社保论文的英文文献

insuranceHealth insurance works by estimating the overall risk of healthcare expenses and developing a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) that will ensure that money is available to pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, most often either a government agency or a private or not-for-profit entity operating a health it worksA Health insurance policy is a contract between an insurance company and an individual. The contract can be renewable annually or monthly. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by the health plan are specified in advance, in the member contract or Evidence of Coverage booklet. The individual policy-holder's payment obligations may take several forms[7]:Premium: The amount the policy-holder pays to the health plan each month to purchase health coverage. Deductible: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out-of-pocket before the health plan pays its share. For example, a policy-holder might have to pay a $500 deductible per year, before any of their health care is covered by the health plan. It may take several doctor's visits or prescription refills before the policy-holder reaches the deductible and the health plan starts to pay for care. Copayment: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out of pocket before the health plan pays for a particular visit or service. For example, a policy-holder might pay a $45 copayment for a doctor's visit, or to obtain a prescription. A copayment must be paid each time a particular service is obtained. Coinsurance: Instead of paying a fixed amount up front (a copayment), the policy-holder must pay a percentage of the total cost. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery, while the health plan pays the other 80%. Because there is no upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder can end up owing very little, or a significant amount, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain. Exclusions: Not all services are covered. The policy-holder is generally expected to pay the full cost of non-covered services out of their own pocket. Coverage limits: Some health plans only pay for health care up to a certain dollar amount. The policy-holder may be expected to pay any charges in excess of the health plan's maximum payment for a specific service. In addition, some plans have annual or lifetime coverage maximums. In these cases, the health plan will stop payment when they reach the benefit maximum, and the policy-holder must pay all remaining costs. Out-of-pocket maximums: Similar to coverage limits, except that in this case, the member's payment obligation ends when they reach the out-of-pocket maximum, and the health plan pays all further covered costs. Out-of-pocket maximums can be limited to a specific benefit category (such as prescription drugs) or can apply to all coverage provided during a specific benefit year. Capitation: An amount paid by an insurer to a health care provider, for which the provider agrees to treat all members of the insurer. In-Network Provider: A health care provider on a list of providers preselected by the insurer. The insurer will offer discounted coinsurance or copayments, or additional benefits, to a plan member to see an in-network provider. Generally, providers in network are providers who have a contract with the insurer to accept rates further discounted from the "usual and customary" charges the insurer pays to out-of-network providers. Prescription drug plans are a form of insurance offered through some employer benefit plans in the US, where the patient pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the , if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company doesn't pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than the provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network plan vs. health insuranceHistorically, HMOs tended to use the term "health plan", while commercial insurance companies used the term "health insurance". A health plan can also refer to a subscription-based medical care arrangement offered through health maintenance organization, HMO, PPO, or POS plan. These plans are similar to pre-paid dental, pre-paid legal, and pre-paid vision plans. Pre-paid health plans typically pay for a fixed number of services (for instance, $300 in preventive care, a certain number of days of hospice care or care in a skilled nursing facility, a fixed number of home health visits, a fixed number of spinal manipulation charges, etc.) The services offered are usually at the discretion of a utilization review nurse who is often contracted through the managed care entity providing the subscription health plan. This determination may be made either prior to or after hospital admission (concurrent utilization review).[edit] Inherent problems with insuranceInsurance systems must typically deal with two inherent challenges: adverse selection, which affects any voluntary system, and ex-post moral hazard, which affects any insurance system in which a third party bears major responsibility for payment, whether that is an employer or the government. Some national systems with compulsory insurance utilize systems such as risk equalization and community rating to overcome these inherent problems.[edit] Adverse selectionInsurance companies use the term "adverse selection" to describe the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. Specifically when talking about health insurance, unhealthy people are more likely to purchase health insurance because they anticipate large medical bills. On the other side, people who consider themselves to be reasonably healthy may decide that medical insurance is an unnecessary expense; if they see the doctor once a year and it costs $250, that's much better than making monthly insurance payments of $40. (example figures).The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances costs across a large, random sample of individuals (see risk pool). For instance, an insurance company has a pool of 1000 randomly selected subscribers, each paying $100 per month. One person becomes very ill while the others stay healthy, allowing the insurance company to use the money paid by the healthy people to pay for the treatment costs of the sick person. However, when the pool is self-selecting rather than random, as is the case with individuals seeking to purchase health insurance directly, adverse selection is a greater concern.