翻译是跨学科的，注定要采取多学科的视角研究翻译现象和翻译问题。一、选题范围 1、翻译与文化：可以从宏观和微观两个方面考虑。宏观方面，一般从翻译在目的语社会文化中的生产、接受、翻译在目的语社会文化中所起的功能等角度讨论，可以从社会、文化、历史、交际的...1、选题意义和背景。随着中国加入世界贸易组织，中国企业的对外联系也日益增多。中国企业要想打入国际市场，提高在国际市场上的知名度，企业网站或宣传册上的企业简介扮演着十分重要的地位。通过阅读企业宣传资料，读者可以看出企业外宣材料既有关于企业的基本信息介绍，也有企业所做的文字上、句法上、结构上的这染来达到推广企业、大市场的目的。汉语企业外宣材料的翻译在英译过程中会涉及到与目的语不同的语言习惯、行文方式以及文化因素、社会政治因素、心理因素和审美因素等，这就需要译者对原文本做出适当调整，从内容和形式上对语篇进行重构，以此实现对交际意图的顺应。根据赖斯的文本类型说，本文有三种类型，分别是“信息型”、“表达型”和“诱导型”.笔者认为，企业外宣翻译属于“信息型”和“诱导型”文本兼而有之，而且更侧重于“诱导型”.因此，外宣翻译要更加注重文本的交际功能，要更多的考虑如何使译文所传递的信息更便于目的语读者理解和接受，并让读者产生共鸣，继而付诸行动，实现译文预期的功能。比利时语用学家维索尔伦(Verschuem)提出了顺应论，将语言的使用过程看做语言为顺应不同的交际目的和交际对象进行动态选择的过程。因而可以从顺应论的视角研究语言使用。翻译作为一种特殊的交际方式，也可以从顺应论的视角对其进行研究。优秀的企业宣传材料不仅会提高企业的知名度，还会为企业带来不可估量的经济效益，因此任何一个想打入国际市场的企业务必在其外宣材料的翻译上做足功夫。由于中西方文化背景、历史渊源、生活环境的不同，译者在翻译企业外宣材料时为了获取目的语读者的认可并激发他们付诸行动，就要顺应目的语读者的阅读习惯、审美习惯以及心理因素、文化因素等对原文做出形式上和内容上的调整，而这一顺应的过程也是语篇重构的过程。本文突破性的将顺应论与语篇重构结合起来，并结合西麦克展览公司宣传材料和海天调味食品股份有限公司宣传材料及其翻译，试图从顺应论的视角分析企业外宣翻译中的语篇重构现象。2、论文综述/研究基础。1987年维索尔伦(Verschueren)提出顺应论之后，在语用学界引起了很大反响，不久国内学者就将其引进到中国来。国内学者不仅从理论层面对顺应论进行研究和探索，而且将顺应论应用到翻译理论和实践、外语教学、二语习得、文化传播等领域。在这些领域中，成果最大的当属顺应论对翻译理论和其应用的研究。我国真正将顺应论引入翻译研究开始于21世纪初希望能帮到你
对于不少医学工作者来说，发表医学论文其中一个难题就是翻译。由于英文水平的不足，医学工作者在翻译过程中常常遇到困境。今天我们就来谈谈医学论文翻译技巧，希望对各位同学有所启发。 一、时态问题 1、表达目的所用的时态 在医学论文中，“目的”通常指进行某项研究的原因、意图，即表明研究的目标。由于研究目标的制定通常在着手开始研究之前，故可使用过去时态；但是，在论文写作中，也通常使用一般现在时来表达目的，以表达研究目的是合理的、可重复等意义。 2、表达方法和结果所用的时态 在研究性论文中，在描述所使用的实验方法、技术时通常使用过去时，以表达相关的实验方法步骤发生在过去；对结果的报道也使用过去时，以表示已经得出了结果。 3、表达结论所用的时态 医学论文的结论部分为作者表达观点、意见，以及对研究进行总结的地方，常用时态为一般现在时，以表示研究结果的客观性，如果用一般过去时，则表示这一结论仅仅适用于该研究过程中特定的情况，不具有普遍性。 二、词首字母大小写问题 关于地名和地理学术语如何正确大写的问题。因为中文不牵涉大写问题，所以中文母语的作者可能会有点迷惑。其实大写问题对于英语母语的作者而言也不太容易理顺。 三、标点符号问题 由于语言习惯影响，不少医学工作者会错误的使用英文标点符号，导致医学论文出现语言问题。下面我们列举几个英文标点符号常见的错误。 1.顿号使用错误 由于英文中没有顿号，但有些作者由于习惯影响，会在句子中使用顿号，如错误例子：The five concentrations of nitrogen in our study were 1、5、10、50、100 mg/L,respectively. 该句作者使用顿号隔开数字，应改为逗号，在英文学术论文写作中，无论是多个并行的数字、单词和短语都是用逗号来分隔。 2.书名号使用错误 对于书名、刊物名、影片、文章名在中文表达中使用书名号无可厚非，但用英文标点符号时可就注意了，如错误例子： In the book 《Pipeline Risk Management Manual》, the authorMuhlbauer W Kenr (U.S.) grouped pipeline risk into 4 classes. 该作者错误的将句子中的书名使用了中文的标点符号，由于英文标点符号没有书名号，所以通常使用斜体字来表示，有时也可用引号、全部大写或在书刊名下划线来表示。 3.方括号和圆括号使用错误 方括号与圆括号并用时，容易产生错误，首先举一个错误的例子：[That was the colour (blue) she preferred] ，事实上在方括号和圆括号并用时，英文句子的使用方式与中文恰恰相反，即圆括号在内外，方括号在内，因此上句应改为： ( That was the colour [blue] she preferred. )
