies remained on the syntactic or semantic level, though even there textual devices were employed. In talking about the translation units of word and text, Nida wrote: ... average person naively thinks that language is words, the common tacit assumption results that translation involves replacing a word in language A with a word in language B. And the more « conscientious » this sort of translation is, the more acute. In other words, the traditional focus of attention in translation was on the word. It was recognized that that was not a sufficiently large unit, and therefore the focus shifted to the sentence. But again, expert translators and linguists have been able to demonstrate that individual sentences, in turn, are not enough. The focus should be on the paragraph, and to some extent on the total discourse. (Nida and Tabber 1969: 152) From that statement we can see that Nida regards a discourse as something larger than a paragraph, as an article with a beginning and an ending. Nida himself never applied text linguistics to translation, and there might be some confusion if we use his term in our interpretation of discourse, because discourse analysis is not merely a study based on a larger language structure. Some Chinese scholars did make the effort to apply text linguistics to the theory and practice of translation. Wang Bingqin's article (1987) was the first academic paper of this sort. He stated his aim to study and discover the rules governing the internal structure of a text in light of text linguistics. He analyzed numerous examples using textual analysis, but unfortunately, all the samples he collected were descriptions of scenery or quotations from the books of great scholars--no dialogue, no illocutionary or perlocutionary forces in the language. He failed to provide a variety of examples. For this reason, his research findings are largely restricted to rhetorical texts in ancient China (cf. Wang 1981; Luo 1994). Scholars like He Ziran applied pragamatics to translation. He's article (1992) put forth two new terms, « pragmalinguistics » and « socio-pragmatics » which, in translation, refer respectively to « the study of pragmatic force or language use from the viewpoint of linguistic sources » and to « the pragmatic studies which examine the conditions on language use that derive from the social and cultural situation. » He discusses the possibility of applying the pragmatic approach to translation in order to achieve a pragmatic equivalent effect between source and target texts; that is, to reproduce the message carried by the source language itself, as well as the meaning carried by the source language within its context and culture. In this article he tries to distinguish « pragma-linguistics » from « socio-pragmatics » but finally admits that « Actually, a clear line between pragma-linguistics and socio-pragmatics may sometimes be difficult to draw. » Still he insists that the application of the pragmatic approach to translation is helpful and even necessary. Ke Wenli (1992) argued that semantics, which in a broad sense combines semantics and pragmatics, should be studied to help understand, explain and solve some of the problems encountered in translation. In this article, he examines four semantic terms--« sense and reference, » « hyponomy, » « changes of meaning » and « context »--giving many examples to illusrate the importance of having some general knowledge of semantics and of understanding the relationship between semantics and translation. This article is clearly written and readers can easily draw inspiration from it. These linguistics approaches shed new lights on the criteria of « faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance » defined by Yan Fu. Chinese scholars began to criticize the vagueness of these three criteria and endeavored to give them concrete significance through the theories of western linguistics. The result is that the content of these three traditional criteria has been greatly enriched, especially by the effect equivalence theory, which in a broad sense means that the target language should be equivalent to the source language from a semantic, pragmatic, and stylistic point of view. But we are still unable to evaluate translations in a very scientific way. Therefore, Chinese scholars like Fan Shouyi, Xu Shenghuan and Mu Lei embarked on quantitative analyses of translations and used the fuzzy set theory of mathematics in accomplishing their analysis. Fan published several articles on this field of study. His 1987 and 1990 articles evaluate translations according to a numerical quantity of faithfulness. Xu's article « A Mathematical Model for Evaluating a Translation's Quality » presents a normal mathematical model. He states that it is difficult to produce an absolutely accurate evaluation of translations with this model because of the uncertainty and randomness of man's thought process. Making such analysis more accurate and objective would require further research. The unit in translation is a hard nut to crack. Without solving this problem, no research in translation studies will ever be sufficient. To date, very few people have focused their research on this area. Nida holds that the unit should be the sentence, and in a certain sense, the discourse. Barkhudarov (1993: 40), Soviet linguist and translation theorist, suggests that: translation is the process of transforming a speech product (or text) produced in one language into a speech product (or text) in another language. [...] It follows that the most important task of the translator who carries out the process of transformation, and of the theorist who describes or creates a model for that process, is to establish the minimal unit of translation, as it is generally called, the unit of translation in the source text. Though he notes the importance of the unit of translation in a text and considers that this unit can be a unit on any level of language, he fails to point out what a text is and how it might be measured in translation. Halliday's notion of the clause might be significant in this case. To him, a clause is a basic unit. He distinguishes three functions of a clause: textual, interpersonal and ideational. According to Halliday, these functions are not possessed by word or phrase. But he is not quite successful in analyzing the relationship between clause and text (cf. Halliday 1985). In China, some people have tried to solve this problem. Wang Dechun (1987: 10) more or less shares Bakhudarov's view that the translation unit cannot be confined just to sentences. In some ways, the phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or even text can all serve as a unit. At this point, we cannot find anything special in treating text translation except for having text as the highest level among translation units. This is not the aim of text linguistics or discourse analysis. If we want to apply these to the theory and practice of translation, we will require a textual approach.
