pd1研究生论文

具体你问医生，尤其是胸闷，透气困难的，要及时就医，

危及生命的看论文和临床数据在千分之几，但是你不能掉以轻心，积极问诊，我不是专家，只能帮你找点资料。

Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies 二语词汇习得策略 [摘 要] 词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。 关键字： 二语词汇习得 词汇习得策略 元认知策略 认知策略 Abstract Vocabulary is the basic unit of a language. Language acquisition plays an important role in language learning. Famous linguistics D. A. Wilkins said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed (Lewis, 1993:16).” It speaks volumes for the importance of vocabulary in language learning. This paper aims to analysis the second language acquisition strategies and applies to different levels of learners. According to the different levels, the learners should choose the proper methods and strategies to promote learning efficiency and acquisition effect. Key words: Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition； Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies； Metacognitive strategy； Cognitive strategy Introduction With economic globalization and multi-polarization of the world, especially the population of the internet, English becomes more and more important, because it is considered as the tool for absorbing and communicating information. As we all known, vocabulary acquisition is one of the most noticed-question of the second language learners. “Vocabulary” appears in the area of linguists’ study. Nowadays, researchers still can not give a complete and reasonable definition of vocabulary. Since 1970s, the second language vocabulary acquisition research has gradually become the hot point and important subject in the second language vocabulary acquisition research area. These researches aim to discuss the efficiency vocabulary memory strategies to promote the memory skills and vocabulary levels. Then how to acquire vocabulary become popular among the researchers. Wenden &Rubin (1987), O’Malley& Chamot (1990) refer to the content of vocabulary acquisition strategies; Rubin (1987) and Oxford (1990) classify the memory strategy to the direct cognitive strategies. Especially, CohenAphek (1981), Porte (1988), O’Malley (1990), Vann (90), Cohen (1990), etc made a basic searching of vocabulary acquisition. In a word, there are various opinions in how to acquire vocabulary. Firstly, it talks about the importance of vocabulary. Secondly, what does it mean to “acquire” a word? This paper mainly aims to the detail analysis of the vocabulary acquisition from three aspects：Meta-cognitive Strategy; Cognitive Strategy and Social or Affective Strategy. Especially, it highlights the effect of the context and rending to vocabulary acquisition. This paper talks about the applications of the vocabulary acquisition strategies. And it puts forward some problems and difficulties of vocabulary acquisition. This paper also discusses the influencing factors to the acquisition. It includes the mother tongue, age, language contact, logical thinking ability, identity degree, and academic motivation . The purpose of this paper is to rise the awareness of English learners that the importance of vocabulary in language learning and the vocabulary acquisition strategies can not be neglected, and each strategies is deeply rooted in its language. Through the analysis of the theory of study, the paper tries to draw the learner’s attention to the strategies of the second language vocabulary acquisition and using the vocabulary in communication. In order to improve the acquisition efficiency, some strategies put into practice are introduced. The first presents the importance of vocabulary, some basic concepts of vocabulary and vocabulary learning, the second part tells what does it mean to know a word, the third part deals with the theory of vocabulary acquisition and presents the factors and differences influencing the vocabulary acquisition. The fourth part is detailed discussion of vocabulary acquisition strategies in different levels of learners. The last part is conclusion. Literature review 1. The importance of vocabulary As the first time, when we go to school and our English teacher will tell us that vocabulary is of great importance in learning English. After several years, we understand words gradually, especially when we study in high school. If we know a little about vocabulary, we may have poor English. That is because the listening, speaking, reading and writing show the necessary of learning vocabulary. Many researchers agree that lexis is at least as important as structure, because it is using wrong words and not wrong grammar that usually breaks