一、顺序翻译：如果说要翻译的长句在语法结构上的顺序和汉语语法的结构前后一致时，就可以将原文按次序翻译转化为汉语直接翻译出来，这种方式相对简单。
二、倒序翻译：在很多时候，英语语法的表述习惯和中文的语法习惯是不尽相同的，甚至是完全相反，这个时候就该分析好句子结构成分，从句子的后面开始翻译，提取出句子后面的定语、状语等修饰部分，在具体翻译时候按照中文语法习惯将其置于前边合适的位置，使其在语法表述上更符合中文习惯，同时做到语义通顺，不失文采。
三、拆句翻译：对于哪些很长但又句子结构部很复杂的句子来进行翻译，一次性将他们直接翻译出来有困难，这时我们完全考研考虑将一整句合理的划分拆开，使其分为若干个相对独立的小语句，翻译时候对这些小而简单的句子依次翻译，之后再以合适的连接词将他们串接起来，从来完成的完成句子的翻译工作。
四、结构重组翻译：也有很多的翻译句子，语法句式结构等完全没有一点的中文习惯，这个时候就更得分析好句子结构，然后按照自己的表述习惯，将句子结构打乱，再按符合翻译的要求进行句子结构重组，组合出新的句子以准确的表达出所要表达的含义。
五、综合翻译：事实上，对于一个考验英语中出现的语句，要对塔进行准确的翻译，一般仅靠某一种单纯的翻译方法是很难翻译准确的，这时候就需要将自己已经掌握的各种方法灵活运用起来，合理的将各种方法综合利用，以便将英语原文准确的翻译出来。
1、划分主从句：此翻译技巧主要是针对整个段落中比较长的句子，此时一下把整个句子都翻译出来有点困难，这时就要把长句变短一些，这时就需要将主从句划开。划分主从句可以根据一些连词，比如定语从句的引导词在英二中常见的有which，that，where，whose，who等等。同学们可以根据这些连词把主从句划开，然后再分别翻译。2、划分主干成分和修饰成分：此翻译技巧主要是针对一些简单句，之所以要让大家掌握这个翻译技巧，是帮助大家理清句子的结构，理解整个句子的表达。同学们需要了解，主干成分指的是主，谓，宾，表;修饰成分指的是定语，状语，补语，同位语。例如，Hisdilemmaaboutthejobtranslated,predictably,intoalackofsales.这里的predictably做的是状语，同学们万一不认识可以省译。3、词性转换:此翻译技巧主要涉及到的是名词转译为动词，这要归因于英汉表达的差别。汉语中一个句子中一般可以出现多个动词，名词则出现较少。而英语中则相反，名词可以多次出现，而一个句子只能有一个谓语动词。这时把名词转译为动词可以使句子更加简洁，更加符合汉语的表达习惯。例如：Hisappearanceinouruniversitycheeredusup.有的同学就会把这句话译为“他的出现在我们大学，使我们非常兴奋。”，此时我们也可以利用这个翻译技巧，将appearance转译为动词，可以译为“他出现在我们大学，我们非常兴奋”。4、增译法:此翻译技巧好多同学在遇到句子翻译时，不知道要增加什么词语进去。此翻译技巧可以用在两种情况，第一为了使整个句子的表达更通顺，需要增加词语，另一种情况是将抽象名词具体化时，也需要增加词语。比如Afterallpreparationswereallready,weweregoingtolaunchanewplan.这时我们可以将preparations“准备”这个抽象名词具体化，译为“准备工作”。此句话译为“当所有准备工作都就绪后，我们将启动一个新计划。”5、省略法:省略法的应用也出现在两种情况：1.遇到不会的单词不会翻译时，可以省译，但是这些单词仅限于修饰成分。2.为了使上下文通顺时，也可以使用省译法。例如：Weliveandlearn.这时可以把主语we省译，译为“活到老，学到老”。
英语专业翻译方向论文开题报告范文
以下是由我整理的.英语专业翻译方向论文的开题报告范文，供大家参考!
How to Deal with Ellipsis in English-Chinese Translation
I. Purpose and Significance
With the development of globalization, the world’s political, economic and cultural communications are becoming increasingly frequent. Therefore, the role of translation cannot be ignored. However, the differences between English and Chinese cultures that are reflected in the two languages pose considerable difficulty.
