关于文学史的英语毕业论文

晚明中国文学史 Chinese Literature History of the Late Ming Dynasty Culture and ScienceThe culture of the Ming Dynasty developed rapidly, especially in literature. Three of the four great classical masterpieces of Chinese literature - Journey to the West, Outlaws of the Marsh, and Romance of the Three Kingdoms were written in the Ming Dynasty. Besides, another two well-known novels - Peony Pavilion and The Plum in the Golden Vase were also excellent works in that period. Meanwhile, folk literature prospered, represented by a group of writers such as Tang Yin, Song Lian, Zhang Dai, Wu Weiye and Yuan Hongdao. In philosophy, Wang Yangming's new thoughts called 'philosophy of the mind' formed a new thinking wave which helped shape a new social trend. Before the 16th century, the scientific development of the Ming Dynasty had been in the forefront of the scientific books appeared in the early and middle period, namely, medical book Compendium of Materia Medica by Li Shizhen, Song Yingxing's Heavenly Creations about handicraft industry, Xu Guangqi's Complete Treatise on Agriculture and Xu Xiake's Travels of Xu Xiake. All these have been the precious documents for today's study of the ancient technology. Additionally, the military technology was relatively advanced in that period. A kind of gun called 'huochong gun' and powerful artillery were invented in the late period of the Ming Dynasty. It is said that a man named Wan Hoo even tried to fly to the sky by sitting in a chair propelled by gunpowder sticks. Unfortunately, he failed and became the first sacrifice in human conquest of the Ming period was a time of great ferment and change in Chinese literature. At the top, literature and literary style had become moribund, fossilized by the insistence by the scholars on a rigid style and adherence to the Chinese classics. In the areas, then, of classical Chinese literary forms, such as essays, philosophy, and poetry, all written in Classical Chinese, Chinese literature during the Ming is generally stultified and conservative. The vital and dynamic literary activity, however, occurred at the fringes of literary respectability: in popular literary forms such as drama, the novel, the short story, and a racy and popular verse form called Shih-chu songs. The rise of popular literature during the Ming period can be ascribed to several reasons. The economic expansion created a middle class of merchants and even laborers with more money to spare on diversionary activities. Standards of living increased all throughout China, but particularly in the south. Innovations in paper manufacture made paper cheaper, and the Ming period is characterized by the phenomenal growth of printers all throughout the empire. During the entire Ming period, the reigns of the Chia-ching emperor (1522-1566) and the Wan-li emperor (1572-1619) were the most active periods in literary publishing. The Drama The drama had developed in China during the Yüan period. Yüan drama was primarily characterized by simplicity, naturalness, and rigid rules for composition and acting. The Hong-wu emperor was himself very fond of drama; several of his sons wrote dramas and composed music for them. Ming drama, unlike Yüan drama, however, soon became a much more flexible and elaborate medium. All drama was in verse, and the stage was bare of scenery. Actors, however, dressed in magnificent costumes and elaborate makeup. Chinese theater was musical; the actors didn't recite lines, but sung them accompanied by an orchestra. By the end of the Ming, the stage had become one of the most popular pastimes in the country. The Novel The most important literary form invented in the Ming period was the vernacular novel; it was written in vernacular rather than Classical Chinese. As a form it grew out of storytelling and Buddhist preaching; these were the two most popular literary forms during the Southern Sung. The first novels in the Ming were only simple collections of manuscript stories that storytellers collected for their own use. Eventually, however, these stories were collated by more educated literary artists and took the form of long novels. Confucian scholars were divided about the novel; some declared that it was vulgar, while others advocated the development of new literary forms to fit the times. Many scholars felt that there was nothing more to accomplish in standard Chinese letters or philosophy; it was this group of highly literary and educated men who developed the long novel into an art form. Written in plain and common language, the long novel dealt with philosophical, religious and social issues, while remaining humorous and filled with adventure. The three most famous Ming novels are Journey to the West (Hsi-yu chi , also called, The Monkey King ), Tale of the Water Margin (Shui-hu chuan ), and The Plum in the Golden Vase (Chin-p'ing mei ). Journey to the West is perhaps the most read and most famous classic Chinese novel; it was originally a series of oral and written stories and was composed in its final format by the scholar-official, Wu Ch'eng-en (1500?-1582) and published in 1592. It is a supernatural story about gods and demons fighting for supremacy. It is loosely based on a real historical character and his life, the Chinese Buddhist monk, Hsuan Tsang (602-664). He journeyed to India and brought back the Sutra, or Buddhist holy book, and translated it into Chinese on his return to China. The novel, however, introduces a wealth of allegorical and supernatural elements, including fables, legends, popular superstitions and monster stories; the novel is suffused with Confucian and Taoist elements as well. The novel has two parts: the first part narrates the early history of the Monkey King spirit, a rebellious spirit born out of a rock. He defies Yu Huang Ta Ti, "The Great Emperor of Jade," that rules heaven, earth, sea, and the underworld. After conquering several areas of creation and fighting with the Heavenly Army, the defiant monkey spirit grows stronger and