英语语音学论文3000字

On suprasegmental features Introduction So far we havebeen talking about phonetic features as they apply to single phonetic segments,or phones. Phonetic features can also apply to a string of severalsounds, such as a syllable, or an entire word or utterance. The study ofphonological features which applies to groups larger than the single segment,are known as suprasegmentalfeatures, such as the syllable or the word. The study of these features is knownas prosody. It mainly includessyllable, stress, pitch, tone, and intonation. In this paper, I will talk aboutthe suprasegmental features ingreat detail. Key words: phonetic, suprasegmental. Syllable The most obvious prosodic feature in languageis the syllable. Let's briefly discuss the notion of syllables. Like all of our other basic linguistic concepts,although everyone knows what a syllable is, the concept "syllable" isdifficult to define in absolute terms. A syllable can be divided into threeparts, that is, onset, nucleus, and coda, of which nucleus is a must. Asyllable that has no coda is called an open syllable while a syllable with codais called a closed syllable. In English only long vowels and diphthongs canoccur in open syllables. The onset may be empty or filled by a cluster of asmany as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled as many as fourconsonants. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice asto where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the some languages, syllables are always open,that is, they always end in a vowel, never a consonant. (Hawaiian) On the other hand, every Hawaiian syllable must begin with a consonant. (Aloha spoken as a single word beginsin a glottal stop.) In other languages, syllables are always closed; they mustend in a consonant (Navaho): Háá'ishah dididiljah. Let's build a fire. Táá diné 'ooljéé'go naaskai' Three men went to the moon. (LikeHawaiian, they must also begin in a consonant.)Stress The nature of stress The word stress is used differently bydifferent authors, and the relationship between stress, emphasis, accent andprominence is also defined differently. Robins has defined it as “a genericterm for the relatively greater force exerted in the articulation of part ofutterance”. The nature of stress is simple enough—practically everyone wouldagree that the first syllable of words like“father”, “open” is stressed, thatthe middle syllable is stressed in “potato”, “apartment” and the final syllableis stressed in “about”, “perhaps”, and most people feel they have some sort ofidea of what the difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables,though they might explain it in many different production of stress is generallybelieved to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used forunstressed syllables. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllableshave one characteristic in common, and that is “prominence”. Roach hasmanifested that at least four different factors are important to make asyllable prominent:i) Loudness: Most people seem to feelthat stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones; in other words,loudness is a component of ) Length: The length of syllables hasan important part to play in prominence; the syllables which are made longerthan the others will be heard as ) Pitch: Pitch in