It is acknowledged that when doing translation one can not translate word for word, or sentence by sentence. Therefore, we must use some translation strategies such as amplification, ellipsis, conversion and so on. Ellipsis as one of the basic translation methods plays an essential role in English-Chinese rendition. Translators apply it in order to make their versions more coherent and understandable.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, ellipsis means leaving out a word or words from a sentence deliberately, when the meaning can be understood without them. Ellipsis in translation does not mean cutting some content from the original articles. What could be omitted are words that are useless in translated works or else they will make the versions redundant or disobey the manner of expression in another language.
Some words and phrases are useless in Chinese but necessary in English. Articles in English are the most significant phenomenon from this aspect. They are very important in English, but we can hardly see any reflection of this part in Chinese. Ellipsis is designed on the basis of faithfulness to the original text, making it more fluent, smooth, concise, thus conforming to idiomatic Chinese. The paper will explore ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from five aspects, which are ellipses of pronouns, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, modifications, so as to achieve smoother and clearer communications among China and English-speaking countries.
II. Literature Review
Long before, some people began to learn other countries’ languages to understand others cultures. In China, Xuanzang was the first translator who not only translated the Sanskrit sutras into Chinese, but introduced the first Chinese writings to foreign countries, making foreigners understand China’s ancient culture. Meanwhile, he was the first to translate Lao Tse's works into Sanskrit. Indian scholars had a high opinion of Xuanzang, "In China, there is no such great translator, and also in the human cultural history, we can only say that Xuanzang is the first great translator."(Ye Lang, 2008) We can say that it was Xuanzang who motivated people to know the different parts of the world, their cultures and the peoples who live there. Then, some big countries such as America, China, and so on became a melting pot.(Gu Zhengkun, 2000) People have imperceptibly spent thousands of years in knowing each other.
With China’s entry into WTO and its open-up policy, cross-cultural exchanges are increasingly frequent between this country and others. A lot of foreign tourists come to visit China. While traveling, these foreigners are not satisfied with the translations of the scenic spots. Sometimes, they even feel confused. A lot of problems exist in the translation, such as misuse of words, poor expression of meaning and so on. All of these poor translations do harm to our country’s international image, and cause a lot of inconveniences for the foreign visitors. (Ma Zuyi, 2000). I am fond of tourism and being a free tourist like the others who are good at enjoying their wonderful lives. The love of tourism makes me feel the need to improve the translation. But every time when I have a trip, many unsuitable translations of the names of those scenic spots will embarrass me. Tourism is part of intercultural communication, so proper translation of the scenic spots become more and more important to our country.
Communication plays a significant role in the globalized society. In order to know each other better, people from all over the world have tried a verity of ways. Of course, translation is one of them. All translators have done their best to make the translated works more consistent with the needs of people.(Gu Jinming, 1997) From my perspective, they really have done a great job. And I want to retrospect the cause of their development. After a thorough evaluation, I choose a branch of translation—ellipsis in translation from English to Chinese, then I did the following jobs.
I put all my researches and other stuffs together, and then I found that it is a common case in English and Chinese which draws much academic interest. In 1976, Halliday and Hsan classified ellipsis into nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis. This classification exerts great influence in academic circle. Thereafter, ellipsis in Chinese and English has been studied according to this theory, which is based on different layers of structure. This kind of study underlines differentiations and similarities of ellipsis in Chinese and English.
Another famous theory to explain ellipsis is Economy Principle. Economy Principle was put forward by Chomsky (1991,1993, and 1995) in his Generate Crammer. It maintains that language and linguistic study follow Economy Principle, which means using the least effort to express the most information. This principle just coincides with ellipsis in function.
In this thesis, I think that brevity is the most obvious and common function of ellipsis, especially in daily language. And in both English and Chinese, people advocate brevity. Shakespeare once remarked, “brevity is the soul of wit”, and in Chinese there are numerous idioms like “yan jian yi gai” (meaning compendious). However, apart from the function of brevity, ellipsis embodies other functions which are also pretty common in the two languages but less noticed.(Hua Xianfa,2002)These functions distribute in both English and Chinese unevenly and represent great colorfulness of language. Exploring other functions of ellipsis and searching for functional recreation in translation will be of much benefit to both English to Chinese and Chinese to English translation.
I found that when Chinese authors try to analyse ellipsis in English to Chinese translation, they always initially put articles in the list. They consider that it is a common phenomenon that Chinese always leave out personal articles. While it is obviously different in English that almost every sentence has a subject, we can see articles fluently. That is because when we translate from English to Chinese, personal articles can be omitted, even though sometimes it may appear once, it can also be omitted if necessary. Furthermore, if the objects can be seen obviously, personal articles should also be omitted. However, it never happens in English. From this point, it is not only allowable but also necessary when we translate personal articles which are objects in sentences into Chinese.
In my point of view, the development of society has in some way has deliberately promoted the way of people’s thinking, translation system has become more and more perfect, people from all over the world have enjoyed the convenience. However, we can not neglect that there are still some problems in this field in China, and we have less influential Chinese translators in the world. Therefore, we still have a long way to go in translation.