语言学可以写的内容很多。基本上不外乎以下一些：一，语音类如语音的属性、音韵与语音的关系、强弱、轻浊、音节等二，词汇类如词汇形态学，语义学，构词，词化，语义场等等三，语法类如语法结构，层次，修辞等四，句子类如分析句子的各种成分，语序，基本句型等五，语篇类如连贯性，思维逻辑性，结构修辞，主体与客体意识等这方面的教材很多，就看你的要求了。现在英语与汉语的对比语言学和对比文学比较热，从这方面下手也不错。
Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies 二语词汇习得策略 [摘 要] 词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家D.A. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。 关键字： 二语词汇习得 词汇习得策略 元认知策略 认知策略 Abstract Vocabulary is the basic unit of a language. Language acquisition plays an important role in language learning. Famous linguistics D. A. Wilkins said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed (Lewis, 1993:16).” It speaks volumes for the importance of vocabulary in language learning. This paper aims to analysis the second language acquisition strategies and applies to different levels of learners. According to the different levels, the learners should choose the proper methods and strategies to promote learning efficiency and acquisition effect. Key words: Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition； Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies； Metacognitive strategy； Cognitive strategy Introduction With economic globalization and multi-polarization of the world, especially the population of the internet, English becomes more and more important, because it is considered as the tool for absorbing and communicating information. As we all known, vocabulary acquisition is one of the most noticed-question of the second language learners. “Vocabulary” appears in the area of linguists’ study. Nowadays, researchers still can not give a complete and reasonable definition of vocabulary. Since 1970s, the second language vocabulary acquisition research has gradually become the hot point and important subject in the second language vocabulary acquisition research area. These researches aim to discuss the efficiency vocabulary memory strategies to promote the memory skills and vocabulary levels. Then how to acquire vocabulary become popular among the researchers. Wenden &Rubin (1987), O’Malley& Chamot (1990) refer to the content of vocabulary acquisition strategies; Rubin (1987) and Oxford (1990) classify the memory strategy to the direct cognitive strategies. Especially, CohenAphek (1981), Porte (1988), O’Malley (1990), Vann (90), Cohen (1990), etc made a basic searching of vocabulary acquisition. In a word, there are various opinions in how to acquire vocabulary. Firstly, it talks about the importance of vocabulary. Secondly, what does it mean to “acquire” a word? This paper mainly aims to the detail analysis of the vocabulary acquisition from three aspects：Meta-cognitive Strategy; Cognitive Strategy and Social or Affective Strategy. Especially, it highlights the effect of the context and rending to vocabulary acquisition. This paper talks about the applications of the vocabulary acquisition strategies. And it puts forward some problems and difficulties of vocabulary acquisition. This paper also discusses the influencing factors to the acquisition. It includes the mother tongue, age, language contact, logical thinking ability, identity degree, and academic motivation . The purpose of this paper is to rise the awareness of English learners that the importance of vocabulary in language learning and the vocabulary acquisition strategies can not be neglected, and each strategies is deeply rooted in its language. Through the analysis of the theory of study, the paper tries to draw the learner’s attention to the strategies of the second language vocabulary acquisition and using the vocabulary in communication. In order to improve the acquisition efficiency, some strategies put into practice are introduced. The first presents the importance of vocabulary, some basic concepts of vocabulary and vocabulary learning, the second part tells what does it mean to know a word, the third part deals with the theory of vocabulary acquisition and presents the factors and differences influencing the vocabulary acquisition. The fourth part is detailed discussion of vocabulary acquisition strategies in different levels of learners. The last part is conclusion. Literature review 1. The importance of vocabulary As the first time, when we go to school and our English teacher will tell us that vocabulary is of great importance in learning English. After several years, we understand words gradually, especially when we study in high school. If we know a little about vocabulary, we may have poor English. That is because the listening, speaking, reading and writing show the necessary of learning vocabulary. Many researchers agree that lexis is at least as important as