speech is closelyrelated to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musicalnotion of low-pitched and high-pitched notes; if one syllable is said with apitch that is noticeably different from that of the others, this will have astrong tendency to produce the effect of ) Quality: a syllable will tend to be prominentif it contains a vowel that is different in quality from neighboring vowels. Languages differ in how they use ) In some languages, eachsyllable is equally stressed or unstressed，as in Cambodian2) the syllable in eachword is more stressed. Theplace of stress is fixed on acertain syllable:1) initial. Finnish,Hungarian and other Finno-Ugric languages2) penultimate. Polish,3) final. ) Complex set ofrules. In Bulgarian nouns and verbs have separate sets of rules forstress placement. Hopi (phonetic: first syllable of a two syllableword: síkwi meat; inwords of three or more syllables, accent falls on the first long vowel: máamatsi to recognize; or onthe first short vowel before a consonant cluster: péntani to write; otherwise it falls on thenext to last syllable: wunúvtu standup)The place of stress is ) In Russian the stress iscompletely random: xoroshó, xoró) In English the stress ismore predictable but still random. Usually a middle syllable of a longerword receives the stress. In two syllable words stress is rando and oftenrenders differences in meaning: project/toproject, produce/produce, and insult/ to insult. Some languages have more than one stress perword: English is such a language. In English, words of foursyllables or more have a primaryand a secondary stress. SomeEnglish compounds have phrasal stress on the first element of thecompound. Phrasal stress often distinguishes meaning in adjective/nouncombinations. Sentence stress in English According to He Shanfen (1992), Englishsentence stress has two main functions:⑴ to indicate the important words in thesentence; ⑵ to serve as thebasis for the rhythmic structure of the sentence. Consequently, in connected English speech,sentence stress usually falls on content ( or lexical) words, which carry thebasic meaning of a sentence, . nouns, adjectives, adverbs etc. Those whichare usually unstressed in sentences are form (or structural) words, which showgrammatical relationships, such as articles, auxiliary and modal verbs,monosyllabic prepositions, Another prosodic feature is pitch, defined as the frequency ofvibration of vocal cords. Pitch is measured in hertzes. Physiologically, pitch tends to be higher inwoman than in men and higher before puberty than after puberty. Also, thepitch of women's voices tends to lower with old age; the pitch of men's voicestends to get higher with age. Despite these physiological, non-linguisticuniversal, each language uses pitch distinctions for linguisticallymeaningful purposes. Startingfrom the lowest pitch on the initial syllable, the pitch of each subsequentsyllable raises until the word reaches the "peak". From that point,pitch either remains at the same level for the remainder of the word or itdrops again. The choice between maintenance of high pitch or allowing it todrop is a matter of formality: pitch is maintained in formal or careful speech,but dropped in colloquial usage.七．