III. Feasibility Analysis
This academic paper is a feasible project and the reasons are as follows:
1.I have great interests in the way of English-Chinese translation.
2.I have already studied translation methods and have been familiar with the functions and applications of ellipsis .
3.I have collected enough references both Chinese and Western on ellipsis in
translation and do a scrupulous study of the relationship between them.
4.I have a carefully planned schedule and have worked out a detailed outline of this thesis.
5.I have acquainted myself with the correct format, a clear and complete structure required by the academic paper, and my adequate English competence will enable me to write in fluent and precise English.
6.My instructor is a qualified translator who is familiar with the subject I havechosen.
IV. Problems of the research and solutions
1. Problems
Despite the references I have collected and read, a thorough study of ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from the point of freely using still needs far more. What’s more, owing to the limited ways of getting references in Xinjiang, I will have to make full use of my present resources. Also, this is the first time I have ever written such a serious academic paper. I am therefore a learner and lack the needed training and experience.
2. Solutions
(1) I shall make full use of my already acquired references which come from books, magazines and the Internet as well.
(2) I shall value my own original thoughts and mainly rely on detailed analysis that I have read from the books which have closely idea with my purpose.
(3) When I have difficulties in the writing process, I shall consult my instructor and seek for help.
V. Necessary conditions
1. Our university and school of foreign languages have provided the basic study and research conditions and facilities, including books and journals in the library and reading rooms.
2. The Internet is another source of information and on the campus we have easy access to the Internet.
3. I have been assigned an instructor to guide me through the whole process of planning and writing.
VI. Outline
I. Introduction
A. A Brief Introduction of Ellipsis in Translation
B. What Should We Pay Attention to When Dealing with Ellipsis
C. The Reason Why Ellipsis Is So Widely Used in Translation
1. Chinese Expressions Are Much Briefer Than That of English
2. English Grammar Is Wee-Knit and Complete in Sentence Structure
II. The Principles of Ellipsis
A. Omitted Words Must Be Useless And Unnecessary in the Translated Works
B. The Meaning of the Omitted Words Is Implied in the Test
C. Omitted Words Which Are Self-Evident
Ш. The Functions and Applications of Ellipsis
A. The Coherence of the Meaning of Expression
B. The Coincidence of the Manner of Expression
1. Ellipsis of Articles
a. Ellipsis of Definite Articles
b. Ellipsis of Indefinite Articles
2. Ellipsis of Prepositions
3. Ellipsis of Pronouns
a. Ellipsis of Personal and Impersonal Pronouns
b. Ellipsis of Indefinite Pronouns
c. Ellipsis of Relative Pronouns
4. Ellipsis of Conjunctions
a. Ellipsis of Coordinating Conjunctions
b. Ellipsis of Subordinate Conjunctions
5. Ellipsis of Rhetoric
a. Ellipsis of Repeated Words
b. Ellipsis of Synonyms
翻译学论文开题报告
开题报告是提高选题质量和水平的`重要环节。下面是我为大家整理的一篇以《目的论在英汉广告翻译上的应用》为例的语言学硕士论文开题报告，供参考阅读，希望对您有所帮助。
1、选题意义和背景
The progress of economic globalization has greatly hit the social life.
Advertising has become an important way of modern marketing and has attractedmerchants and the company. As people's consciousness worldwide enhances, manyproducts and services of advertising will be translated into other languages forpromotion to explore overseas markets. Advertising, as an effective way ofdisseminating brand information, has penetrated into many aspects of social life, andit plays a bridge role in connection and communication. Since China's accession tothe WTO, its connection with the world gets even closer. More and moreinternational enterprises and product brands come into China's huge market.
Translation of products and services for overseas consumers is not only the functionof promoting consumption, but also the effect of external publicity. In the globalmarket, advertising translation not only brings an opportunity for advertising, butalso has brings the huge challenge. Therefore, mastery of both Chinese and Englishadvertising translation is particularly important.
Skopos theory is the foundation and the core theory of functionalism. Skopostheory holds that the process of the whole translation behavior is determined to thepurpose of translation action, that is, the end justifies the means. The purpose of thetranslation behavior is the core element which determines the translation process.
Advertising translation has a strong purpose. What is more important toadvertising translation is whether translation can convey the purpose of source textand achieve the anticipated target of the source text, so as to attract the attention offoreign customers to induce their consumption desire, eventually to incur purchasebehavior.
2、论文综述/研究基础
1 Advertising Translation Studies in the West.
Advertising translation was mentioned in translation studies for the first time inHurbin's (1972) article “Peut-on traduire la langue de la publicé” (Can OneTranslate the Language of Advertising?)。 At that time, linguistics was the dominanthumanistic discipline, meanwhile, linguistics made translating a code-switchingoperation. Equivalence-based linguistic approaches mainly focus on the source text.