structure, because it is using wrong words and not wrong grammar that usually breaks down communication. Mistakes in lexis much more often lead to misunderstanding and may be less generously tolerated outside classroom than mistakes in syntax. (Carter, 1987). As Stephen Krashen remarked, “When students travel, they don’t carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries. A significant role of vocabulary in both teaching and learning processes was first stated by Stephen Krashen in The Natural Approach (1985): “Vocabulary is basic for communication. If acquirers do not recognize the meaning of the key words used by those who address them they will be unable to participate in the conversation.” Words are basic tools in human communication; therefore they determine the main part of people’s life-relationships between people and associations with the surrounding world that people live in. The larger one’s vocabulary, the easier it is to express one’s thoughts and feelings. In real communication, correctly and idiomatically used vocabulary can even decrease some structural inaccuracy and grammar errors. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). So learners should enrich and expand their knowledge of words as much as possible in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language. 2. What does it mean to “know” a word? Knowing a word is not a simple phenomenon. In fact, it is quite complex and goes far beyond the word’s meaning and pronunciation. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). Richards (1976) think knowing a word means also knowing the frequency of words and their likely collocates; being aware of the functional and situation limitations that apply; knowledge of the “syntactic behavior”; derivational forms and word class; associative and connotative knowledge; semantic value-breaking down words into minimal units as with componential analysis (see Katz&Fodor1963or Leech1974); knowing the other (possible) meaning associated. Nagy and Scott (2000) identify several dimensions that describe the complexity of what it means to know a word. First, word knowledge is incremental, which means that readers need to have many exposures to a word in different contexts before they “know” it. Second, word knowledge is multidimensional. This is because many words have multiple meanings and serve different functions in different function in different sentences, texts, and even conversations. Third, word knowledge is interrelated in that knowledge of one word connects knowledge of other words. What all of this means is that “knowing” a word is a matter of degree rather than an all-or-nothing proposition (Beck&Mckeown, 1991; Nagy&Scott, 2000). The degree of knowing a word are reflected in the precision with which we use a word, how quickly we understand a word, and how well we understand and use words in different modes and different purpose. The memory strategy, cognitive strategy, social strategy and metacognitve strategy are used more frequently than the affective strategy and compensative strategy. Conclusion This paper has attempted to provide some theories of second language vocabulary acquisition and some strategies. Such as metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social strategy. However, this paper also put forward some microcosmic strategy. As a matter of fact, vocabulary acquisition should combine the context. In addition, this paper hasn’t mentioned that culture is also an important factor in vocabulary acquisition. In the study of second language vocabulary acquisition, we should pay attention to the process and the acquiring results. This paper focuses on the study of the second language vocabulary acquisition strategies. Bibliography [1] A.U. Chamot. The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin, (eds), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 1987. [2] Cater. R. and M. McCarthy. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. New York: Longman, 1987. [3] Nation, L. S. P. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New Newbury House Publishers, 1990. [4] O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. U.. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [J]. Cambridge University Press, 1990:12-15. [5] 陈桦，张益芳.中国儿童英语词汇记忆策略探究[J].外语学刊,2001(4). [11] 戴曼纯. 论第二语言词汇习得研究[J]. 外语教学与研究，2002(2). [12] 徐德凯.大学英语词汇教学理论与实践[M].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司，2009. [6] 王文宇.观念、策略与英语词汇记忆[J].外语教学与研究，1998(1). [13] 文秋芳. 英语学习策略论.上海：上海外语教育出版社，1996. [7] 吴霞，王蔷.非英语专业本科生词汇水平研究. 外语教学与研究，1998(1). [15] 张纪英.英语词汇学教学与研究[M]. 武汉：华中科技大学出版社,2007. [16] 朱厚敏. 英语词汇学习策略研究[M] 长春：吉林大学出版社，2009.