ConclusionBeing the most important part, suprasegmental features can not be despised in phonology the whole passage, we can understand that suprasegmentalfeatures not only has its phonology significance, but also the practicaluse as well. We can not say this person is a good language user just by his orher vocabulary, as well as the grammar. Spoken language is also very useful. Ido hope that the paper will be sufficient to prove that suprasegmental features is an efficient way for our studies and encouragemore and more students to pay attention to using 【1】CaoJianfen. The Rhythm of Mandarin Chinese. Instituteof Linguistics of Chinese Academyof Social Science. RPR-IL/CASS (2000-2002).【2】Chen . Contrastive Study of Suprasegmental Phonology in English and Chinese: aFunctional Perspective. MA: Southwest China Normal University.【3】Chomsky,N. & Halle,M. 1968. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers.

Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies 二语词汇习得策略 [摘 要] 词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。 关键字： 二语词汇习得 词汇习得策略 元认知策略 认知策略 Abstract Vocabulary is the basic unit of a language. Language acquisition plays an important role in language learning. Famous linguistics D. A. Wilkins said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed (Lewis, 1993:16).” It speaks volumes for the importance of vocabulary in language learning. This paper aims to analysis the second language acquisition strategies and applies to different levels of learners. According to the different levels, the learners should choose the proper methods and strategies to promote learning efficiency and acquisition effect. Key words: Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition； Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies； Metacognitive strategy； Cognitive strategy Introduction With economic globalization and multi-polarization of the world, especially the population of the internet, English becomes more and more important, because it is considered as the tool for absorbing and communicating information. As we all known, vocabulary acquisition is one of the most noticed-question of the second language learners. “Vocabulary” appears in the area of linguists’ study. Nowadays, researchers still can not give a complete and reasonable definition of vocabulary. Since 1970s, the second language vocabulary acquisition research has gradually become the hot point and important subject in the second language vocabulary acquisition research area. These researches aim to discuss the efficiency vocabulary memory strategies to promote the memory skills and vocabulary levels. Then how to acquire vocabulary become popular among the researchers. Wenden &Rubin (1987), O’Malley& Chamot (1990) refer to the content of vocabulary acquisition strategies; Rubin (1987) and Oxford (1990) classify the memory strategy to the direct cognitive strategies. Especially, CohenAphek (1981), Porte (1988), O’Malley (1990), Vann (90), Cohen (1990), etc made a basic searching of vocabulary acquisition. In a word, there are various opinions in how to acquire vocabulary. Firstly, it talks about the importance of vocabulary. Secondly, what does it mean to “acquire” a word? This paper mainly aims to the detail analysis of the vocabulary acquisition from three aspects：Meta-cognitive Strategy; Cognitive Strategy and Social or Affective Strategy. Especially, it highlights the effect of the context and