Hurhin argued that for one source text, there are several translations, and thetranslators chose which translation is the most appropriate one. Hurbin also pointedthat if glossaries of advertising language is compiled, this was made easier. So thetranslators will be easy to find the most appropriate equivalent expressions betweenthe source and the target text.
In Candace Seguinot's (1995) article “Translation and Advertising: GoingGlobal in Cultural Functions of Translation”. The main opinion of which is thatacross cultural boundaries, there is an understanding of culture and semioticsappearing in the marketing of goods and services. It goes well beyond both languageand design.
Another representative article “Advertising: a five-stage strategy for translationin Translation” as Intercultural Communication which is edited by C. Nord et al. Thearticle is published by Smith & Klein-Braley (1997)。 In this article, they conduct acontrastive analysis of English and German advertising. Then they developedtaxonomy of strategies for the analysis of advertising translation.
Up to now, the book which maybe the only one published exclusively onadvertisement translation is Translation Practices in International Advertisingwritten by Mathieu Guidere (2001)。 This book mainly talks about various aspects ofadvertising translation in international market and mainly concerns the globaladvertising of multinational companies, because they need to translate their productsinformation into other languages. The author analyzes some examples in advertisingtranslation and he shows readers some essential problems in current translation ideas.
This book introduced the strategies of translation which are implemented by the multinational firms to break into new markets.
2 Advertising Translation Studies in China.
Domestic advertising translation studies officially started in 1990s. In terms ofresearch contents, the initial studies mainly focused on the discussion about specificadvertising translation of idioms and the existing problems in Chinese-Englishadvertising translation. That was the primary stage. Years later, advertisingtranslation principle and criteria became the research themes. People hold the viewthat, advertising translation should give attention to in many aspects, such as text,language beauty, consumer psychology. Researchers illustrated their respectivepoints of view from different angles. Since the late 90s, although the discussion oftranslation principle and criteria were still mentioned, the researchers' attention weregradually focused on translation of difficult parts in advertising, such as therhetorical devices, emotional transmission, brand image and trademark reproduction ,etc. In terms of research methods, domestic advertising translation study mainly usesthe inductive method and the case study. Nevertheless, in recent years, researchersbegin to use the theory achievements of pragmatics and other related disciplines toanalyze different kinds of problems in advertising translation, and then put forwardsome translation strategies.
As early as xx, Li Fan proposed the development of the advertising languageposed a severe challenge to advertising translation. The artful advertisings require thetranslator to break hard the tradition of the original, boldly innovate, and improve thequality of translation. There are three reasons for flexible advertising translation: 1)the purpose of advertising is to induce consumer to purchase products. Text is justmeans, so translations do not have to stick to the text equivalent; 2) the feature ofadvertising language is vivid, which is the essence of advertising language. If thetranslation is not bold to change, there will be no magic translation; 3) formulaicexpressions are common use in advertising, if not alternative, it may be translatedinto foreign stereotyped writing (黎凡 xx:29-31)。 At the same time, researchersthought in terms of some specific advertisements, flexible translation seems to be theonly way, especially in the four kinds of advertising: 1) advertising used of witty and polished words; 2) advertising used of brand name; 3) advertising used of puns; 4)advertising with strong national culture color.
In order to achieve concise expression, attract more readers' attention, facilitatereaders recognize and remember, advertising writing should follow the KISSprinciple, namely, “keep it short and sweet” (郭可 1992:57-64)。 A great number ofstudies on advertising translation are associated with concise problem. Ding Shude isdedicated to his studies. He holds that: 1) Chinese advertising often uses modifiers toemphasis, product characteristics, while English advertising is simple words, mainlywith oral type. a lot of subject-predicative phrases in Chinese can be directlytranslated into adjectives English , such as 速度快、效率高、行动灵活 can betranslated into “fast, efficient and handy”; 2) There are a large number of the fourwords in Chinese advertising structure, which bring parallelism and overlapping tostrengthen language, but there is no such characteristic in English. InChinese-English translation should hold the center, around the center word leads toall aspects; 3) there are often loose sentences, which express a large amount ofinformation in Chinese advertising. Translation should be concise and compact,strengthen the logic; 4) Chinese advertising commonly uses formulaic expressions.
Translation should be fascinating, considering the overall rhetorical, but not stackrhetoric. Good English advertising language is not many words, but it is impressive(丁树德 xx: 42-43)。 Cao Shunfa also takes a large number of examples of bothEnglish-Chinese translation two aspects show that based on the principle of simple,the translation of advertising language should strive to use the most simple languageto express the most complex meaning, to make it easy to be remembered (曹顺发xx: 43-45)。
Equivalence theory is based on Nida's equivalence translation theory. On thisbasis, some researchers point out that commercial advertising translation is mainlyon the equivalence of semantic, social and cultural, and stylistic aspect. 1) Thesemantic equivalence. This is the most basic and important equivalence. From wordto chapter, in order to achieve the semantic equivalence, the first thing to thetranslator is that he must determine the meaning of the translation unit in context.