语言学教案 - Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (2)What is linguistics?1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the branch of learning which studies the languages of any and all human societies. It can be defined as the scientific study of language. In a word, linguistics studies the general principles upon which all languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in the societies in which they are used.The guiding principles for linguistic studies:Exhaustiveness---the aim is to specify totally the linguistic contrasts in a set of data, and ultimately in the language as a whole.Consistency---total statements should be logically self-consistent.Economy---a criterion requires that, other things being equal, an analysis should aim to be as short and use as few terms as possible. It is a measure which permits one to quantify the number of formal constructs used in arriving at a solution to problem, and has been used, explicitly or implicitly, in most areas of linguistic investigation.Objectivity---linguistic analyses should be as objective as possible. Truth should come from facts1.7 Some basic distinctions in linguistics1.7.1 speech and writingthe primacy of speech:1) Speech is prior to writing historically2) genetically, children always learn to speak before they learn to write.The importance of writing:1) space displacement2) time displacement3) a visual recording of a speech
汉语言文学是每一个中国学生最先接触的语言,很多家长在学生童年时期就对其进行汉语言文学教学。下面是我为大家整理的汉语言文学研究论文，供大家参考。
汉语言文学 教学 方法 探析
汉语言文学是一个较为模糊的概念，它包含于语文这个大范围的整体教学之中，但是又有其自身的独特性。为了更好地加强汉语言文学教学，作为老师，不能将汉语言文学脱离生活实际，也不能独立于语文教学之外。汉语言文学教学能够丰富学生的专业知识，提高学生的知识贮备，并提升文学素养。如何在汉语言教学中提升学生的学习能力以及水平，是广大老师应该着重注意改善的问题。本文根据目前汉语言教学的现状，对如何提高课堂教学能力进行探讨。
一、多媒体辅助教学
随着时代的发展，教学内容的更新，需要与时俱进的教学方法去更好地指导学生学习。汉语言文学教学的特点不似其他教学，因为知识点比较零散，也有很多知识难以用言语去描述和表达。多媒体引入教学能够在很大程度上改善这一教学缺陷。作为汉语言文学教学的老师，应该熟练掌握多媒体的运用技巧，在课堂中，老师可以利用多媒体去展示教学部分。比如说，在四大名著的讲解分析中，老师可以用多媒体给学生展示一些书中相关人物的图片来加深学生对知识的理解。或者，老师还可以给学生放一段相关视频来提高他们的积极性。在教学中，老师还应该注意到多媒体只是教学的辅助工具，不要让多媒体分散学生的注意力，出现适得其反的效果。