down communication. Mistakes in lexis much more often lead to misunderstanding and may be less generously tolerated outside classroom than mistakes in syntax. (Carter, 1987). As Stephen Krashen remarked, “When students travel, they don’t carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries. A significant role of vocabulary in both teaching and learning processes was first stated by Stephen Krashen in The Natural Approach (1985): “Vocabulary is basic for communication. If acquirers do not recognize the meaning of the key words used by those who address them they will be unable to participate in the conversation.” Words are basic tools in human communication; therefore they determine the main part of people’s life-relationships between people and associations with the surrounding world that people live in. The larger one’s vocabulary, the easier it is to express one’s thoughts and feelings. In real communication, correctly and idiomatically used vocabulary can even decrease some structural inaccuracy and grammar errors. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). So learners should enrich and expand their knowledge of words as much as possible in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language. 2. What does it mean to “know” a word? Knowing a word is not a simple phenomenon. In fact, it is quite complex and goes far beyond the word’s meaning and pronunciation. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). Richards (1976) think knowing a word means also knowing the frequency of words and their likely collocates; being aware of the functional and situation limitations that apply; knowledge of the “syntactic behavior”; derivational forms and word class; associative and connotative knowledge; semantic value-breaking down words into minimal units as with componential analysis (see Katz&Fodor1963or Leech1974); knowing the other (possible) meaning associated. Nagy and Scott (2000) identify several dimensions that describe the complexity of what it means to know a word. First, word knowledge is incremental, which means that readers need to have many exposures to a word in different contexts before they “know” it. Second, word knowledge is multidimensional. This is because many words have multiple meanings and serve different functions in different function in different sentences, texts, and even conversations. Third, word knowledge is interrelated in that knowledge of one word connects knowledge of other words. What all of this means is that “knowing” a word is a matter of degree rather than an all-or-nothing proposition (Beck&Mckeown, 1991; Nagy&Scott, 2000). The degree of knowing a word are reflected in the precision with which we use a word, how quickly we understand a word, and how well we understand and use words in different modes and different purpose. The memory strategy, cognitive strategy, social strategy and metacognitve strategy are used more frequently than the affective strategy and compensative strategy. Conclusion This paper has attempted to provide some theories of second language vocabulary acquisition and some strategies. Such as metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social strategy. However, this paper also put forward some microcosmic strategy. As a matter of fact, vocabulary acquisition should combine the context. In addition, this paper hasn’t mentioned that culture is also an important factor in vocabulary acquisition. In the study of second language vocabulary acquisition, we should pay attention to the process and the acquiring results. This paper focuses on the study of the second language vocabulary acquisition strategies. Bibliography [1] . Chamot. The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin, (eds), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 1987. [2] Cater. R. and M. McCarthy. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. New York: Longman, 1987. [3] Nation, L. S. P. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New Newbury House Publishers, 1990. [4] O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. U.. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [J]. Cambridge University Press, 1990:12-15. [5] 陈桦，张益芳.中国儿童英语词汇记忆策略探究[J].外语学刊,2001(4). [11] 戴曼纯. 论第二语言词汇习得研究[J]. 外语教学与研究，2002(2). [12] 徐德凯.大学英语词汇教学理论与实践[M].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司，2009. [6] 王文宇.观念、策略与英语词汇记忆[J].外语教学与研究，1998(1). [13] 文秋芳. 英语学习策略论.上海：上海外语教育出版社，1996. [7] 吴霞，王蔷.非英语专业本科生词汇水平研究. 外语教学与研究，1998(1). [15] 张纪英.英语词汇学教学与研究[M]. 武汉：华中科技大学出版社,2007. [16] 朱厚敏. 英语词汇学习策略研究[M] 长春：吉林大学出版社，2009.