研究生写论文应该注意的一些问题研究生发表论文是非常常见的也是必须的一件事，但是很多研究生初次接触论文的时候难免会出很多错误导致投稿难。那么研究生在写论文的时候应该注意哪些问题呢？本文总结了如下一些技巧。1、 注意语言表达虽然科研论文可以说是对他人“讲故事”。但与一般的故事不同之处，个人认为，主要在于逻辑性与连贯性。表达方式应以顺叙为佳，不宜像诗歌、散文、小说之类的文艺作品，使用倒叙、插叙等手法。内容详略得当。该简略之处就要言简意赅，该详尽之处就要清晰全面，不要写成“流水账”，也不要写成“意识流”。结构要合理。可以按“提出问题（立论）→分析问题（讨论）→解决问题（结论）”的总体思路来谋篇布局。摘要、正文和结论的相关内容，要前后呼应。语言通俗易懂。论文是给别人看的，不要认为自己知道的，别人就一定知道。要使用书面语言，避免使用网络语言。语句长短合适，少用累赘的长句与跳跃的短句。遣词要恰当得体。比如，“推测”、“推断”与“推定”，语气是有所不同的（在英文文献中，常用的是suggest、indicate、maybe之类“容他性”的词语）。注意错别字。避免因一时的疏忽大意，而留下缺憾。比如，将“风云二号”写成“风韵二号”，“碳酸盐”写成“碳酸岩”。一字之差，天壤之别。正确使用标点符号。不要分号与顿号不分，一“逗（号）”到底等。建议同学们在闲暇时，可以多看看汉语言工具书。同时，也呼吁素质教育阶段，要切实重视母语—汉语的教学质量。2、数据、术语严谨规范严谨规范，是科研论文的主要特征之一。数据分析，避免“张冠李戴”。对数据进行判别时，不要将属性为A的对象，用B作为参照标准。计量单位，要符合国家标准或者相关行业规范。注意有效数字的取舍。并不是小数点之后位数越多就越精确，而是要与获得数据的方法手段结合起来。比如，利用一台精度为5%的仪器进行观测，数据应写成“19”，而不是“19.2”。不能简单地照搬仪器报出值。高于检测上限、或低于检测下限的数据，应该用“>检测限”、“<检测限”、“未检出”或相应的英文缩写等表示。标注要详实。比如，采样位置图，应该有比例尺、方位、坐标、图例及说明等参数。图版中使用专业符号、代码表示对象时，应该附注相应的文字说明。
研究生写论文是一件研究生必备的技能，初次写论文的时候会出现很多状况，也无从下手，现将研究生写论文需要的工具及方法分析如下：
多写多练，写论文也不是困难事了！
研究生的论文通常都会用到画图和数据处理软件，比如说著名的画图软件的话，论证就是研究生论文需要用到的还有CAD。
学术堂bai整理了一份硕士学位论du文写作技巧，大家可以进行参考：zhi1.序言部分要概括、总结和分dao析他人的工作，还要论述自己的观点。2.硕士论文要尽可能多地利用图形、表格、公式、数据表达意思，说明原理、方案等，有助于读者理解内容。3.论文在评论他人的研究工作时，一定要客观，避免引起纠纷。特别是谈论其不足和缺点时，一定要慎重，没有把握时，且不可凭感觉或印象随意发表评论。4.参考文献中列出的文献，应尽可能地标注在论文中。一方面尊重他人成果，另一方面可反映作者阅读的文献丰富，理论有根据。有的参考文献可能是间接引用，就不一定标注出来。注意参考文献尽量选用最新发表的文章和最新出版的著作。有的研究生不注意这个问题，选用的参考文献很多是几十年前的文章和著作。5.一般对硕士论文的创新性没有特别的要求，但特点总应该有的，即使利用现成的方法、原理、工艺解决了生产或研究中的某个问题，也算有实用的特点。作者应尽力将研究工作的特点或创新点传达给读者，有的研究生为了显示论文的重要性，也不管是不是特点和创新点，列出一大串的特点和创新点，而有的根本不是特点和创新点。实际上，作为硕士论文，只要选题有一定的意义和工作量，作者能够独立完成，没有错误，有特点，就符合基本要求，创新点或特点有2~3个就相当不错了。所以，作者不要刻意去寻找那么多的特点和创新点，真正的创新点哪怕有一个也是可以的，关键是作者一定要弄清楚真正的特点和创新点。
好办，翻译是双语，双文，双文化的产物。因此，好的翻译只能脱裤子放屁重复学习同样的知识技能。比如物理学，在中国物理大学毕业，还要在美国达到物理大学毕业水平，也只能翻译英中/中英的物理大学毕业水平以下的资料，硕士/博士级别的，根本就别想了！是不是一个重要的题目？
好的翻译只能脱裤子放屁重复学习同样的知识技能。。。。必要时建议直接找翻译公司，省事，可以找北京译顶科技。，
关于文化视域下的翻译研究分析
翻译实践的这种文化特质逐渐引起了人们的广泛兴趣，本文关于文化视域下的翻译研究。
论文摘要： 本文从文化研究的角度，分析了文化和翻译的关系，阐述了文化翻译理论的发展，提出译者应在翻译实践中注重文化意识的培养。