二、课内与课外相互补充完善
课内的汉语言文学知识是有限的，这就需要老师引导学生学会自主探究学习。在学习课内知识的同时，也要从课外学习知识，让课内课外的知识进行相互补充完善，从而更好地提高学生的汉语言文学水平。老师还可以设置阅读课，让学生有统一的时间进行阅读，在阅读之后进行交流讨论，相互取长补短，共同提高学生整体的汉语言文学能力。
三、注重老师的引导作用
古语常说“为人师表”，意思就是告诉广大老师，要给学生提供榜样的力量。如果老师想要让学生对文学产生兴趣，那么老师本身就应该做到热爱阅读、热爱文学。在平时的汉语言学习中，老师要注重个人对学生的影响，一个好老师，不仅能够在课堂上教给学生知识，还能够在言语行动上感染学生。有些学生对老师有一定的模仿心理，老师的阅读习惯以及阅读 爱好 ，学生喜欢进行模仿。这也就要求广大老师更要积极提高自身素质与发展，在汉语言文学的探索道路上引导学生越走越远、越走越好。总而言之，汉语言文学教学的提高不仅需要广大教师的努力，还需要学生的积极配合，这样才能更好地提高教学效率。
开放大学汉语言文学专业微课教学研究
开放大学主要强调远程 教育 、优化资源整合，这种办学模式，利于学生自主学习，对于我国教学改革具有重要的意义。微课教学与开放教育具有一定的共同点，在教学过程中，如果能够充分利用微课对课程的优化设计、小课程的运用，将会有效地提升开放大学的教育效果。
一概念界定
1.开放大学的概述
开放大学是以现代信息技术为基础的，兼顾学历和非学历教育两种教育模式，是开办远程开放教育的新式高校。这一办学模式，在我国实践中得到了良好的反应，为我国办学模式的发展和创新带来了启发。说到开放大学，我们不得不说一些开放教育。开放教育是通过对多个校园、区域的资源整合以实现共享，以远程教育为主要方式的一种混合学习模式的教育形式。开放教育具有以学生为中心、重视学生学习和发展、丰富教与学的表现方式、限制少、门槛低等特征。这种办学模式较为自由，且对学习者的要求没有过多的限制，而且在学习过程中，学生能够根据自身条件和需求来自主地选择教学媒体、课程、学习方式方法、课程进度、时间和地点等，通常这种教育形式会通过多媒体和现代信息技术来实现。
2.微课教学的概述
微课是指按照新课标和教学实践的要求，以网络视频为媒介，记录教师在课堂内外教学过程中针对一些知识点或者某些教学环节所开展的教学互动行为的课程。微课的主要构成部分就是课堂教学视频，另外还包括当前教学课题的教学设计、课程 总结 、课后练习讲解、互动教学、点评考核等视频内容，通过对这些教学资源的整合和拼接，实现对相关课题的教与学，完成教学任务。微课具有教学时间短、教学内容精炼、主题突出简单易懂、教学资源丰富、趣味性强、反馈方便等优点，对于创新教学模式、降低教学门槛、扩大受众群体具有重要的意义。
二开放大学汉语言文学专业开展微课教学的意义
1.有助于教师水平的提高、教学方式的创新
微课的主要特征就是以多媒体或者网络教学为媒介，这种教学模式对于教师水平的提高和对教学创新的探索都有着十分积极的意义。教师通过对微课的教学，首先，可以熟练地对多媒体和电子计算机技术进行操作和理解，使其能够在教学形式上能有更多创新的可能。其次，微课强调资源的整合和梳理，教师在课程准备过程中能够积极地做好资源的开发和整理工作，有助于其课程设计能力的提升。再次，微课注重教师与学生间的互动，这种非面对面的互动，能够使教师获得异于传统教学的亲切感。在教学过程中，教师会不断地对教学进行 反思 和 经验 总结，使其能够投入更多的精力去对教学方法和模式进行研究，无形中促进了其理论与实践的综合发展，在完成教学任务的同时，还实现了个人能力的提高。
2.有助于学生自主学习意识的培养、 创新思维 的构建
首先，微课具有一定的自由性，学生通过对网络课堂视频的使用，可以根据自己的状况来选择课程的进度、学习的时间等，有利于学生针对性地进行学习，从而提高学习效率。其次，微课强调以学生及其课程学习为中心，有利于学生养成自主学习的能力和习惯。在微课教学中，教师扮演的是一个引导的角色，当遇到问题时，学生可以通过提问的方式，向老师和同学寻求帮助，这种主动的去挖掘知识掌握盲点，积极地研究和讨论学习内容，能够有效地提高其学习效率。再次，微课教学通过多媒体的应用和对资源的设计，能够使课程的趣味性十足，教师通过多种教学模式的运用，使课堂不再枯燥，使学生能够积极主动地去学习知识，不但学习效率高，还能在一定程度上，促进学生创新思维的构建和实践能力的提升。
三开放大学汉语言文学专业开展微课教学的建议
1.转变教学观念，优化教学模式
