国外婚姻制度的研究进展论文

Differences Between Chinese Marriage Custom and Western Marriage Custom 中西方婚俗的差异AbstractThere are many procedures in Chinese marriage custom. The book propriety and ceremony, which records earliest wedding ceremony, says that marriage includes six etiquettes, namely, proposing, asking the name, asking for fortune, sending betrothal presents to the girl's family, discussing the date of marriage and meeting the bride. In western marriage, there are four procedures. They are proposal, changing surnames, choosing the day and holding the wedding. As the different religions, cultural origins, marriage concepts and geographies, there are many differences existing in the two kinds of marriage customs. In Chinese marriage custom, the matchmaker functions almost all the time and youths have no right to choose and women are not on an equal footing with men. By contrast, in western marriage custom, the priest functions and the youths have legal right to choose whom they want to marry and men and women are equal. There also exist common things in the two sides. They have been maintained for thousands of years. But in recent years (especially after the founding of modern China), people have tended to discard some of the details and advocate simplified marriage procedures and wedding WordsMarriage custom; differences; reasons摘 要中国婚俗有着许多的仪式。最早记载婚礼习俗的《仪礼》云：“婚有六礼，纳采、问名、 纳吉、纳征、请期、亲迎。”而在西方国家主要有4个程序，即建议，改姓，选期和举行婚礼。由于宗教、文化根源、婚姻观念以及地理环境的不同在一定程度上导致了中西方婚俗的不同。在中国婚俗中，媒人起着决定性的作用，而作为婚姻当事人的青年男女却没有选择的自由和权力，而且男女在婚姻中的不平等现象也屡有出现。 在西方，是牧师在婚姻中起作用，并且青年男女有合法的权力去选择自己的夫婿或妻子。当然中西方的婚俗也存在相同的地方。它们存在了上千年之久。近年来（特别是新中国成立之后），中西结合的婚姻屡有出现。关键词婚俗；差异；原因IntroductionMarriage is formed in a long historical evolution of the marriage custom in a nation. It is the regularity of the activities that restrains people's awareness of marriage and marriage. Marriage custom’s binding does not depend on the law, and it can not rely on science tests neither, but on the force of habit, traditional culture and national psychology. During the development of human history, the institution of marriage and family system has experienced different processes of development. Human have experienced group marriage, the dual system of marriage and individual marriage system (monogamy).As a union of a man and a woman and a family formation stage, marriage includes not only marriage, but also the preparation phase for the marriage and the performance stage after the festivities. It runs through the whole process of life. These customs, as a national symbol and cultural development, plays a very important role in ethnic studies and the history of is a country with an ancient civilization and a long history, and many customs. Among so many customs, there is a particular marriage custom. This custom goes through various and long stages