论文关键词：文化;翻译;文化翻译理论;文化意识
一、引言
作为文化传递的载体，翻译活动在人类走过的几个世纪中可谓影响深远。i·a·理查兹曾于1953年提出，翻译很可能是世界史上最为复杂的一种活动。翻译是两种语言沟通的桥梁，主要任务是在目的语(targettext)中再现源语(originaltext)的思想内容，也就是文化信息在传递中的解码和重新编码的活动，以达到跨文化的社会交际、传递的目的。从这个意义上讲，翻译是一种跨语言、跨社会的特殊文化活动，“翻译从来就不是在真空中产生的”。当今世界科技、经济和信息网络的全球化进程不断加快，文化的多元一体化态势渐趋明晰，翻译的文化功用日益彰显，语际翻译必然是文化翻译。翻译研究需要“客观地考察译文在特定的历史文化环境中形成的动因，分析研究社会、历史和文化因素对翻译策略和方法的制约，以及译著对接受文化产生的影响”。
二、文化的范畴
在我们试图探讨翻译和文化这一主题之前，首先我们来定义一下文化这个概念。文化无疑是一个复杂的现象，它有着丰富的内容。文化人类学之父爱德华·泰勒在他的《原始文化》一书中认为：“文化是一种复杂的整体，其中包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及人们作为社会成员而获得的一切能力和习惯”。由此我们可以看出，文化是一个包罗万象的概念。根据《辞海》的解释，文化“从广义来说，指人类社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。从狭义来说，指社会的意识形态以及与它相适应的制度和组织结构。文化是一种历史现象，每一社会都有与其相适应的文化”。萨莫瓦(samovar)也认为，文化是-个民族知识、经验、信仰、价值、态度、等级、宗教以及时空观念的总合。文化具有一贯性、持久性，渗透于社会生活的各个方面，如风俗习惯、服饰礼仪、婚丧庆典、节日禁忌等等。据说文化影响已深埋于人的新大脑皮层之下，成为集体潜意识。我们从生到死，甚至死后的葬礼也摆脱不了文化的制约。
那么翻译与文化的关系如何呢?南开大学的王秉钦教授曾引用了美国著名汉学家约翰·j.迪尼的话对此予以说明：“每一种语言都从文化中获得生命和营养，所以我们不能只注意如何将一种语言的内容译成另一种语言，还必须力求表达两种文化在思维方式和表达情感方面的习惯。”由此看来，翻译虽然在基本形式上是一种语言转换的活动，但是还涉及到许多的文化因素。
三、文化翻译理论的发展
翻译实践的这种文化特质逐渐引起了人们的广泛兴趣。如何在翻译活动中，全方位、多层次、多侧面地考虑并考察文化内涵，寻求语言文化中的翻译问题和翻译中的语言文化问题的统一呢?
20世纪70年代，以色列学者伊塔玛·埃文一佐哈尔(itamaeven—zohar)在后期俄国形式主义的代表人物坦屉亚诺(tynjanov)的理论的基础上提出了多系统论(polysystem)。坦尼亚诺认为文学作品不是简单的素材和写作技巧的堆积，而是由不同成分所构成的系统。所谓的文学作品、文学类型、文学时代、文学或文学本身，实际上是若干特征的聚合，这些特征的价值取决于它们与网络系统中其他因素的相互关系。因此，文学研究必须置于共时和历时两个维度之下来进行。从共时研究的角度观察，文学似乎是一个和谐、平衡和静态的系统;但从历史的角度来看，文学内部充满了冲突和变异。文学的演进和发展在于系统内部持续不断的、陌生取代熟悉、创新取代传统的运动。而佐哈尔又进一步发展了这一理论，认为文学以及文化等社会符号现象都是一个开放式的多系统，在这个系统中抽象与具体的现象之间存在着各种关系，这些关系可以归为三类相互矛盾与对立的概念：中心与边缘(centervs.periphery)，经典化与非经典化(canonizedvs.noncanonized)，来源与目的(sourcevs.targei)。这些矛盾着的现象相互斗争，保持着此消彼长的状态共处于一个系统之中，维持着系统的现状，推动着系统的发展。并且佐哈尔将长期被人轻视的翻译文学重新定位，提出翻译文学也是文学不可分割的一部分，分析了三种能使翻译文学处于中心地位的社会状态，我们应该根据具体情况来判断翻译文学是处于中心还是边缘地位。佐哈尔倾向于引入时间因素来分析影响翻译文本之外的社会文化因素。评价翻译文本时要将其放在大的社会文化语境下，考虑到社会文化历时的演变和发展，分析这些因素对翻译文本造成的影响，而决不以价值判断为准则来预先选择研究对象。显然，埃文一佐哈尔发展了俄国形式主义的观点，把系统的概念从文学作品内部推广到了整个民族文学、文化的构成。