more clever. Desperate, the Great Emperor of Jade asks Buddha for help. The Buddha then offers to make the Monkey Spirit a disciple and, with a Pig spirit, Pigsy, and a former sea-monster, Sandy, the Buddha begins his journey west to find the sutra. Thus begins the second part which consists of eighty-one dangers encountered by Buddha and his three spirits; these adventures display the powers and hidden abilities of the three spirit disciples. Tale of the Water Margin is a loosely connected series of tales about a group of bandits; the stories are loosely based on actual historical events in the Sung dynasty. We have no idea who composed the stories into their final form, but literary scholars believe that the novel had been shaped and re-shaped by scholar-officials for over a century before it was published in the 1580's. Tale of the Water Margin was the most influential and popular novel of the Ming period. The Plum in the Golden Vase is a satirical novel set in the Sung period that really concerns Ming society during the Wan-li period (1572-1619). The novel centers around the domestic life of Hsi-men Ch'ing, a corrupt merchant with six wives and concubines who slowly destroys himself with conspicuous consumption, political imbroglios, and sexual escapades. The core of the novel is a critique of the changes that the economic boom of the sixteenth century brought to Ming society; in particular, the novel argues that the economic growth of the late Ming was eroding traditional values. The corruption and spiritual exhaustion of the household of Hsi-men Ch'ing reflects the larger corruption and materiality of late sixteenth century Ming culture. Shi-chü Songs The rise of the vernacular Chinese novel was mirrored by the rise of vernacular, popular poetry. The most popular of these new genres of poetry were the Shih-chü songs. Regarded by the literary classes as vulgar, the Shih-chü songs were indecent, rhyming narratives. Popular in both the South and the North, common people memorized, performed, and listened to them all the time; it is unquestionable that Shih-chü songs were the most dynamic and universal aspects of Chinese popular culture during the Ming. In the late sixteenth century, Shih-chü songs were compiled and published. --the last truly Chinese dynasty,unique to be sandwiched between 2 alien dynasties,the preceding Yuan Mongol rule & the Ching Manchu rule that followed the Ming--famous for its porcelain creations,identified easily by its blue-white patterns,as seen in the 2nd picture of Ming porcelain vase found at the end of this page--drama & novel writing reached a second peakDrama--Ming drama works remained to be performed as Chinese opera--different from Yuan drama: Ming drama is Southern-styled,with the music of Kunshan,to become a new form called the Music of Kunshan (kun shan qiang) or commonly known as 'kun qu',hence is termed as Southern drama--also known as marvel dramas 'zhuan qi',inheriting its characteristics of exploiting the strange & fantastic of the Tang & Sung marvel dramas1. 'The Peony Pavillion' ('Mu Dan Ting'): --a love story about a lady who dreamt of being married to a scholar & later died when she realised it was a dream a spirit,she finally united with him & when she was revived,they overcame obstacles to be married happily ever of similar themes to 'The Western Chamber'--written by Tang Xianzhu (1550-1616),a contemporary of William Shakespeare,who also wrote other plays including 'The Purple Hairpin' ('Zhi Chai Ji'),a tragic love story of a heartless scholar & a courtesan to the West' ('Xi You Ji')--The 3rd of the 4 greatest Chinese novels,written by Wu Cheng-en--great fantasy novel about the brave Sun Wukong,also known as Monkey & his adventures on his pligrimage to India to get Buddhist with his teacher Hsuan Tsang & 3 fellow disciples, Zhu Bajie(Wuneng) {Pigsy},Sha Wujing (Sandy) & the White Horse who originally was a dragon prince,with the 5 pligrims eventually reaching enlightenment to be revelled as gods by people even till popular & well-loved by people of all ages--based on the true story of the monk Hsuan Tsang who travelled to India during the reign of Tang Taizhong & the tale gradually became spiced with magical exploits & companions & came to be what it's known now2.'The Plum in the Golden Vase' ('Jin Ping Mei')--1st Chinese novel to be written alone by an author from a specific Chinese perspective & a world-historical context,a landmark in the development of narrative art,first published in 1617--a very long,complex & sophisticated novel with equal achievements to the Japanese classic 'The Tale of Genji' (1010 AD) & the 'Don Quixote',the Spanish classic by Cervantes (1615)--written by the anonymous 'The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling' ('Lan Ling Xiao Xiao Sheng'),it remains till now a forbidden book & is banned in Chinese areas--1st work to be so explicit in the details of sex,deemed pornographic,but with intricate characterisation--nonetheless its name & brief storyline is well-known by all,including minors since it was derived from a section in 'The Water Margin' ('Wu Song Kills his Sister-in-law') where Wu Song,1 of the 108 heroes kills his unfaithful sister-in-law Pan Jinlian (Golden-Lotus) who conspired with her lover Ximen Ching (mocked now as Simon King when pronounced in Cantonese & killed by Wu Song too) to murder Wu Dalang,Wu Song's author added in new characters & lengthened the period from months to years before Wu Song finally killed title in English & Mandarin are derived from the names of the 3 female leads,the 3 flirtatious concubines of Ximen Ching: Golden-Lotus (Pan Jinlian),Little Vase (Li Pin-er) & Vase's maid Spring Plum (Pang ChunMei)--in the end,after Vase & Ximen Ching died,Lotus is killed by Wu Song while waiting to be married as another man's concubine,Ximen Ching & Plum(after being sold as another man's concubine) die respectively of sexual excess from orgies while Vase dies of an illness--reflects the debaucheries of society