of development from ancient simple wedding ceremony to later complex ceremony, from feudal marriage custom to the modern free marriage custom. During these courses, people’s ideas are progressing, though we can not say that their ideas are up to the top of mankind’s ideas in all over the world at all over the time because there are still backward ideas existing in many places, in many people’s mind and they maybe will still exist for a long time. However, they are up to the top of mankind’s ideas in a certain stage of the uninterrupted development of civilization is the base of western culture. Britain plays an important role in western history and western culture, and of course marriage with each other, they are different in many aspects such as in right aspect and in freedom aspect and there are many reasons that result in these differences such as cultural reason and geographical reason. I. Chinese Marriage CustomLike other folk, marriage custom has the same development and evolving process. In the early days of humanity, the human relationship in a very long period of time still carried the irregular relations like the animal world. There was no marriage at all, if suggest some, the only "arbitrary marriage." In China, marriage has gone through for a long time. As a most grand etiquette, it has always been a high degree of attention. To control the marriage, the family and the whole society, since the beginning of Zhou Dynasty, Chinese marriage should comply with six procedures, which is the so-called "six etiquettes." And Later in Tang and Ming Dynasty in China, marriage also complied with the "six etiquettes". As time goes by, although many wedding customs experienced various changes "Six etiquettes" as the basic pattern has not changed much. It is still essential and core in marriage has changed much today, but in many places, there still remains traditional marriage feudal society, a marriage would be decided not by the youths’ love, but by their parents' desires. Only after a matchmaker's introduction and when parents considered the two family conditions were similar and could be matched, would the marriage procedures went forward. Conditions that should be taken into consideration included wealth and social status. If a boy's family was well-off or an official family, his parents would never permit him to marry a girl from a poor family. Essential to the marriage process were the commonly recognized 'three Letters and six etiquettes'. The three letters were the betrothal letter, the gift letter with a gifts list and the wedding letter used on the day the bridegroom met his bride at her home. The book propriety and ceremony, which records earliest wedding ceremony, says that marriage, usually, involves six necessary procedures, namely, proposing, asking