[8] A disproportionate share of health care spending is attributable to individuals with high health care costs. In the US the 1% of the population with the highest spending accounted for 27% of aggregate health care spending in 1996. The highest-spending 5% of the population accounted for more than half of all spending. These patterns were stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and some data suggest that they may have been typical of the mid-to-early 20th century as well.[9][10] A few individuals have extremely high medical expenses, in extreme cases totaling a half million dollars or more.[11] Adverse selection could leave an insurance company with primarily sick subscribers and no way to balance out the cost of their medical expenses with a large number of healthy of adverse selection, insurance companies employ medical underwriting, using a patient's medical history to screen out those whose pre-existing medical conditions pose too great a risk for the risk pool. Before buying health insurance, a person typically fills out a comprehensive medical history form that asks whether the person smokes, how much the person weighs, whether the person has been treated for any of a long list of diseases and so on. In general, those who present large financial burdens are denied coverage or charged high premiums to compensate.[12] One large US industry survey found that roughly 13 percent of applicants for comprehensive, individually purchased health insurance who went through the medical underwriting in 2004 were denied coverage. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 percent for individuals 18 and under to just under a third for individuals aged 60 to 64.[13] Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76% received offers at standard premium rates, and 22% were offered higher rates.[14] On the other side, applicants can get discounts if they do not smoke and are healthy.[15]Health insurance in CanadaMost health insurance in Canada is administered by each province, under the Canada Health Act, which requires all people to have free access to basic health services. Collectively, the public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare. Private health insurance is allowed, but the provincial governments allow it only for services that the public health plans do not cover; for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans. Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers.[17] Private-sector services not paid for by the government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending.[18]In 2005, the Supreme Court of Quebec ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec, that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan could constitute an infringement of the right to life and security if there were long wait times for treatment as happened in this case. Certain other provinces have legislation which financially discourages but does not forbid private health insurance in areas covered by the public plans. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times.[19]Health insurance in the NetherlandsIn the Netherlands in 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force. All insurance companies have to provide at least one policy which meets a government set minimum standard level of cover and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this cover from an insurance company of their new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health the Dutch system, insurance companies are compensated for taking on high risk individuals because they receive extra funding for them. This funding comes from an insurance equalization pool run by a regulator which collects salary based contributions from employers (about 45% of all health care funding) and funding from the government for people whose means are such that they cannot afford health care (about 5% of all funding). Thus insurance companies find that insuring high risk individuals becomes an attractive proposition. All insurance companies receive from the pool, but those with more high risk individuals will receive more from the fund. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public. Insurance companies compete for this money on price alone. The insurance companies are not allowed to set down any co-payments or caps or deductibles. Neither are they allowed to deny coverage to any person applying for a policy or charge anything other than their nationally set and internet published standard policy premiums. Every person buying insurance from that company will pay the same price as everyone else buying that policy. And every person will get the minimum level of coverage. Children under 18 are insured for free (the funding coming from the equalization pool).In addition to this minimum level, companies are free to sell extra insurance for additional coverage over the national minimum, but extra risks for this are not covered from the insurance pool and must therefore be priced insurance in the United KingdomMain article: National Health ServiceGreat Britain's National Health Service (NHS) is a publicly funded healthcare system that provides coverage to everyone normally resident in the UK. The NHS provides the majority of health care in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term health care, ophthalmology and dentistry. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the British public opposing such involvement.[20]. According to the World Health Organization, government funding covered 86% of overall health care expenditures in the UK as of 2004, with private expenditures covering the remaining 14%.[21] The costs of running the NHS (est. £104 billion in 2007-8)[22] are met directly from general National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by a Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. The NHS is the world's largest health service, and the world's third largest employer[23] after the Chinese army and the Indian insurance in the United States