【综述】几种用于发现未知病毒核酸序列的技术及其应用翁康生 病毒是引发人类传染性疾病的主要病原体之一, 它们极大地威胁着人类健康。目前还存在人类尚未认知或新出现的病毒, 随时可能严重危害人类健康安全〔1 - 3〕。及早地发现,鉴别未知的或新出现的病毒, 是有效的预防和控制的先决条件之一。因此, 建立、储备、改良、发展、乃至创新应用于发现、鉴别未知或新出现病毒的技术方法是十分必要的。近20 多年来, 常采用传统的微生物学技术方法和现代分子生物学技术方法相结合的途径, 发现和鉴别未知病毒。通过细胞培养的方法分离病毒、电镜观察、用已知病毒的抗血清建立的免疫学方法作排他性检测、用已知病毒核酸序列建立的PCR、杂交等方法, 作特异核酸序列的检测、用分子生物学技术获得未知病毒核酸序列, 查询基因数据库, 检出并确定未知病毒基因组序列, 最终发现鉴别出未知病毒。对于无法用细胞分离培养的未知病毒, 有的采用免疫学与分子生物学技术相结合, 筛选获取病毒特异抗原编码基因的克隆, 进而发现鉴别出该病毒。更多的则是采用相应的分子生物学技术, 从被检样品中发现获取未知病毒的核酸序列,进而发现鉴别未知病毒。无论未知病毒是否可以用细胞培养分离, 最终对其基因组序列的测定分析, 是鉴别和判断的决定性依据之一, 而获取未知病毒的核酸序列是前提条件。从少量样品中, 从高度复杂的宿主细胞核酸物质中, 分离、扩增、获取足够量的无基因序列资料的未知病毒的核酸片段, 供进一步克隆、测序、生物信息学分析, 是用分子生物学技术发现、鉴别未知和新出现病毒的关键之一〔4〕, 也是最终测定分析, 拼接出未知和新出现病毒基因组序列的瓶颈步骤。病毒所携核酸物质有DNA 和RNA 之分, 可采用的技术方法也有所不同, 现将有关技术与其应用作一简介, 以供参考。1 代表性差异分析法代表性差异分析法是为寻找分析两个生物样品复杂的基因组间有何差异而发展建立起来的分子生物学技术方法, 并不断得到演化, 发展和应用。病毒感染宿主细胞后, 与未感染的同类细胞相比, 二者核酸物质间的差异主要在于是否存在病毒核酸。消减去二者核酸间相同序列的背景部分, 扩增、比较、选取余下可能存在差异的部分, 进一步分析以发现未知病毒的核酸序列。病毒的核酸结构各有不同, 可选用相应的代表性差异分析法, 见表1 。111 DNA 代表性差异分析法(DNA Representation differenceanalysis , DNA RDA)此方法是Lisitsyn 等〔5〕利用核酸消减杂交技术〔6〕、PCR 方法和双链DNA 热变性后互补链退火复性的二级动力学原理〔7 - 8〕作者单位:上海市疾病预防控制中心 200336表1 病毒核酸类型与各代表性差异分析法的选用病毒核酸类型DNA RDA c DNA RDA非rRNA 序列6 核苷酸引导c DNA RDAds DNA 线状√ds DNA 环状√ss RNA polyA( + ) √ss RNA polyA( - ) 3 √ds RNA polyA( - ) √ 3 负链ss RNA polyA( - ) 视病毒在宿主细胞的转录机制而定。而建立的。方法中将需分析的样品DNA(Test DNA ,T- DNA) 和对照DNA(Driver DNA ,D - DNA) 设为二组,分别用同一种限制性内切酶酶切处理,并接上5′端去磷酸化的人工接头,补齐接头后,加入与接头序列互补的引物作PCR 扩增。切除扩增产物上的人工接头后,切出的T - DNA 连上第二种人工接头,变性后与过量的变性D - DNA 杂交。通过杂交,消减去T- DNA 中与D - DNA 中同源的核酸序列,而只存在于T - DNA 中的靶序列DNA(Target DNA) 则自我退火复性,其两端连有第二种人工接头。加入与第二种接头互补的引物作PCR ,只有靶序列DNA呈指数扩增,因而得到进一步富集。进过如此重复的几个轮回后,以电泳检测比较T- DNA 和D - DNA ,将T- DNA 中呈现的差异部分作分离,克隆,序列分析。