the name, asking for fortune, sending betrothal present to girl's family, discussing date of marriage and meeting the . Proposing:Proposing is the first etiquette in marriage and is the first meet between the members in the two families. Thus, it is very important. Using a common expression, it is making an offer of marriage to another family on behalf of the son or the parents thought that the girl could be the daughter-in-law in old times, they would ask a matchmaker for sending the gifts and bring the son and the girl together. If the girl’s parents also agreed on the marriage, they would accept the gifts. People usually used a wild goose when sending the gifts. Because the wild gooses could fly to the south or the north according to the seasons and they would never change it which implied the woman would be punctual and also because when the wild gooses flied they were in a row and when they stopped they were in a line which implied that woman should comply with the marriage rules and arrange in order that one should not breach . Asking the NameIt aims to ask for girl’s name and ancient times the girl’s name would not be known by other people until the girl was in an age of marriage. First, one must have the matchmaker and inform of the man’s family through a card. And the man’s family would lastly receipt for postal remittance. Thus it can be seen that “asking the name” not only meant that the man’s family wanted to know the girl’s name, but also wrote down the woman’s birthday and Eight-characters (in four pairs denoting the time, date, month and year of a person’s birth, each pair consisting of one Heavenly Stem and one Earthly Branch, used in fortune-telling). If the birthday and Eight-characters were not harm the man, the man’s family would lastly receipt for postal remittance. Sometimes the woman’s parents also wrote down the official position of the woman’s great-grandpa, grandpa and father and the dowry that could be supplied. What’s interesting is that during this progress it was the matchmaker that functioned, not the man’s family or the woman’s family. Matchmaker was also important in the other procedures. In traditional Chinese marriage, people believed “behest of the parents and proposal of a matchmaker”. That’s why many marriages in the past were arranged by parents and matchmakers. Matchmaker’s proposal was the marriage’s valid basis in Tang has been simplified today. Many marriage does not need this . Asking for Fortune After asking the name, the bridegroom’s side had got the woman’s birthday and Eight-Characters and they went to consult a fortune-teller then which was called “asking for fortune”. It included two aspects of contents. One was consult the female virtues. Ancient people regarded female virtues as the most important one in the