自古以来，传统的教育模式就是强调以教师为中心，传授知识的过程。在这样一个教育过程当中，学生扮演的只是知识的接收者，缺乏对知识选择的主动性，不利于学生个性化的发展，降低了其自主学习的意识，无形当中影响了教学效果。当然，传统的教学模式，在世界范围内、在相当长的历史时间中，应用都是较为广泛的，但是随着社会的进步和发展，以往的以教师为中心、以教材为中心、以课堂为中心的教学模式所暴露出来的问题，已经不容忽视了。比如其不重视学生在课程中的主体地位、缺乏对个性差异的重视，不利于教学效率的提升。因此，转变传统的教学理念势在必行。微课教育区别于传统的教学模式，它强调先学后教，即高度地重视学生的自学能力，老师的教授反而成为了一个辅助和引导工具。在网络和小班教学的基础上，微课能够更加突出“微”的特点。在时间上，微课通常在20分钟左右，教学时间短;在教学内容上，微课的内容较少，往往每节课只是针对某个知识点或者教学环节，资源容量较小。这种“微”的特点，恰恰符合了教育心理学的特点，使学生能够在课程学习当中，能够充分地集中注意力。相关研究指出，人的注意力集中时间一般在20分钟以内，这就要求开放大学在教学实践中，应当尽量把握好每节课程的时间，即便有大的课程需要，也要将其知识点进行合理的切割和组合，确保每节课学生的注意力都能达到最佳，进而保证学习效果。另外，教师在进行微课教学时，应该转变以往教师在教学过程中的权威地位这种理念，实现由知识传授者到学习组织者的角色转变。这就要教师在教学过程中，积极组织课堂学习，督促、帮助学生自主学习，针对学生的问题做好答疑工作。教师在教学实践中，应当更多地去引导学生去感悟、体验、讨论和总结，使其自主学习兴趣得以激发，自主学习能力得到增强。
2.注重教学方法，优化教学设计
与普通高校相比，开放大学同样是高等教育，对于汉语言文学专业的课程教学，要具有与之相匹配的深度和高度。在微课教学过程中，要求教师能够优化教学方法，实现资源的优化配置。通过对汉语言文学的相关知识的选取，实现对学生差异性的、优质的教学。第一，优化文学内容的选取和设计。在对阅读类的文学作品进行教学设计时，可以从多个角度入手，像作品的主题、风格、人物塑造、情节构建等角度都可以成为教师进行教学设计的切入点。而教师在对内容的整合和设计时，也可以综合利用多种表现形式，使教学更具吸引力，降低知识掌握难度，提高学生的学习效果。比如，在微课的设计上，某开放大学的教师通过对《诗经》中人物形象的扮演惟妙惟肖的将整个诗词中人物的特点、整体意境、内容含义、主题思想表达得淋漓尽致，而这种表演式教学更是带给学生耳目一新的感觉，从而加深学生对文学作品的理解。在微课中，还可以将一些授课方法融入到其中，比如在授课过程中，可以加入讨论和研究这种方式，来加深学生对文学作品的了解，从而理解作品人物的思想和境界。另外，在对具有 故事 情节的文学作品的学习过程中，添加对人物特点和言行的分析，也有助于学生对于作品的理解。微课虽然强调精炼，但是对于必要的学习步骤，却不能随便地忽视。比如教师在对一些文学作品的讲授时，尽管课时较短，但是对于作者、人物的背景和特点却不能轻易地跳过，对作品作者和人物的介绍，对学生的理解 文章 具有重要的作用。另外，在教学过程中，还应当做好教师与学生的互动，把握好提问技巧，带动学生主动学习的思维。第二，充分利用网络，做好课程的设计和评价工作。网络视频是微课核心的媒介，这就要求教师应当做好课程视频，使其科学合理。一些学者认为，课前教师应当做好教学大纲的设计，然后根据这一设计，进行教学视频的录制，根据学生自主学习的状况，来制定差异性辅导计划;在讲课过程中，应当注意与学生的互动，做好疑难解答工作，强化练习以巩固所学知识，最后根据整个授课的效果对课程进行评价和总结。在对微课进行设计时，可以适当借鉴一些较为著名的网络课程授课特点，通过对教学评价的设计来了解课程中的不足和亮点，从而及时地调节微课的内容和侧重点，而在评价过程中，促进学生与老师的交流和互动，有利于教学效果的提升。微课教学的设计，应当积极地提高学生的参与度，使教学质量得以保证。
四总结
开放大学在办学理念上与微课的特点有着异曲同工之妙，两者都强调学生自主学习，且在教育表现形式上都以远程互联网教育为主，因而在开放教育中开展微课教育是必要的。在开展过程中，首先应当转变传统观念，将学生放置于教学的主体地位，积极优化教学内容和设计，提高教学质量，加强老师与学生的互动，做好教学评价工作，使微课教育愈加完善。
实践能力培养下汉语言文学教学论文
一、汉语言文学教学质量的提升策略
(一)优化教学内容汉语言文学教师应紧扣教学目标