rending to vocabulary acquisition. This paper talks about the applications of the vocabulary acquisition strategies. And it puts forward some problems and difficulties of vocabulary acquisition. This paper also discusses the influencing factors to the acquisition. It includes the mother tongue, age, language contact, logical thinking ability, identity degree, and academic motivation . The purpose of this paper is to rise the awareness of English learners that the importance of vocabulary in language learning and the vocabulary acquisition strategies can not be neglected, and each strategies is deeply rooted in its language. Through the analysis of the theory of study, the paper tries to draw the learner’s attention to the strategies of the second language vocabulary acquisition and using the vocabulary in communication. In order to improve the acquisition efficiency, some strategies put into practice are introduced. The first presents the importance of vocabulary, some basic concepts of vocabulary and vocabulary learning, the second part tells what does it mean to know a word, the third part deals with the theory of vocabulary acquisition and presents the factors and differences influencing the vocabulary acquisition. The fourth part is detailed discussion of vocabulary acquisition strategies in different levels of learners. The last part is conclusion. Literature review 1. The importance of vocabulary As the first time, when we go to school and our English teacher will tell us that vocabulary is of great importance in learning English. After several years, we understand words gradually, especially when we study in high school. If we know a little about vocabulary, we may have poor English. That is because the listening, speaking, reading and writing show the necessary of learning vocabulary. Many researchers agree that lexis is at least as important as structure, because it is using wrong words and not wrong grammar that usually breaks down communication. Mistakes in lexis much more often lead to misunderstanding and may be less generously tolerated outside classroom than mistakes in syntax. (Carter, 1987). As Stephen Krashen remarked, “When students travel, they don’t carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries. A significant role of vocabulary in both teaching and learning processes was first stated by Stephen Krashen in The Natural Approach (1985): “Vocabulary is basic for communication. If acquirers do not recognize the meaning of the key words used by those who address them they will be unable to participate in the conversation.” Words are basic tools in human communication; therefore they determine the main part of people’s life-relationships between people and associations with the surrounding world that people live in. The larger one’s vocabulary, the easier it is to express one’s thoughts and feelings. In real communication, correctly and idiomatically used vocabulary can even decrease some structural inaccuracy and grammar errors. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). So learners should enrich and expand their knowledge of words as much as possible in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language. 2. What does it mean to “know” a word? Knowing a word is not a simple phenomenon. In fact, it is quite complex and goes far beyond the word’s meaning and pronunciation. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). Richards (1976) think knowing a word means also knowing the frequency of words and their likely collocates; being aware of the functional and situation limitations that apply; knowledge of the “syntactic behavior”; derivational forms and word class; associative and connotative knowledge; semantic value-breaking down words into minimal units as with componential analysis (see Katz&Fodor1963or Leech1974); knowing the other (possible) meaning associated. Nagy and Scott (2000) identify several dimensions that describe the complexity of what it means to know a word. First, word knowledge is incremental, which means that readers need to have many exposures to a word in different contexts before they “know” it. Second, word knowledge is multidimensional. This is because many words have multiple meanings and serve different functions in different function in different sentences, texts, and even conversations. Third, word knowledge is interrelated in that knowledge of one word connects knowledge of other words. What all of this means is that “knowing” a word is a matter of degree rather than an all-or-nothing proposition (Beck&Mckeown, 1991; Nagy&Scott, 2000). The degree of knowing a word are reflected in the precision with which we use a word, how quickly we understand a word, and how well we understand and use words in different modes and different purpose. The memory strategy, cognitive strategy, social strategy and metacognitve strategy are used more frequently than the affective strategy and compensative strategy. Conclusion This paper has attempted to provide some theories of second language vocabulary acquisition and some strategies. Such as metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social strategy. However, this paper also put forward some microcosmic strategy. As a matter of fact, vocabulary acquisition should combine the context. In addition, this paper hasn’t mentioned that culture is also an important factor in vocabulary acquisition. In the study of second language vocabulary acquisition, we should pay attention to the process and the acquiring results. This paper focuses on the study of the second language vocabulary acquisition strategies. Bibliography [1] . Chamot. The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin, (eds), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 1987. [2] Cater. R. and M. McCarthy. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. New York: Longman, 1987. [3] Nation, L. S. P. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New Newbury House Publishers, 1990. [4] O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. U.. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [J]. Cambridge University Press, 1990:12-15. [5] 陈桦，张益芳.中国儿童英语词汇记忆策略探究[J].外语学刊,2001(4). [11] 戴曼纯. 论第二语言词汇习得研究[J]. 外语教学与研究，2002(2). [12] 徐德凯.大学英语词汇教学理论与实践[M].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司，2009. [6] 王文宇.观念、策略与英语词汇记忆[J].外语教学与研究，1998(1). [13] 文秋芳. 英语学习策略论.上海：上海外语教育出版社，1996. [7] 吴霞，王蔷.非英语专业本科生词汇水平研究. 外语教学与研究，1998(1). [15] 张纪英.英语词汇学教学与研究[M]. 武汉：华中科技大学出版社,2007. [16] 朱厚敏. 英语词汇学习策略研究[M] 长春：吉林大学出版社，2009.