gospel of three obedience that were obedience to one’s father before marriage, to one’s husband after marriage, and to one’s son after one’s husband’s death and four virtues that was morality, proper speech, modest manner, and diligent work for a woman according to Confucian lichun, Zhuge Liang’s wife (Zhuge Liang was a statesman and strategist in the period of the Three Kingdoms, now a symbol of wisdom in Chinese folklore) was famous for her ugliness, wisdom and high female virtues. A man in old times always had many wives. In order to solidifying and stead in the family, people paid much attention to female virtues. Hence there was the saw “Marry wife is marrying virtues and take a concubine is marrying appearance”.The other one was consult good or bad luck. If they were not fit for each other in Eight-Characters according to the birthday and what’s more, the woman would harm the man, the result was that this marriage would not be held and would be cancelled. If the result was fit for each other and moreover the woman would make the man prosperous, the man’s side would inform the woman’s side through the matchmaker and send the betrothal gifts and exchange cards. Thus the marriage was actually decided to be . Sending Betrothal Presents to the Girl’s FamilyThe book propriety and ceremony wrote by the scholars in Han dynasty regards it as sending money. If there is no receipt of gifts, there is no marriage. Hence whether receipt the gifts or not is the implication of the agreement of the marriage by the woman’s significance of it includes two aspects of meaning. One is the thanks for the woman’s parents because the parents feed up her. The other is help the woman’s family prepare for . Discussing the Date of MarriageIn the past, the bridegroom’s side decided the lucky day and sent the matchmaker to inform of the woman’s family. People paid much attention to the marriage time. They usually had a person looked at the almanac or asked for fortune. They liked having marriage in spring or autumn because spring was the time that everything comes back to life and time when spring was changing into summer and was favor to pregnant with new life; autumn was the season of harvest. After the labor for a year, people had enough money to hold the , it is also an important event. People pay many attentions to . Meeting the BrideThe marriage is finally held after the five procedures. In the past, the bridegroom wore wedding suit, riding on a horse, and guided the bridal sedan chair to marry the bride on the day. And the bride wore a red cheongsam waiting for the bridegroom. Now, the bridegroom wares western suit, and the bride wares wedding dress and usually in a car.待续