Lisitsyn 等以10μg 人淋巴细胞基因组DNA 作为D - DNA ,在相同的人DNA 中加入相当于单拷贝量的120 pg 腺病毒DNA作T- DNA。以此作为实验模型,用DNA 代表性差异分析法成功的寻找、鉴定出外加入的腺病毒DNA 序列。应用此技术,Chang 等〔9〕在艾滋病相关的卡波西肉瘤(Kaposis Sarcoma) 中发现一段类似人类疱疹病毒的基因, 并由此发现一种新的病毒HPV8。以后人们又以此技术发现鉴定了HPV6、TTV 病毒、黄热病毒样基因组、MDV 等〔10 - 13〕DNA 病毒。112 cDNA 代表性差异分析法(cDNA Representation differenceanalysis , cDNA RDA)Hubank 等〔14〕针对mRNA 所含序列相对简单的特点,提出了cDNA 代表性差异分析法。它的基本原理与DNA RDA 相同,主要不同在于,采用识别4 核苷酸序列的限制性内切酶,它的识别位点在mRNA 反转录成的cDNA 中出现的频率更高,平均酶切片段长度约256 bp ,保证了cDNA 序列群中绝大多数序列,至少被切出一个片段可扩增,供差异分析,分离鉴定。cDNA RDA 技术相对经济,可高效灵敏地用于非常少的起始材料而获得结果〔15〕。具有polyA( + ) - RNA 病毒,其核酸可类似于mRNA 分离纯化,因此可应用此技术。利用cDNA RDA技术,发现鉴定了TiV、MenV ,等〔16 ,17〕RNA 病毒。113 非rRNA 序列6 聚核苷酸引导反转录的cDNA RDA中国预防医学杂志2007 年6 月第8 卷第3 期 Chin Prev Med , June 2007 , Vol18 No13 ·317 ·© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. ( - ) - RNA 病毒,其核酸物质不似于mRNA ,需和宿主细胞总RNA 同时分离,并用随机引物作反转录。因为宿主细胞总RNA 中rRNA 约占80 % ,由于竞争反应、靶序列信号被湮灭等原因,从这样的总RNA 抽提物中,用随机6 聚核苷酸引物引导反转录的cDNA RDA 技术,发现鉴别polyA( - ) - RNA 病毒核酸序列是困难的。Endoh 等〔18〕罗列了6 聚核苷酸所有可能的排列组合,共计4 096 个序列模式,以大鼠18S、518S、28S 等rRNA、微卫星重复序列、SARS - CoV、BI - 3 病毒等的序列数据为模型,筛选出在rRNA 序列中出现频率极低或不出现的6 聚核苷酸序列模式共96 种。将这些序列分别合成并混合后,称之为非rRNA 序列6 聚核苷酸引物。生物信息学分析96 种序列模式在哺乳动物病毒科具代表性的1 791 个病毒基因组序列中出现的频率,数据表明,非rRNA 序列6 核苷酸引物可引导绝大多数病毒的cDNA 合成。分别用非rRNA 序列6 聚核苷酸引物和随机6 核苷酸引物作cDNA 反转录效率、cDNA RDA 试验,结果表明,二类引物对人工合成的RNA (二类引物在其序列中出现的频率相似) 反转录效率几乎相等,而前者对细胞总RNA反转录效率远低于随机引物。用二类引物作cDNA RDA ,检测人工合成的RNA ,前者灵敏度是用随机引物的30 倍。在模拟实验中用非rRNA 序列6 聚核苷酸引物引导反转录,串联cDNARDA 技术,检测鉴别出感染细胞的BI - 3 和SRAS - Cov 核酸序列片段。此方法能从1μg 总RNA 中检测出3 ng 的外来RNA ,其检测灵敏度不及普通的PCR 检测方法,但对于检测鉴别在宿主细胞中复制,但不知其基因序列的poly A( - ) - RNA 病毒而言,也是一个可选择的方法。114 抑制消减杂交cDNA RDA 技术结合消减杂交和PCR 抑制作用〔19〕的技术原理,Diatchenks 等〔20〕等发展出了抑制消减杂交技术( suppressionsubtractive hybridization ,SSH) 。