英文论文参考文献示例

无论在学习或是工作中，大家肯定对论文都不陌生吧，通过论文写作可以提高我们综合运用所学知识的能力。你写论文时总是无从下笔？以下是我收集整理的英文论文参考文献示例，供大家参考借鉴，希望可以帮助到有需要的朋友。

英语论文参考文献格式范本

用Times New Roman。每一条目顶格,如某一条目超过一行，从第二行起“悬挂缩进”2字符。参考文献中所有标点与符号均在英文状态下输入，标点符号后空一格。

参考文献条目排列顺序：英文文献、中文文献、网络文献。分别按作者姓氏字母顺序排列。文献前不用序号。

1)英文参考文献

(1)专著与编著

排列顺序为：作者姓、名、专著名、出版地、出版社、出版年。

例如：

Brinkley, Alan. The Unfinished Nation. New York: Knopf, 1993.

专著名中如果还包含其他著作或作品名，后者用斜体。

例如：

Dunn, Richard J ed. Charlotte Bront: Jane Eyre. New York: Norton, 1971.

A.两个至三个作者

第一作者的姓在前，名在后，中间用逗号隔开;其余作者名在前，姓在后，中间无逗号;每个作者之间用逗号隔开，最后一个作者的姓名前用“and”，后用句号。

例如：

Rowe, Richard, and Larry Jeffus. The Essential Welder: Gas Metal Arc Welding Classroom Manual. Albany: Delmar, 2000.

B. 三个以上作者

第一作者姓名(姓在前，名在后，中间加逗号)后接“et al.”，其他作者姓名省略。

例如：

Randall, John et al. Fishes of the Great Barrier Reef and Coral Sea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997.

C. 同一作者同一年出版的不同文献，参照下例：

Widdowson, Henry G. EIL: Squaring the Circles. A Reply. London: Lomgman, 1998a.

Widdowson, Henry G. Communication and Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998b.

(2)论文集

参照下例：

Thompson, Pett. “Modal Verbs in Academic Writing”. In Ben Kettlemann & Marko, Henry ed. Teaching and Learning by Doing Corpus Analysis. New York: Rodopi, 2002: 305-323.

(3)百科全书等参考文献

参照下例：

Fagan, Jeffrey. “Gangs and Drugs”. Encyclopedia of Drugs, Alcohol and Addictive Behavior. New York: Macmillan, 2001.

(4)学术期刊论文

参照下例：

Murphy, Karen. “Meaningful Connections: Using Technology in Primary Classrooms”. Young Children. 2003, (6): 12-18.

(5)网络文献

参照下例：

----“Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL” .

2)中文参考文献

(1)专著

参照下例：

皮亚杰.结构主义[M].北京：商务印书馆，1984.

(2)期刊文章

参照下例：

杨忠，张韶杰.认知语音学中的类典型论[J].外语教学与研究，1999，(2)：1-3.

(3)学位论文

参照下例：

梁佳.大学英语四、六级测试试题现状的理论分析与问题研究[D].湖南大学，2002.

(4)论文集

参照下例：

许小纯.含义和话语结构[A].李红儒.外国语言与文学研究[C].哈尔滨：黑龙江人民出版社，1999：5-7.

(5)附录本

翻译学论文参考文献范例

参考文献：

奥马利 第二语言习得的学习策略上海：上海外语出版社，2001

陈保亚 20 世纪中国语言学方法论 济南：山东教育出版社，1999

丁言仁 英语语言学纲要 上海：上海外语出版社，2001

费尔迪南 德 索绪尔 普通语言学教程 长沙：湖南教育出版社，2001

冯翠华 英语修辞大全 北京：商务印书馆，1996

桂诗春，宁春言主编 语言学方法论 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1998

桂诗春 应用语言学长沙：湖南教育出版社，1998

何兆熊 新编语用学概要 上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000

何自然 语用学与英语学习 上海：上海外语教育出版社，1997

侯维瑞 英语语体 上海：上海外语教育出版社，1988

胡壮麟 语言学教程(修订版)北京：北京大学出版社，2001

黄国文 语篇与语言的功能 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002

黄国文 语篇分析概要长沙：湖南教育出版社，1988

李延富主编 英语语言学基本读本 济南：山东大学出版社，1999

李运兴 语篇翻译引论 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2000

刘润清 西方语言学流派北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999

刘润清等 现代语言学名著选读(上下册)北京：测绘出版社，1988

刘润清等 语言学入门 北京：人民教育出版社，1990

陆国强 现代英语词汇学(新版)上海：上海外语教育出版社，1999

拓展内容：

书写格式

1.参考文献标注的位置

2. 参考文献标标注方法和规则

3. 参考文献标标注的格式

2007年8月20日在清华大学召开的“综合性人文社会科学学术期刊编排规范研讨会”决定，2008年起开始部分刊物开始执行新的规范“综合性期刊文献引证技术规范”。该技术规范概括了文献引证的“注释”体例和“著者—出版年”体例。不再使用“参考文献”的说法。这两类文献著录或引证规范在中国影响较大，后者主要在层次较高的人文社会科学学术期刊中得到了应用。

⑴文后参考文献的著录规则为GB/T 7714-2005《文后参考文献著录规则》，适用于“著者和编辑编录的文后参考文献，而不能作为图书馆员、文献目录编制者以及索引编辑者使用的文献著录规则”。