普通话对英语语音的迁移作用摘 要： 本文在论述语言迁移理论本质的基础上，分析了影响迁移的因素，对汉英两种语言对比，从音素、音位、声调/语调语言、重音和节奏等层面分析了普通话对英语学习的负迁移作用，以便更好地帮助学生克服普通话的负迁移影响，促进英语语音的学习。关键词： 普通话；英语语音；语言迁移；对比研究The Transferring Effect of Mandarin on English PhoneticsLin YuhangDepartment of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Zhangzhou Teachers College 01021225Abstract: This paper is meant to help the Chinese English-learners to overcome the negative phonetic transfer and promote the study of English phonetics by dealing with language transfer theories, analyzing the factors affecting language transfer, comparing and analyzing some phonetic features of the Chinese and English languages, such as phone, phoneme, tone/intonation language, stress and words: Mandarin; English phonetics; language transfer; comparative analysis语音过关是英语学习的关键，同时也是难点。然而，外语界对语音教学问题的探讨却明显少于其他领域，这难免有些“避重就轻”之嫌。将英汉两种语音进行对比研究，对比教学，不失为一种良策，如张凤桐教授编著的《英国英语语音学和音系学》就是按照这一指导思想编写的教材。对比研究的理论基础是语言迁移，同时，对比研究和教学是正视语言迁移作用的科学方法和手段。然而就在将两种语音进行对比教学的过程中，产生了一些似是而非的说法，例如“普通话好，英语语音就好”是其中最具代表性的。这一说法过分夸大了语际间的正迁移作用，而忽略了负迁移作用。应该说这一问题的答案是不确定的。世界上有各种各样的语言,虽然各种语言有其相通的一面,但每一种语言都有其特有的语音体系,并有自己独特的发音规律。要全面正确地了解普通话对英语语音的迁移作用，就应该在认识语言迁移的本质和产生语言迁移因素的基础之上，将英汉语音、音位相关的方面作科学的对比研究。一、 语言迁移概念及其实质奥苏伯尔的认知结构迁移理论代表从认知的观点来解释迁移的一种主流倾向,然后有符号性图式理论、产生式理论、结构匹配理论与情境性理论等迁移理论。根据奥苏伯尔的认知结构迁移理论，“迁移是一种认知活动，体现了个体主动的心理加工过程”[1]。但也存在分歧，一些研究者着眼于各理论在更高层次上的概括,将迁移概括为“一种学习中习得的经验对其他学习的影响，是新旧经验的整合过程”[2]，这种整合过程可以通过同化、顺应与重组三种方式实现，其实质是原有认知结构与新学习的相互影响、相互作用，从而形成新的认知结构的过程。迁移(transfer)作为一个心理术语,是指已获得的指示、技能、方法等对学习新知识、技能的影响。迁移是人类认知的一个普遍特征。在外语学习中,迁移“指的是人们已经掌握的知识在新的学习环境中发挥作用的心理过程”[3],主要是母语及母语学习经历对学习新语言的影响。语言迁移可分为正迁移(positive transfer)和负迁移(negative transfer)。如果某个外语结构在母语中有对应结构,或母语对外语的学习起促进作用,在学习中就会出现正迁移现象。但是如果某个结构在母语中没有对应的结构,或者两种语言中的对应结构有差异,也就是说,母语对外语的学习起干扰或抑制作用,就会产生反面的迁移,从而影响外语的学习,这就是学习中的负迁移现象。系统的语言迁移研究可追溯到上个世纪四五十年代的语言学家弗赖伊斯()和雷多()。他们从斯金娜()的行为主义心理学理论出发,认为“学习是刺激与反应的强化,是习惯的形成,是新旧知识的联结。因而在外语学习中,母语这种先前语言学习的习惯会对新的外语学习产生迁移作用”[4]。基于这一观点,他们认为“外语学习的主要困难是由两种语言的差异引起的,学习的主要任务就是找出并克服这种差异”[4],据此他们提出了对比分析假说(contrastive analysis hypothesis),即“将学习者的母语(mother tongue/native language)与目标语(target language)进行各方面的比较分析,找出两者的差异,解释或预测外语学习中已经或将要出现的困难与错误,并以此为指导教材的编写和教学活动。”[4]20世纪60年代末,乔姆斯基提出了语言习得机制( language acquisition device)假说和普遍语法 (universal grammar)理论。他认为：“人类语言结构存在着普遍性(language/linguistic universals),这种语言的普遍性反映了人类的经验过程,反映了人类获得新知识能力的普遍性”[5]。也就是说,人类生来就有自然学习语言的能力,它植根于人的内在机制,即语言习得机制。格林伯格( )通过对跨语言调查(cross-linguistic surveys)特别是对语序的分析来研究和证明语言的普遍性。总之,无论是强调母语迁移作用的对比分析假说,还是强调人类语言的普遍性而忽视母语迁移现象的普遍语法理论,都从不同的方面说明了正是各种语言具有一定的共性,母语才会对外语学习产生积极影响的正迁移作用,同时每种语言所具有的特殊性又使母语迁移对外语学习产生一定的负面影响,即负迁移。二、语言迁移产生的因素语言迁移绝非简单的母语与外语或第二语言间的迁移，也不是两种语言间的相似性或共同性就能决定迁移的程度。相反，它涉及各种不同类型的迁移，也涉及不同的主客观因素。任何迁移形式的产生都受到许多主客观因素的制约。影响英语语音学习迁移的因素很多，包括学习材料间的共同因素、对材料的理解程度、知识经验的概括水平、定势作用、认知结构的清晰性和稳定性及知识的运用等。奥苏伯尔认为，认知结构的3个变量影响新的学习或迁移的发生。认知结构即学生头脑中的知识结构，从广义上讲，它是学生已有观念的全部内容及其组织；从狭义上讲，它是学生在某一特殊领域中的观念的全部内容及其组织。认知结构变量就是学习者应用他的原有知识同化新知识时，原有认知结构在内容和组织方面的特征。影响陈述性知识迁移的变量是：可利用性、可辨别性和稳定性。此外，有学者认为以下问题与语言迁移密切相关。首先，情境特征引起的关注。情境包括最初的学习情境和后来的迁移情境，两种情境是否相似影响迁移水平。研究发现，物理的和社会的场景也是整个学习中重要的、有意义的组成部分。不同的场景或情境，其学习与迁移可能不同。因此，真实的英语学习情境，如外语角等，有助于将学得的语言知识与语言技能迁移到实际情境中去。其次，强调迁移的主动性与通达性。通达体现了学习者的主观能动性，意味着学习者可在迁移机会出现时，顺利地提取有关的经验或可利用的资源。有效的学习者有强烈的内部动机来调节自己的语言学习活动，如主动识别先前的语言学习与目前任务的相关性，识别恰当的语言使用和语言迁移情境，主动提取可利用的资源等，这些都是语言迁移产生的必要条件。三、 对比研究中普通话对英语语音的迁移作用对比研究是建立在美国学者雷多（R. Lado） 1957年提出的“对比分析（contrastive analysis）”基础上的一种语言分析方法。雷多的对比研究是一种在语音、语法和文化层次上对第一语言和第二语言进行严格的、逐一比较的体系。该对比研究的理论基础和焦点是语言迁移。语言的对比研究有助于人们认识语言间的区别和联系。李庭芗先生指出,“英、汉语在语音方面有哪些相同和相异的地方,是每个英语教师所必须了解的。