做好汉语言文学课程与其后续课程的衔接工作，充分梳理学科的知识内容，整合教学内容，避免出现课程内容的重复。结合语言研究的新成果，及时更新教学内容，提高汉语言文学教学内容在现代社会环境的适用性。教师安排课程教学内容时，将“够用”和“必须”作为安排课程教学内容的标准，突出强调教学的重点，有效精简课程内容，同扩大汉语言文学的应用深度及广度，及时参照社会发展相关能力的实践能力以及语言实践能力的培养目标，尽可能地安排具有较强应用性的技能课程，提高教学的实用性，注重培养学生的口头表达能力、综合运用并写作各种通用性较强文体的能力、语言应用的能力、阅读理解能力、信息调研提取能力等综合能力，在夯实学生的语言感知基础，不断提高学生的语言敏感度、语言文字功底的基础上，增强学生运用语言的实践运用能力，促使学生的文学素养和能力的全面提升。学校及教师在教学的过程中，还可充分利用地域性的 文化 资源，加强教学课程中与之相关的内容，使结合地域性文化特色的教学内容成为基础课程的有力补充，激发学生探究的兴趣，鼓励学生自主探究，挖掘学生的思考能力及创新能力。
(二)改进教学方法高等教育大发展的时代背景下
汉语言文学教学只有不断改进教学方法，切实落实学生的学习主体地位，在教学过程中不断吸收借鉴并推陈出新，改进汉语言文学的教学方法，增强教学手法的灵活性和多样性，从而提高教学的质量。教师在充分领悟并运用教材内容的基础上，从学生已有的知识、经验能力、生活经验以及学习述求等实际情况出发，密切关注学生的学习情绪态度，提高学生的教学参与度，使学生从被动听讲记笔记向主动探究的学习模式转变。在教学过程中，鼓励学生质疑探究，并综合运用多种方法释疑，提高学生的思考力和创造力，培养其创新精神。教师还可以整合汉语言文学教学内容成果并向学生展示，让学生根据自身的兴趣特点，自主选择他们认为有用的内容，充分发挥其自主学习能力，引导学生主动将所学知识固化为专业内容，将语言文化与教育有机融合起来，不断提升自身的语言文化能力及修养。选取切合实际的教学方式方法，提高汉语言文学教学的有效性。当学生具备一定的专业基础知识与技能后，教师还可以采用问题中心教学法进行教学，引导学生对实际性的问题提出自己独到的观点，并通过论证，寻得解决的办法，以此提高学生实际解决问题的能力。
(三)增强汉语言文学教学实践
汉语言文学教师侧重知识传授而轻视实践能力培养的传统教学模式下培养出来的学生难以满足社会发展的实际需求，因此需要调整培养目标，增强汉语言文学的教学实践，切实将学生的知识转化为能力，提高教学的质量。教师在教学过程中应遵循学以致用的原则，重视汉语言文学教学内容与产业需求的对接，给学生布置一些实践活动，指导学生进行相关业务能力要求训练，提高学生的专业能力及业务能力。
二、总结
利用多媒体网络优势，丰富教学资源和教学手段，创新汉语言文学的教学与训练，引导学生在网上创立汉语言培训基地及实践平台，作为传统教学课堂的有益补充。教师还可邀请汉语言文学领域的专家来实施授课，开拓学生的视野，丰富相关知识内容，发动学生参与教师专业建设及相关的课题研究，在刊物上发表作品，组织学生参与诸如书法、朗诵、征文、演讲等各类汉语言知识竞赛，不仅极大地丰富学生的课余生活，更有效提升了学生对博大精深的汉语言文学的理解。尽可能地给学生提供见习的机会，使学生的汉语言原理能与实际应用相结合，提升对本专业的认同感，并在实际工作中提升汉语言知识的运用能力。
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一、报告的结构与要求 报告包括标题、内容摘要、索引关键词、目录、正文、后记、参考文献和附录等部分。全文专业技术类不少于12 000个汉字（含较简单的图表、程序段等），经济管理和文法类不少于10 000个汉字。报告一律打印，不得手写。 1．报告标题 报告标题应当简短、明确，有概括性，符合毕业设计任务的要求。报告标题应能体现报告的核心内容、专业特点和学科范畴。报告标题不得超过25个汉字，不得设置副标题，不得使用标点符号，可以分二行书写。报告标题用词必须规范，不得使用缩略语或外文缩写词。 2．内容摘要 内容摘要应扼要叙述报告的主要内容、特点，文字精练，是一篇具有独立性和完整性的短文，包括主要成果和结论性意见。摘要中不应使用公式、图表，不标注引用文献编号，并应避免将摘要撰写成目录式的内容介绍。内容摘要一般不超过200个汉字。 3．索引关键词 索引关键词是供检索用的主题词条，应采用能够覆盖报告主要内容的通用专业术语（参照相应的专业术语标准），一般列举3~5个，按照词条的外延层次从大到小排列，并应出现在内容摘要中。 4．目录 目录应独立成页，包括报告中全部章、节的标题和所在页码。 5．正文 正文包括绪论、报告主体和结论等部分。正文必须从页首开始。 绪论一般做为专业技术类报告的第一章，应综述前人在本领域的工作成果，说明毕业设计选题的目的、背景和意义，国内外文献资料情况以及所要研究的主要内容。 