⑵顺序编码制的具体编排方式。参考文献按照其在正文中出现的先后以阿拉伯数字连续编码，序号置于方括号内。一种文献被反复引用者，在正文中用同一序号标示。一般来说，引用一次的文献的页码（或页码范围）在文后参考文献中列出。格式为著作的“出版年”或期刊的“年，卷（期）”等+“：页码（或页码范围）.”。多次引用的文献，每处的页码或页码范围（有的刊物也将能指示引用文献位置的信息视为页码）分别列于每处参考文献的序号标注处，置于方括号后（仅列数字，不加“p”或“页”等前后文字、字符；页码范围中间的连线为半字线）并作上标。作为正文出现的参考文献序号后需加页码或页码范围的，该页码或页码范围也要作上标。作者和编辑需要仔细核对顺序编码制下的参考文献序号，做到序号与其所指示的文献同文后参考文献列表一致。另外，参考文献页码或页码范围也要准确无误。

⑶参考文献类型及文献类型，根据GB3469-83《文献类型与文献载体代码》规定，以单字母方式标识：

专著M ； 报纸N ；期刊J ；专利文献P；汇编G ；古籍O；技术标准S ；

学位论文D ；科技报告R；参考工具K ；检索工具W；档案B ；录音带A ；

图表Q；唱片L；产品样本X；录相带V；会议录C；中译文T；

乐谱I； 电影片Y；手稿H；微缩胶卷U ；幻灯片Z；微缩平片F；其他E。

书写技巧

把光标放在引用参考文献的地方，在菜单栏上选“插入|脚注和尾注”，弹出的对话框中选择“尾注”，点击“选项”按钮修改编号格式为阿拉伯数字，位置为“文档结尾”，确定后Word就在光标的地方插入了参考文献的`编号，并自动跳到文档尾部相应编号处请你键入参考文献的说明，在这里按参考文献著录表的格式添加相应文献。参考文献标注要求用中括号把编号括起来，以word2007为例，可以在插入尾注时先把光标移至需要插入尾注的地方，然后点击 引用-脚注下面的一个小箭头，在出现的对话框中有个自定义，然后输入中括号及数字，然后点插入，然后自动跳转到本节/本文档末端，此时再输入参考文献内容即可。

在文档中需要多次引用同一文献时，在第一次引用此文献时需要制作尾注，再次引用此文献时点“插入|交叉引用”，“引用类型”选“尾注”，引用内容为“尾注编号（带格式）”，然后选择相应的文献，插入即可。

不要以为已经搞定了，我们离成功还差一步。论文格式要求参考文献在正文之后，参考文献后还有发表论文情况说明、附录和致谢，而Word的尾注要么在文档的结尾，要么在“节”的结尾，这两种都不符合我们的要求。解决的方法似乎有点笨拙。首先删除尾注文本中所有的编号（我们不需要它，因为它的格式不对），然后选中所有尾注文本（参考文献说明文本），点“插入|书签”，命名为“参考文献文本”，添加到书签中。这样就把所有的参考文献文本做成了书签。在正文后新建一页，标题为“参考文献”，并设置好格式。光标移到标题下，选“插入|交叉引用”，“引用类型”为“书签”，点“参考文献文本”后插入，这样就把参考文献文本复制了一份。选中刚刚插入的文本，按格式要求修改字体字号等，并用项目编号进行自动编号。

打印文档时，尾注页同样会打印出来，而这几页是我们不需要的。当然，可以通过设置打印页码范围的方法不打印最后几页。这里有另外一种方法，如果你想多学一点东西，请接着往下看。

选中所有的尾注文本，点“格式|字体”，改为“隐藏文字”，切换到普通视图，选择“视图|脚注”，此时所有的尾注出现于窗口的下端，在“尾注”下拉列表框中选择“尾注分割符”，将默认的横线删除。同样的方法删除“尾注延续分割符”和“尾注延续标记”。删除页眉和页脚（包括分隔线），选择“视图|页眉和页脚”，首先删除文字，然后点击页眉页脚工具栏的“页面设置”按钮，在弹出的对话框上点“边框”，在“页面边框”选项卡，边框设置为“无”，应用范围为“本节”；“边框”选项卡的边框设置为“无”，应用范围为“段落”。切换到“页脚”，删除页码。选择“工具|选项”，在“打印”选项卡里确认不打印隐藏文字（Word默认）。

注：以上在word中的处理是比较常用的做法，不过作者需要了解，投稿稿件是word格式或pdf格式或wps格式，但是很多期刊是用方正排版系统排版的，二者不“兼容”。因此，作者的word投稿只是编辑部排版的原稿，排版问题作者无需太过担心；而作者如想要编辑部出刊前最后的电子稿（有些作者着急要清样或已经排版的电子稿）其实也没有太大意义，因为没有方正的软件就无法打开这个电子稿。