英、汉对比的知识能帮助教师根据英、汉语的异同,预见学生在学习中的难点和重点,从而在教学方法上采取相应措施,以提高英语教学的质量”[6]。要学好英语语音,首先要了解哪些音是汉语中没有的,哪些音容易受汉语语音的干扰,英、汉语音之间怎样互相干扰的。普通话学习者在英语语音学习中产生的迁移，虽然不完全是具体知识的迁移，却是普通话发音习惯、发音部位的迁移，也是一种发音技能的迁移。对两者进行音素（phone）、音位（phoneme）及音节（syllable）等方面作系统的对比研究，无疑会促进找准正迁移作用的条件，而减少负迁移产生的干扰，有助于英语语音的学习。语音的最小单位是音素，但是在言语交际中能区别意义的最小语音单位是音位。音位分为音段音位（segmental phonemes）和超音段音位（super-segmental phonemes）两种，前者包括元音、辅音，元音与辅音、辅音与音在词中的组合，即音位组合或音节；后者则指重音（stress），音程（length）,节奏（rhythm），音调（tone），语调（intonation）及音渡（juncture）等。以下是两种语言音位的对比分析和迁移作用的情况:1. 元音、辅音和声母和韵母属于印欧语系日耳曼语族的英语有20个元音、28个辅音。英语的音位是区别词义的最小单位。属于汉藏语系汉语的音位和英语一样，也是区别词义的最小单位。普通话是汉语的代表语言，有辅音音位，即声母22个，韵母31个。声母一般位于音节的开头，韵母是声母后的一部分，一般由元音或元音加辅音/n、n^/构成，如/B、o、Bi、en、uBn^/等韵母。英语元音分为单元音和双元音；普通话的元音分为单韵母和复韵母。英语的单元音数量比普通话的单韵母要多，而且分得细。普通话里只有6个单韵母；英语有12个单元音，而且分为前、中、后元音。其中/I、U、e、A、Q/等单元音在普通话中找不到近似的音，很难说普通话说得好的人一定就能发好这些音和包含这些音位的单词和句子。而在普通话中 能找到的近似音如/i、u/，前者发音的舌位比英语更靠前，后者则更靠后[7]。另外，普通话的复韵母/ei、Bi、Bo、ou/和英语的双元音/eI、aI、au、EU/虽都以强元音为主，向弱元音方向滑动。但是，普通话滑动较快，而且并没有达到弱元音的位置，念起来两音浑然一体；英语的双元音滑动较明显，两者相对独立，普通话较好的人很容易将like误念成/lak/或/lek/。值得注意的是两者在发音的部位和口形上都存在差异。发复韵母/ei、Bi、Bo、ou/的口形张得小于发双元音/eI、aI、aU、[U/，但舌位略靠后[7]。当然，能掌握汉语中的渐强复韵母，如/iB、ie、uB、uo/的学习者更容易发好英语中的双元音/I[、Z[、U[/。普通话和英语里都有三元音，其发音方法各不相同：发普通话三元音的方法是由弱到强，再由强到弱，中间的元音紧张度强，形成一个音节，如/iBo、uBi、ioU、iBo/等；英语的三元音由双元音加/[/组成，但不是出现在同一个音节里，其发音方法是由强到弱，再由弱到次强。普通话和英语的辅音音位也存在异同。英语的辅音多数是清浊成对的，如 /p、b/，/t、d/，/k、g/等；而普通话的辅音多数分为送气和不送气的清辅音，如/p、b、t、d、k、g、j、q、x、zh、ch、sh、z、c、s/等，浊辅音只有/r、m、n、l、ng/5个。汉语的送气和不送气区别意义；英语的清浊可以区别词义，影响元音的长度和同化相邻的辅音，如/lIt/中的/I/就发得比/lId/中的/I/短促，浊音能延长前面带的元音。又如元音/R：/在 caw，cord，caught三个单词中的音程不同，在caw中发音最长，在cord中次之，caught中则最短。此外，英语中的辅音根据所处的位置不同和所连接的音位的关系，产生音位变体（allophone）。如音位/t/在不同的发音环境中，它的发音是不一样的，在top中是送气的（aspirated）；在stop中是不送气的（unaspirated）；在certain中是鼻腔爆破（nasalized plosive）；在little中是舌边爆破（lateral plosive）；在that kid中是不完全爆破（incomplete plosive）；在that day中是失去爆破（loss of plosive）。这些现象是英语中特有的，普通话再好，如果没有具备该语音知识，也学不好英语语音。诚然，普通话语音系统中的一些音位与英语的某些音位无大差别。比如，鼻辅音（nasal）在两种语音系统中构成一个自然类，可以用同样的区别特征加以描述，/m/，/n/，/N/可分别描述为〔＋辅音性，＋鼻音性，－后部性，＋双唇性〕；〔＋辅音性，＋鼻音性，－后部性，＋齿龈性〕；〔＋辅音性，＋鼻音性，＋后部性，＋软颚性〕。能发好普通话鼻辅音的学习者，语言的正迁移作用就能让他正确发好英语的鼻辅音。但学习者更应关注的那些和普通话发音的部位和方法有差异的近似音和汉语中根本没有的音位，如／W、T／，／F、V／，／tF、dV／等，不管普通话说得多地道的学习者，不加强练习，也不容易发好齿摩擦音（dental fricative）／W、T／，颚龈摩擦音（palato-alveolar fricative）／F、V／和颚龈塞擦音（palato-alveolar affricate）／tF、dV／。特别值得注意的是以下辅音在普通话和英语中的不同描述：／s、z／在英语中为齿龈摩擦音（alveolar fricative）；在汉语中前者为齿摩擦音（dental fricative），后者为齿塞擦音（dental affricate）。／h／在英语中为喉擦音（glottal fricative）；在汉语中为软颚摩擦音（velar fricative）。／r／在英语中为无摩擦延续音（approximate）；在汉语中为卷舌摩擦音（retroflex fricative）[7]。2．音位组合—音节对比音节既是语音学中的一个概念，也是音位学中的重要概念。对音节的定义说法不一。就其结构而言，“音节是由一个或一系列音位构成的语音结构”[7]（P20）。音节通常由起音（onset），领音（peak）和收音（coda）构成，领音一般是元音（vowel），起音和收音常常是辅音（consonant）。英语音节构成形态要比普通话音节构成复杂得多。具体形态如下：英语音节：V－VV－VVV－CV－CVV－CVVV－VC－ VCC－CCVV－CVC－CVVC－CCV－VCCC－CCVC－CC CVC－CCCVVCC－CCCV－CCVVC－CCVVCC－CCVCC C－CCVCCCC－CVCC－CVCCC－CVCCCC汉语音节：V－VV－VVV－CV－CVV－CVVV－VC－CVC－ CVVC从以上对比中可看出，普通话的音节结构比较简单，通常是单辅音加元音；英语音节的首、尾常常出现辅音群（consonant clusters）如 must tempt texts thousandths等。换言之，普通话中只有单辅音型的音节，没有辅音群型的音节。辅音群型的音节成为中国学习者，包括能说标准普通话学习者的语音难点。学习者习惯于在读英语辅音群中夹带元音，如把green念成/^[ri:n/。另外升调时容易从词尾的辅音开始,试图把它拉的很长,因而很费力,发出的音也很不规范。这是因为汉语的音节除/n/和/ng/两个鼻辅音外,都以元音结尾,即为开音节,而且节峰前最多只有一个辅音；而英语的音节节峰前最多可有三个辅音,如/sprIt/等,而节峰后最多可有四个。由于两种语言的音节系统不同,学生易将汉语的音节特征转移到英语学习中。3．语调语言(intonation language)和声调语言(tone language)汉语中的每一个字(或音节)都有一个区分字义作用的声调, 如/mā/妈，/má/麻，/mǎ/马，/mà/骂，/mB/吗,语音学家称汉语为声调语言；然而在英语中,单词的音调不改变它的词义,如book/buk/在读成平调、升调或降调时始终是“书”的意思,但英语的单词被用于句子时,就要赋予它一定的语调,来表达说话者的态度、语气等,这种语调的核心一般放在语句的末尾,所以语音学家把英语叫做语调语言。