与前两种RDA 技术不同点在于,SSH 技术将内切酶酶切处理的T - cDNA 分为两份,分别接上不同序列的去磷酸化的接头1 和2 ,分别于过量的D - cDNA作第一轮杂交。杂交过程中两组中的单链T - cDNA 浓度趋同,T- cDNA 中的非靶序列单链cDNA 与D - cDNA 中相应序列形成杂交双链而被消减, T - cDNA 中差异表达的单链cDNA被显著富集。合并一轮杂交物,加入过量变性D - cDNA ,作第二轮杂交。合并的二组份一轮杂交物中剩下的趋同化、经消减杂交后的单链T - cDNA 能互补杂交, 可以形成: 原组内T- cDNA 单链间的杂交、T - cDNA 与D - cDNA 单链间的杂交、二组间T- cDNA 单链间的杂交。补齐杂交反应后双链cD2NA 末端,用分别与接头1 和2 的外侧部分序列互补的寡核苷酸为引物,作PCR 扩增。二组份间T- cDNA 互补单链杂交物,因两端分别具有接头1 和2 ,可被指数扩增;T - cDNA 与D -cDNA 杂交物和剩余单链T- cDNA ,因一端具接头序列,被线性扩增;而同组间T- cDNA 杂交物两端具反转重复长序列,因抑制性PCR 效应,在PCR 反应循环中分子内退火形成稳定的“锅柄结构”〔19〕而不被扩增。因此,SSH 技术通过二轮消减杂交和抑制性PCR 特异扩增,使假阳性大大降低,提高了检出低丰度靶mRNA 的灵敏度。Hu 等〔21〕应用SSH 技术,结合反转录酶的模板切换(tem2plate - switching) 功能, 以HCV RNA 阳性血清体外感染的人MOLT- 4 急性淋巴母细胞白血病T 细胞系为模型,通过反转录合成全长cDNA、抑制性消减杂交、消减的cDNA 文库构建、反相斑点杂交筛选,在被筛的96 个克隆里,T- cDNA 探针杂交呈特异阳性的16 克隆中,序列分析后得到4 个插入HCV 序列的克隆。2 非特异多重引导滚环式扩增法乳头瘤病毒、痘病毒等,其基因物质为环状DNA 分子。在事前未知基因序列的情况下,发现和鉴别这类病毒核酸序列还可选择非特异多重引导滚环式扩增法(multiply primed rolling -circle amplification ,RCA) ,扩增、分离、获取其基因片段供进一步分析。自然状况下,环状DNA 经常以滚环方式进行复制。Dean等〔22〕应用随机6 聚核苷酸作引物,加入φ29 DNA 聚合酶,以质粒DNA 和噬菌体DNA 为模型,建立了多重引物引导的滚环式扩增法。φ29 DNA 聚合酶可长距离( > 70 000 nt) 地结合于DNA模板,进行链置换DNA 合成。而随机6 聚核苷酸引物可多位点的与单链环状DNA 互补复性。在φ29 DNA 聚合酶作用下,以随机引物引导,合成与模板互补的DNA 链。当合成链延伸到与模板结合的随机引物5′端时,在φ29 DNA 聚合酶的链置换活性作用下,下游被延伸的随机引物链被“甩”出模板。而上游的延伸链继续在环状模板上复制合成。同时,被从单链环状模板上“甩”出的互补链,又成为新的模板,随机引物与之结合,在φ29 DNA 聚合酶作用下,继续以枝杈的形式进行链延伸和链置换,最后以双链DNA 串联体形式释放。用此法可使1 ng 纯pCU18 环状DNA 模板延展式地扩增至107倍。Rector 等〔23〕以此原理建立了不依赖已知的特定基因序列(非序列依赖性) 的多重引导滚环式扩增环状DNA 病毒基因组方法,并应用其扩增获取了HPV 16 的基因组DNA。在接近实样的试验样品中,由于稀释倍数和环状DNA 分子较大等原因,将HPV 16 基因组DNA 扩增了214 ×104 倍。3 病毒颗粒相关核酸的非序列依赖性PCR 扩增病毒核酸可包裹于病毒外壳内,病毒的蛋白外壳或脂膜对病毒核酸具有保护作用。而病毒颗粒具有不同于细菌或其他真核细胞的理化特性。利用这样的特点Allender 等〔24〕和Stang等〔25〕各自建立了病毒颗粒相关核酸的非序列依赖性PCR 扩增方法(sequence - independent amplification) 。