之后，佐哈尔的学生吉迪恩·图里(gideontoury)又在多系统论的基础上提出了描述翻译学。他引进了“常规”norms)概念，即社会文化对翻译的约束力。他认为常规是解释社会活动的最根本的概念，是社会秩序赖以建立的基础，也是解释文化、翻译活动的关键。译语文化中的社会规范(socialnomrs)和文学惯例(1iteraryconventions)制约着译者的审美趋向并影响译者所做出的具体选择。图里的描述性翻译研究主张接受并承认所有既成的翻译结果，探索影响其形成过程的所有社会历史因素，以及翻译作品在目标语文学系统中所处的地位和产生的作用，并对此进行全面的历时性描述和分析。在图里看来，语言学和美学在翻译中并不是发挥着举足轻重的作用，而是文化意识形态直接影响着翻译作品的抉择。描述性翻译研究可以有效地避免由于审美不同带来的干扰，客观地描述所有译作的特点和价值。这种理论为对多年以前产生的翻译文学或者是不同历史条件下产生的同一文学作品的不同译本进行研究提供了一种很好的研究方法。
1990年，巴斯奈特(bassnett)和勒弗维尔(lefevere)在其合编的《翻译、历史与文化》一书中，正式提出了翻译的“文化转向”(culturaltum)的口号。他俩的研究超越了语言，着眼于翻译和文化的互动，关注文化影响和限制翻译的方式，研究有关语境、历史和习俗的问题。他们认为，翻译研究和文化研究不应割裂孤立，而应相辅相成，在文化平等原则基础上，尽可能保留源语的`文化内涵，从而达到文化共享。根茨勒(gentzler)认为“文化转向”的提出是“翻译研究领域的一项真正具有突破性意义的成果”，1]1它标志着翻译理论研究时代的来临。谢莉·西蒙也指出：“80年代以来，翻译研究中最激动人心的一些进展属于被称为‘文化转向’的一部分。转向文化意味着翻译研究增添了一个重要的维度。不是去问那个一直困扰着翻译理论家的传统问题——‘我们应该怎样去翻译?什么是正确的翻译?’——而是把重点放在了一种描述性的方法上：‘译本在做什么?它们怎样在世上流通并引起反响?’……这种转向使我们理解到翻译与其他交流方式之间存在着有机的联系，并视翻译为协作实践，贯穿所有文化表现的种种张力尽在其中。”20世纪的90年代，文化研究从三个方面影响着翻译研究：1.翻译作为一种改写，这是系统理论的一种发展;2.翻译和性别;3.翻译和后殖民主义。把目光投向文化层面之后，翻译研究迎来了一系列的转变：“从原文中心到译文中心，从规定性到描写性，从翻译过程到翻译产品，从语言研究到文化研究。”
四、翻译实践中的文化意识的培养
不同的国家，不同的民族，都有着各具特色的民族文化，彼此相互渗透和影响，“文化进化的主要趋势是趋同，即随着文化的发展各种文化越来越趋向于统一”。[61但在文化趋同的过程中，不同民族的思维方式、信仰、价值和态度不仅会造成跨文化交际的失误或误解，而且也会成为翻译理论家和翻译工作者的难题，给语言的翻译带来种种障碍和困难。因此，许多译界学者提出应在翻译实践领域加强文化意识，应将文化而不是文本作为翻译的单位，把文化研究纳入到译论研究中来。.
那么什么是文化意识呢?文化意识就是译者认识到翻译是跨越语言文字、跨越文化的信息交流，而文化的差异跟语言文字的差异一样，可能成为交流的障碍，他在进行语言文字的转换的同时，还要注意克服文化差异造成的障碍，以保证信息交流的顺利实现。为此，译者不仅要精通译出和译人语言，还要了解研究诸多语言背后的文化，并且要在正确翻译观的指导下知道在每一具体情况下如何处理文化差异、文化障碍。著名翻译理论家尤金·奈达(eugenea.nida)曾指出：“对于真正成功的翻译而言，熟悉两种文化甚至比掌握两种语言更为重要，因为词语只有在其作用的文化背景中才有意义。”所以，在翻译实践中，我们应该注意到翻译不仅仅传达语言信息，语言表象下也蕴涵着丰富的文化内涵，源语中特有的文化因子可以通过解构和移植加入目的语中。缺乏文化意识的译者，可能只顾到字面上的转换而忽略背后的文化问题。
五、小结
翻译必定受到源语文化和目的语文化的制约。所以，译者在翻译实践中除了要提高自己的理解和使用语言文字的功底，还应注意培养文化意识，加强对中西文化差异的对比、分析和归纳，从而达到源语和目的语契合，真正实现两种文化的互动和移植。
1.性质不同学术论文是某一学术课题在实验性、理论性或预测性上具有的新的科学研究成果或创新见解和知识的科学记录,或是某种已知原理应用于实际...研究报告包括多个行业,网站评价分析报告可以发挥多方面的作用:及时发现和改善网站。2.分类不同学术论文 (1)按研究的学科,可将学术论文分为自然科学论文和社会科学论文。