如:This is your↘seat.句未的降调表示肯定的语气,但 This is your ↗seat?表示疑问的口吻,以求取得对方的证实。汉语句子的语调也常常落在句未的重读字上,但由于这个重读字本身又有固定的声调,其实际语调必然受到该字本身的声调和所需语调的共同影响,即在原来字调的基础上,按所需语调去稍加调制、改变,使它既不完全失去原来的声调,又符合所需语调的要求。如:“这是我的球↘。”句中的“球”字本身是升调(阳平),而句末要求用降调,实际话语中只能采取折衷的办法,把“球”字的升调上升幅度减少一些。又如:“你的书↗,还是他的？”句中“书”字原本是高平调(阴平),而句子中间需要升调,语言实践中只能是把“书”字在原来的高平调后面接着稍微升高一些,成为高平调加升调。可见,由于汉语语调受字调的限制,升降规则比英语复杂,升降的幅度也要小。中国学生由于受汉语的这种声调、语调的负迁移影响,讲英语时往往语调平平,抑扬不太分明,升降起伏较小,很难学会英语那种梯级下降型的语调。近年来,语音学家趋向于更加强调英语语调的重要性,认为元音辅音是英语本身,而语调是英语的灵魂。假如元音辅音念得很准,而语调不对,听起来就不像英语。相反,假如元音辅音读得有些毛病,但语调正确,听起来还像英语。既然英语语调这样重要,那么我们要学好英语就必须注意汉语和英语在语调上的区别,努力在说英语时克服汉语语调的影响,勤学苦练,逐步掌握英语语调。4．其他语音方面的负迁移英语单词没有辨义的声调,重音是重要的语音要素,有区别词义的作用，如：´converse(名词,相反的事务),con´verse(动词,交谈)。在汉语词组中起辨义作用的是声调而不是重音,声调比重音在话语中具有更加重要的作用,除词尾含有虚词的词组(如桌子、木头等)和个别词组(如爸爸、妈妈等)外,大部分词组中的每个字都读成同样的轻重程度,如教师、电话、汽车、天气等。这种母语特点迁移到英语学习中,常常使初学者读多音节英语单词是重读、轻读音节不明甚至重音错位,如把´diligent读成´di´li´gent,di´ligent或dili´gent。在节奏和韵律方面,汉英之间的差别也很大。汉语是以音节(字)为计时单位的,而英语则以重音为计时单位的。汉语中,音节(字)的数目是韵律的基础,除了一些助词念得较快较含糊外,一般每个字所占用的时间大致相等,读得也清清楚楚。例如古诗中总是根据每行的字数来决定它的韵律或节奏,如柳宗元的《江雪》:千山鸟飞绝,万径人踪灭。孤舟蓑笠翁,独钓寒江雪。即使音节(字)有思想表达上所需的轻重之分,也不像英语那么明显、分明,所以,一般字较多的一句话所占用的时间,要比字较少的一句话占用的时间长，如“他有汽车。”和“他有一辆上海产的汽车。”但在英语中,重音和轻音是交替出现的,而重读音节才是节奏的基础、主体。重读音节总是声调较高,响度较大,发音清楚,所占时间较长；而轻读音节则声调较低,响度小,读得快而含糊,所占时间较短。所以,重音与重音之间总是保持大致相等的实际距离。重音之间的轻读音节越多,就读得越快越含糊。如:“Ann ´found the ´book she ´lost at ´last.”和“E´lizabeth ´found the ´article she was ´studying at the ´library.”前一个句子有8个音节,后一句却有19个音节,但两个句子同样只有5个重读音节。为了保持每两个重读音节之间所用时间大致相等,重读音节之间的轻读音节所占用的时间就不完全相同。后句话中,第一和第二个重读音节之间,第二和第三个重读音节之间分别由2个和1个轻读音节,而第三和第四个重读音节之间,第四和第五个重读音节之间各有4个轻读音节,为了保持5个重读音节之间大致相等的时间距离,第三至第五重读音节之间的轻读音节就要读得轻而快。中国学生对英语的这一特点较难把握,往往是按汉语习惯把每个音节(字)说得都很清楚,而不习惯把几个轻读音节压缩在一起,快速而含糊地读出来,因而听起来不是很自然。另外,在音节的衔接(juncture)方面,英语有汉语中所没有的连读(liaison)现象,也会给初学者带来一定的困难。在英语学习中,许多人可以发好一个单词的音,却说不出流畅、连贯的句子；能听懂英语单词,却听不懂连贯的句子。这种现象,我认为,主要原因之一就是他们没有掌握好英语中的连读。英语中有许多词是以辅音结尾的,在与紧接他们后面的一个词词首的元音连起来念,就产生了连读现象。但实际上汉语中也存在这种连读,只是我们平常没有意识到。汉语的连读一般出现在感叹句中,如:我的天哪! Wo de tiBn B好苦哇! HBo ku B然而汉语的连读范围不像英语连读现象那么普遍,而且大多数字以韵母结尾,使连读受到很大限制,所以学生在碰到英语连读时就会感到非常困难,同时也极大地限制了学生的听力发展。同化现象也是英语中最常见的一种音变现象,在连贯的说话或朗读中,音与音之间的相互影响是很自然的。其实,在汉语中也存在着类似的现象,如:面包 miBn-bBo → miBm-bBo难免 nBn-miBn → nBm-miBn这里的“面”和“难”都以/n/结尾,但因为受后面音/b/和/m/(双唇音)的影响,因此,“面”、“难”后面的/n/音就同化为双唇音/m/了。音渡指语音结构中两个音段界限之间的停顿过渡。普通话和英语两种语言中，音渡都有辨义功能，普通话好的学习者，一般能够注意英语音渡，但要完全掌握，仍然需要大量实践。四、结束语普通话和英语在发音的特征与规律、音位的数量与性质等方面都存在异同，而且差异性大于相似性，在二者相似性较强的方面，正迁移作用较为明显；二者差异表现明显的方面，负迁移作用却占了上风。既然普通话在英语语音学习中有“正迁移”和“负迁移”两方面的双重作用,因此,在英语语音教学中教师应与学生一起,尽量克服普通话对英语语音学习的干扰,促进普通话对英语语音学习的积极作用。在教学中教师帮助学生克服干扰时要突出要害,使学生深刻理解两种语言在发音方法以及语言表达方式上的异同。根据对比分析的理论观点,通过描写、选择、对比、预测对比分析的步骤,对普通话和英语进行科学的结构分析,找出两者之间的区别,以及区别程度的大小。通过这种有意识地对英汉语音系统进行对比分析,帮助学生做出有意义的概括,培养学生英汉语音系统差异的敏感性。正如吕淑湘在《中国人学英语》一文中指出:对于中国学生最有用的帮助就是让他认识英语和汉语的差别,对每一个具体问题,都尽可能用汉语的情况来跟英语作比较,让他通过这种比较得到更深刻的体会。中国学生必须认识到汉语、英语的差异,警惕汉语的干扰,尽量在英语学习中克服,避免汉语的干扰,这样才能更有效全面地学习英语。通过以上的讨论，很难说普通话好的学习者，英语语音就一定好；也不能说普通话不好的学习者英语语音就一定不好。影响英语语音学习迁移的因素很多，包括普通话和英语之间的异同因素、个体对异同因素的理解程度、知识经验的概括水平。此外，情境也参与迁移活动；学习者的主观能动性、个体特征等都是语言迁移得以产生的必要条件。普通话对英语语音的迁移作用绝非是单一的，两种语言之间的相似性也不能决定迁移的程度，它涉及多种不同的主客观影响因素，应综合考虑。孤立地研究某一因素或某一类型的迁移，不利于真正揭示迁移的本质，对英语语音学习也无实质性的助益。普通话好，只能说从语言学习的态度、方法等方面具备了发生语言迁移的可能性，但是否能克服语言负迁移的影响，真正发挥语言正迁移的作用于英语学习，还需要学习者发挥主体作用，了解一定的英语语音、音位理论知识，按照英语的语音、音位规律，掌握发音技巧，通过大量的训练，才能有较好的英语语音，说地道的英语。参考文献：1. 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