两种方法的共同点在于,依据病毒颗粒小、具一定密度,用0122μm 滤器过滤、或再串上超速密度梯度离心,从样品中分离出病毒颗粒,DNA 酶酶解游离的DNA ,裂解病毒颗粒,抽提获取较纯的病毒颗粒相关核酸。Allender 等〔24〕借鉴RDA 原理,对病毒颗粒相关核酸用限制性内切酶酶切后,作非序列依赖性单引物PCR 扩增( sequence -independent single primer amplification ,SISPA) :将抽提获取的DNA或RNA 分别补齐,合成第二链DNA ,或反转录,合成双链cDNA。限制性内切酶酶切后,酶切片段两端连接一种接头,并以与接头同序列的单一寡核苷酸为引物,作PCR 扩增。扩增产物进一步克隆与序列分析。用此法检验HBV 阳性血清和GBV - B 阳性血清样品,结果在相当于106/ ml 个基因组拷贝浓度的50μl样品中,可重复试验检出相应的病毒基因片段。Stang 等〔25〕则在得到双链DNA 或双链cDNA 后加入k - 随机引物,此种引物5′端含有20 个固定序列的核苷酸,3′端则有·318 · 中国预防医学杂志2007 年6 月第8 卷第3 期 Chin Prev Med , June 2007 , Vol18 No13© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. 核苷酸随机简并序列。与变性模板退火时,6 核苷酸随机简并序列随机地与模板相应序列互补退火,在T4 DNA聚合酶作用下作链延伸。然后在延伸产物中加入k - 随机引物中固定序列部分的20 寡核苷酸作引物,进行PCR 扩增。扩增产物电泳分析、克隆、测序。用此方法检验由实时- PCR 定量,包括病毒颗粒相关核酸及游离核酸在内的病毒基因组拷贝数为109/ ml 的Cox - 3 和MAV - 1 培养物。前者的12 克隆中,9 个克隆插入有肠道病毒的四个不同区域的同源基因片段;而6 个MAV - 1 中分离的克隆内,5 个含有99 % 同源MAV - 1 基因片段。基于病毒颗粒分离纯化、DNase 处理、病毒颗粒相关核酸的非序列依赖性PCR 扩增,获取、鉴定未知病毒的基因片段,尽管灵敏度不够高,但其实验时间较短,步骤相对简单,对于病毒拷贝数高,时间紧急的样品鉴别,是较适宜的一套方法。病毒的种类、结构、特性多种多样,感染病毒后需要检验的样品又各不相同,因此用于发现鉴别未知病毒的核酸序列的技术,也不是固定不变和完全通用的。以上的技术方法各有优缺点和适用范围。而针对扩增获取未知病毒基因组序列片断,这一发现鉴定未知病毒的分子生物学技术的要点或瓶颈,必然还会有新的改进、创新技术出现,将会更快、更灵敏、更简便、更准确的发现鉴别未知病毒。参 考 文 献〔1〕 Drosten C , Gunther S , Preiser W, et al1 Identification of novel corona2virus in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome1 N Engl J Med ,2003 , 348 : 1967 - 19761〔2〕 ven den Hoogen BG, de Jong JC , Groen J , et al , A newly discoveredhuman pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tractdisease1 Nat Med , 2001 , 7 : 719 - 7241〔3〕 Fouchier RA , Hartwig NG, Bestebroer TM, et al1 A previously unde2scribed coronavirus associated with respiratory disease in human1 ProcNatl Acad Sci U S A , 2004 , 101 : 6212 - 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