希望对你有帮助有关我国《婚姻法》中损害赔偿制度的几点看法内容摘要：《婚姻法》第四十六条确定了离婚过错损害赔偿制度，使法律对婚姻当事人的合法权益的保护更进一步，使司法机关对相关案件进行裁判有了法律的依据，使我国婚姻家庭立法有了进一步的完善。但是该制度在实践操作中依然存在一些问题，使得对婚姻当事人合法权益的保护力度显得不足。本文就婚姻损害赔偿制度的构建基础，确立的意义，损害赔偿的要件，适用条件，赔偿义务主体的范围，以及实际操作中的归责原则等问题进行了论述和探讨，并提出了一些现实存在的问题及自己的看法与建议。关键词： 婚姻的契约本质 损害赔偿 婚内损害赔偿 举证责任（一）确立婚姻损害赔偿制度的基础有学者认为确立婚姻损害赔偿制度的依据源于民法上的侵权损害赔偿。对破坏婚姻关系的行为认定为侵害名誉权责任，依照侵害名誉权的法律处理。也有观点认为应将破坏婚姻关系认定为侵害配偶权的民事责任，实行精神损害赔偿。本文认为：确立婚姻损害赔偿制度的依据在于婚姻的契约本质。长期以来，我国并没有采用婚姻契约理论，传统认为“婚姻是男女双方精神上的结合”，“爱情是不应该用金钱来衡量的”，更有反对确立婚姻损害赔偿的人士认为：损害赔偿制度违反了婚姻的伦理本质，并使婚姻关系商业化，法律解决道德的问题是不妥当的等等。总之，这是因为对婚姻的本质存在不同看法而导致的不同结论。婚姻是男女双方为共同生活的目的而依法结成的以人身和财产权利义务为内容的一种民事契约。就是说，婚姻的本质是一种契约，而契约不仅强调权利，更强调自由。因此，我们可以说，婚姻意味着自由。法律上的婚姻自由制度的根据就是契约自由，包括结婚自由与离婚自由。我国采取结婚登记主义，这说明，婚姻契约的缔结必须严格依照婚姻法进行。它的内容就是夫妻双方各自所享有的婚姻权利和各自所应履行的婚姻义务。这种权利义务包含了人身和财产两个方面；而且婚姻当事人可以选择离婚来解除这种权利义务，即婚姻契约的解除。以上内容均可反映出婚姻的契约本质。离婚损害赔偿制度，就是从婚姻救助措施的角度来反映婚姻的“契约”本质的。我国修改前的婚姻法并无离婚损害赔偿制度。而国外立法却早在几百年前就确立了这项制度。如1791年法国《宪法》、法国民法典、墨西哥民法典均确立了这项制度。婚姻的“契约”本质在我国长期受到禁锢，在封建社会，夫妻双方在婚姻家庭中的地位是极不平等，妇女的地位极其低下。长期以来，人们似乎承认婚姻是一种契约，仿佛就是把婚姻看成了一种可耻的交易。所以应当说，这种理念回避了婚姻关系的本来面目，也限制了婚姻自由原则的贯彻和实现。所以妇女在婚姻关系中基本没有什么合法权益，当婚姻关系破裂时，更谈不上合法权益的保障。近年来，随着民众“契约”理念的渐趋深入，有关婚姻本质的认识也越来越明晰。并且，这种认识已经反映到婚姻立法上来。我国现行的婚姻法正是基于婚姻的契约本质而确立了损害赔偿制度。尤其是《婚姻法》第四十六条的规定，过错方已经严重违反了婚姻契约之义务，理应承担损害赔偿之责任。（二） 《婚姻法》确立损害赔偿制度的意义2001年，我国《婚姻法》确立的离婚损害赔偿制度的意义可以概括为以下几个方面 ：（1）建立离婚损害赔偿制度，是目前社会形势下保护婚姻一方当事人合法权益的需要，有利于警示、惩罚重婚，姘居，通奸，婚外恋，家庭暴力等过错当事人的行为。（2）建立离婚损害赔偿制度，是公序良俗的需要，是社会主义和谐社会的需要。在人们对包二奶，通奸，姘居等行为日渐麻木漠然 ，社会风气日渐沦下的今日，用法律的手段，来提高道德的认识是必要的。社会主义精神文明要树立崇尚法治婚姻，道德家庭的理念。（3）建立离婚损害赔偿制度，是完善婚姻家庭法，加强民事法律制度的需要。家庭是社会的细胞，婚姻家庭的稳定是社会稳定的重要基础之一，也是建立和谐社会的重要基础。（4）建立离婚损害赔偿制度，是司法有法必依，违法必究的需要，也是实现法治社会的必然要求。从以往的司法实践看，由于我国原婚姻法没有规定离婚损害赔偿制度，只能按照分割共同财产时照顾无过错方的原则来操作。但是在财产很少甚至没有财产的情况下，该照顾原则根本无法适用，无法给予无过错的受害方以公平合理的保护；同时使违法行为没有得到及时的处理和制裁。因此，让司法有法必依，离婚损害赔偿制度的确至关重要。有反对该项制度建立者认为：损害赔偿制度违反婚姻的伦理本质，而惩罚第三者是用法律干涉私人的感情世界，道德问题不能用法律的手段来解决，并且容易造成侵犯他人隐私，捉奸成风的不良风气，司法介入婚姻过错的调查，取证困难，诉讼成本高，操作难等等。笔者认为，婚姻关系是建立在夫妻双方感情的基础上的，但婚姻关系的维护除了需要感情的积极因素，也需要法律制度的介入。婚姻法有伦理道德方面，但更多的确实法律制度。如前所述，我国采用结婚登记主义，婚姻这项契约必须严格依照婚姻法缔结。它不仅关系到当事人的巨大利益，更涉及社会利益，理应受法律的严格保护。调查难，诉讼成本高不能成为反对立法的理由。三峡大坝水利工程难、成本高，为什么国家还要建设？因为它建成后的社会效益可观。那么建立婚姻法上的损害赔偿，其社会效益，也具有长远的精神效益！（三） 损害赔偿的要件根据婚姻法的立法精神，损害赔偿制度的构成要件有以下几点：行为人具有主观上的过错。这是损害赔偿的主观方面要件，即要求一方主观有过错。如果行为人主观上无过错，则不承担赔偿责任。行为具有违法性。这是损害赔偿的客观行为要件，即过错方的行为违反了婚姻法的规定或婚姻契约对婚姻义务的要求。请求权人有受损害的事实。这是损害赔偿的客观后果要件，即享有请求权的一方当事人必须具有损害事实，包括财产损害与精神损害。事实上，也只有当无过错一方有损害事实时，才享有损害赔偿请求权。需要强调和补充的是：通说精神损害赔偿要有精神损害的事实。因为精神本身是抽象的，又要求它用法律所要求下的事实状态表现出来更难。在学理上为了解决精神损害存在的客观性，有学者和实务者将精神损害分为“名义上的精神损害”和“证实的精神损害”。所谓“名义上的精神损害”又称“形式上的精神损害”，只要受害人有举证侵害人的侵权行为明确存在的表现形式，依一般的认识水平，相信受害人确实存在遭受精神损害的事实，法律则推定这个损害的真实性。所谓“证实的精神损害”也称“实证的精神损害”，法律不能推定受害人是否存在精神损害的真实性，受害人必须举出证据加以证明是否存在心理上，身体上，精神上受到损害。笔者认为：通说要件所述的精神损害的事实应理解为是“名义上的精神损害”。只要有侵害婚姻家庭的危害行为的存在，即推定受害方存在有精神损害而无须再辅以证据加以证明。过错行为与损害事实具有因果关系。这是损害赔偿的因果关系要件，即违法行为与无过错一方的损害事实具有法律上的因果关系。（四） 损害赔偿的适用条件文中在阐述中一直强调婚姻的损害赔偿，而非离婚的损害赔偿。这正是本文的重要观点之一——确立独立的婚姻损害赔偿制度，支持婚内损害赔偿。《婚姻法》第46条适用的条件是“有下列情形之一，导致离婚的，无过错方有权请求损害赔偿……”这应该理解为对损害赔偿请求权的提起确定了一个前提条件吧?