经济管理类和文法类报告的绪论即全文的开始部分，不编写章节号。一般包括对写作目的、意义的说明，对所研究问题的认识并提出问题。 报告主体是全文的核心部分，应结构合理，层次清晰，重点突出，文字通顺简练。 结论是对主要成果的归纳，要突出创新点，以简练的文字对所做的主要工作进行评价。结论一般不超过500个汉字。 正文一级及以下子标题格式如下： 专业技术类：第一章；1.1；一、；1.；（1）；①； 经济管理、文法类：1；1.1；一、；（一）；①。 6．后记 对整个毕业设计工作进行简单的回顾总结，对导师和对为毕业设计工作、报告撰写等提供帮助的组织或个人表示感谢。内容尽量简洁明了。 7．参考文献 参考文献是报告的不可缺少的组成部分。它反映了毕业设计工作中取材的广博程度。参考文献应以近期发表或出版的与本专业密切相关的学术著作和学术期刊文献为主。参考文献数量专业技术类不少于10篇，经济管理和文法类不少于15篇。 产品说明、技术标准、未公开出版或发表的研究报告等不列为参考文献，有确需说明的可以在后记中予以说明。 网上参考文献应注明准确的网页地址。 8．附录 对不宜放在正文中但对报告确有作用的材料（如外文文献的复印件和中文译文、公式的推导过程、较大型的程序流程图、较长的程序代码段、图纸、数据表格等），可以编制成报告的附录。附录字数不计入报告应达到的文字数量。 二、打印要求 报告必须使用标准A4打印纸进行打印，页面上、下边距各2.5厘米，左右边距各2.2厘（报告所附的较大的图纸、数据表格及计算机程序段清单等除外），并按报告装订顺序要求如下： 1．封面 见附件《报告封面、指导教师意见页、系部答辩委员会意见页》。 2．内容摘要 摘要标题按照正文一级子标题要求处理，摘要内容按照正文要求处理。内容摘要不设页码。 3．索引关键词 索引关键词与内容摘要同处一页，位于内容摘要之后，另起一行并以“索引关键词：”开头（字体加粗），后跟3~5个关键词（字体不加粗），词间空1字，其他要求同正文。 4．目录 目录列至报告正文的二级及以上标题所在页码，内容打印要求与正文相同。目录页不设页码。 5．正文 正文必须从正面开始，并设置为第1页。页码在页末居中打印，其他要求同正文（如正文第5页格式为“―5―”）。 报告标题为标准二号宋体字，居中，单倍行间距； 报告一级子标题为标准四号黑体字，居中，单倍行间距； 报告二级及以下子标题为标准小四号黑体字，左起空两个字打印，行间距为固定值20磅； 正文一律使用标准小四号宋体字，段落开头空两个字，行间距为固定值20磅； 正文中的公式原则上居中。如公式前有文字（如：“解”、“假定”等），文字应与正文左侧对齐，公式仍居中，公式末尾不加标点。公式序号按章编排，如第二章的第三个公式序号为“（2—3）”，附录2中的第三个公式序号为“（②—3）”等； 正文中的插图应与文字紧密配合，文图相符，内容正确，绘制规范。插图按章编号并置于插图的正下方，插图不命名，如第二章的第三个插图序号为“图2—3”，插图序号使用标准五号宋体字； 正文中的插表不加左右边线。插表按章编号并置于插表的左上方，插表不命名，如第二章的第三个插表序号为“表2—3”，插表序号使用标准五号宋体字。 6. 后记 后记独占一页，标题按照正文一级子标题要求处理，内容按照正文要求处理。 7. 参考文献 按照GB7714—87《文后参考文献著录规则》规定的格式打印，内容打印要求与报告正文相同。参考文献从页首开始，著录格式如下： 7.1 著作图书文献 序号 作者．书名．版次（第一版省略）．出版者，出版年份：引用部分起止页码 7.2 译著图书文献 序号 作者．书名．译者．版次（第一版省略）．出版者，出版年份：引用部分起止页码 7.3 学术刊物文献 序号 作者．文章名．学术刊物名．年，卷（期）：引用部分起止页码 7.4 学术会议文献 序号 作者．文章名．编者名．会议名称，会议地址，年份．出版地，出版者，出版年：引用部分起止页码 7.5 学位论文类参考文献 序号 作者．学位论文题目．学校和学位论文级别．答辩年份：引用部分起止页码 7.6 西文文献 著录格式同中文，实词的首字母大写，其余小写。 参考文献作者人数较多者只列前三名，中间用逗号分隔，多于三人的后面加“等”字（西文加“etc.”）。 学术会议若出版论文集者，在会议名称后加“论文集”字样；未出版论文集者省去“出版者”、“出版年”项；会议地址与出版地相同的省略“出版地”，会议年份与出版年相同的省略“出版年”。 8. 附录 按照正文一级子标题以下格式打印，每个附录均从页首开始，并在附录起始页的左上角用标准小四号黑体字注明附录序号。 9. 评定意见页 见附件《报告封面、指导教师意见页、系部答辩委员会意见页》。