那么，如果婚姻一方当事人不要求离婚就不能提出损害赔偿的请求么？难道说无过错方要想得到赔偿就必须以离婚为代价么？笔者认为，这种规定，无疑使离婚请求权与损害赔偿请求权形成了一种“强行配售关系”，如果婚姻一方当事人想主张损害赔偿，那么离婚便成为了一种“强制搭配品”，否则损害赔偿就无从提起。然而离婚请求权与损害赔偿请求权是两种本质截然不同的权利。离婚请求权是基于婚姻关系的破裂而主张夫妻关系的解除，损害赔偿请求权是基于违背婚姻法所规定的义务的违法行为而主张受损权益的法律保护。因此，应将婚姻法中的损害赔偿请求权作为一项独立的请求权，取消以离婚为前提的限制，支持婚内损害赔偿的请求。也许有人认为这种赔偿没有什么意义？判来判去都是一家人的财产。但笔者认为，这样界定是有意义的。它可以整体提高人们对家庭、对婚姻义务的重视，起到警示的作用，而对有过错一方进行惩罚和教育，即体现了法律的威力所在，又有利于过错方悔悟，使其“回头是岸”，促进家庭和社会的稳定。如果一定要以离婚为代价，对无过错一方也是不公平的。并且对于这种因婚内赔偿无过错方所取得的财产或财产权利亦应认定为其个人财产。家庭是社会的组成细胞，其稳定与否，在一定因素上关系到社会的各个方面，如果确立这种独立的赔偿请求权，从长远的角度看，其社会效益，精神效益都是可观的。（五） 损害赔偿义务主体范围的界定《婚姻法》第46条，在责任主体上界定模糊。从条文分析，损害赔偿义务人限制在夫妻双方的范围之内，这使得受害人在权利保护上受到影响。实际上，是免除了有过错的第三方的连带责任。无过错方可否向“第三者”主张赔偿呢？笔者认为可以。第三者介入他人的婚姻，是对现行法律保护的婚姻制度的破坏，同其他的违法行为的本质是相同的，而不仅仅只是道德问题，法律必须做出否定的评价并采取相应的措施予以制止，制裁。因为配偶一方与婚外第三人重婚、姘居、通奸是严重的违法行为，过错方有错的同时，第三者也大都有过错，理应承担赔偿责任。不过，无过错方不应在离婚诉讼中向第三者主张权利而应另行提起侵权之诉；如果像本文第四点所述的，允许婚内赔偿的话，无过错方则可以以有过错的配偶和第三人为共同侵权人提起侵权之诉。有的专家、学者称“惩罚第三者有可能导致捉奸成风，司法上难以操作。”笔者认为：只要第三人插足于他人家庭并有重大过错，如重婚、姘居、长期通奸，及导致他人离婚的就应受到民事制裁，即承担民事赔偿责任，“情节严重的，追究刑事责任，亦不免除其应承担的民事责任。”追究第三人责任体现了一种立法价值取向，维护公序良俗。当由道德约束的问题超越了社会文明的底线，则需要法律来维持它的正义和标准。如果法律对第三者的重大过错视而不管，仅对离婚过错方进行惩罚，将达不到法律所预期的预防，警示及教育，惩戒作用。而且设立向婚姻损害第三方主张损害赔偿的制度也是多数国家法律的通例。（六）婚姻损害赔偿制度在举证责任方面存在的问题根据婚姻法第四十六条的规定，有权主张损害赔偿的是“无过错方”。其意味着婚姻法中的损害赔偿制度的归责原则是过错责任原则，以过错为归责的最终要件。这样举证的责任就落在了无过错的受害一方。在单纯的适用过错责任原则的情形下，对提出损害赔偿请求者要求其承担举证责任，对这一证据的采集要求在婚姻家庭领域存有相当的难度。《最高人民法院关于适用〈中华人民共和国婚姻法〉若干问题的解释（一）》（以下简称为若干解释）第二条规定：“婚姻法第三条、第三十二条、第四十六条规定的‘有配偶者与他人同居’的情形，是指有配偶者与婚外异性，不以夫妻名义，持续、稳定地共同居住。”权利主张者如何来证明配偶与婚外异性该种关系的持续性、稳定性呢？有些权利主张者在束手无策的情况下，雇佣私家侦探或干脆自己充当起私家侦探的角色，期望借助这些手段来实现自己的权利请求。但往往会由于收集证据材料及运用证据不当而引发权益之间的冲突。譬如，将捉奸照公布于众，可能引发配偶一方损害赔偿请求权的法律保护与第三者隐私权的法律保护的冲突；将同居的事实大肆渲染，可能引发配偶一方损害赔偿请求权的法律保护与第三者名誉权的法律保护的冲突等等。当然，有相当一部分权利主张者根本无法提供此方面的证据材料。在种种状况下，一味地实行谁主张谁举证，便可能导致该种局面：由于证据的不足或缺乏证据，权利主张方的请求权实现不了，应承担责任的一方则可逃脱法律的惩处。法院的法官明知存有侵权的事实却苦于证据的缺乏而无法对被侵犯的民事权益给予相应的民事救济。在该种局面下，损害赔偿制度确立的立法价值，其所透析的立法精神便荡然无存。笔者认为：适当适时适地地采用过错推定，实行举证责任倒置，会加大受害方合法权益的保护力度。如果可以这样操作，那么有相当一些问题可以得到解决。“我们主张，无过错责任或者特殊侵权场合，我国民法应借鉴法国的经验，侵权人侵害自然人物质性人格权，无论侵权人有无过错，均应承担精神损害赔偿责任。”换言之，在受害人之物质性人格权遭受侵害，受害人请求精神损害赔偿场合，可以适用过错责任，也可以适用无过错责任。正由于过错推定是从保护受害人利益考虑而产生的，其主要目的是对受害人提供救济， 因此笔者认为可以也应该将过错推定原则引入到婚姻家庭领域中的损害赔偿制度中。例如在重婚、与婚外异性同居等情况下，无过错方要求给予精神损害赔偿，应采用过错推定的原则，由过错方对其对精神损害的后果没有过错进行举证。正如本文前面所述，“法律视婚姻仅为民事契约”， 确立婚姻法的损害赔偿制度源于婚姻的“契约”本质，更何况婚姻家庭关系是感情色彩非常浓厚的民事法律关系，它具有强烈的伦理道德性，复杂性，会使婚姻家庭领域随时可能出现法律所预料未及的新情况、新问题。过错推定原则也会有助于对此类婚姻家庭的新情况、新问题进行及时的调整。同时，也加大了对无过错受害方的保护力度。综合前六方面的论述，笔者在婚姻损害赔偿制度方面存在了以下的看法及建议：婚姻损害赔偿制度的建立源于婚姻的“契约”本质；确立这项制度是我国目前婚姻家庭观念“世风日下”，恢复道德伦理的公序良俗的需要；对于婚姻法中的精神损害应理解为“名义的精神损害”为宜；损害赔偿不应局限在离婚条件之下，亦应及于婚姻持续的过程中；损害赔偿的义务人应包括有过错的配偶一方和第三人（权利主张者以何名义诉之在所不问）；适当适时适地的采用过错推定原则来加大无过错受害方的保护力度。参考文献：（1）王利明 主编 《民法侵权行为法》 中国人民大学出版社（2）王利明 主编 《民商法研究》（3）林秀雄《婚姻家庭法之研究》，中国政法大学出版社（4）李银河 马忆男 主编《婚姻法修改论争》光明日报出版社（5）关今华 主编 《精神损害赔偿数额的确定与评算》（6）杨遂全《新婚姻家庭法总论》，法律出版社（7）杨大文主编：《亲属法》，法律出版社（8）李绍章：《点评新婚姻法》