有一篇施工监控的论文，你查收一下吧，希望对你有用！
The urban river embankment discuss the ecological constructionAnonymous XXXXXXXXAbstract: the urban river embankment construction as the object, discuss the current social background, analyses and compares the river embankment design of traditional methods and characteristics of ecological methods, and puts forward three modes of ecological design and their advantages and disadvantages, and expounds the present situation of the ecological construction in domestic bank and future prospects.Keywords: the bank; Ecology; Design way; Domestic situationText:A, backgroundRiver Banks part is the amphibious interlaced transition belt, has the remarkable edge effect. Here are active substances, nutrient and energy flow, offer a habitat for a variety of creatures. Natural state Banks often species richness, productivity high.The traditional embankment design often single ?一、背景河流的堤岸部分是水陆交错的过渡地带，具有显著的边缘效应。这里有活跃的物质、养分和能量的流动，为多种生物提供了栖息地。自然状态下的堤岸往往物种丰富、生产力高。传统的堤岸设计往往会单纯从防洪角度出发，采用土堤或者土石混合堆砌起来高高的堤岸。它的优点在于高度的可靠性，结构设计后加起防护堤岸抗流水冲刷能力显著增强。对于洪水暴发频繁、侵蚀严重的区段，这样的设计无可厚非，而对于一般河流堤岸的修建，这样的设计则显得缺乏环境的美化和绿化，同时也破坏许多对生态起重要作用的自然因素，如破坏植被与河床间的联系，造成冲刷侵蚀转移等。另外，河流作为城市风貌不可多得的珍惜资源，也是城市风貌的特色要素，它的景观塑造显得十分必要。同时，堤岸景观建设必然使滨河地区土地价值提升，滨水开发的高投资回报的特点更增强了对城市堤岸景观建设的需求。二、需求——堤岸的生态化建设河流堤岸作为城市中最邻近河流的区域，是城市与河流的衔接线，它的景观规划是提高城市生活品质的需要，也是丰富城市景观的需要。生态化建设，它的根本思路是运用自然本身抗干扰和自我修复的能力来处理人与自然的关系。生态设计方法不同于传统用人工的结构和形式来取代自然的方法，而是用自然的结构和形式来顺应自然的进程。将河岸与河道在生态上联系起来，也就实现了物质、养分、能量的交流：对于生物，它提供了合适的栖息地；植物根系可固着土壤，枝叶可截留雨水，过滤地表迳流，抵抗流水冲刷，从而起到保护堤岸、增加堤岸结构的稳定性、净化水质、涵养水源的作用，而且随着时间的推移，这些作用被不断加强。同时，生态化建设以自然的外貌出现，容易与环境取得协调，造价也较低，不需要长期的维护管理。三、河流堤岸生态化设计方式河流堤岸生态化设计，要遵守生态设计的原则，注重地方性、保护与节约自然资本、让自然做功、显露自然，主要体现在对地域气候环境、河流地质地貌、水文变化的适应，对河流生态环境的考虑，对堤岸地形的处理和对筑堤材料的选择和构造方式方面。1） 人工类：传统方法是采用块石或混凝土块砖等堆砌。可在此基础上加以改进以适应河流景观设计的需求。a) 块石或混凝土块砖干砌，不用砂浆。这样在砌块之间就留有空隙，为后期滨河植物的生长提供了空间。随着时间的推移，堤岸会逐渐呈现出自然的风貌。b) 堤岸采用台阶式分级，台阶面上的空间加以利用，种植植物。当然这两种改进方法对于河岸处现有植被仍存在一定的不良影响，人工痕迹也过于明显。2） 自然类：充分利用堤岸植被原型，可直接将适用于滨河地带生长的植被种植于堤岸上，利用植物的根、茎、叶来稳固堤岸，防止侵蚀、控制沉积的同时也为生物提供了栖息地。3） 人工自然相结合综合了以上两种方法的优点，具有人工结构的稳定性和自然的外貌，见效快、生态效益好，以下为常见的两种类型：a) 种植植物的堆石将由大小不同的石块组成的堆石置于与水接触的土壤表面，再把活体切枝插入石堆中使斜坡更加稳定。根系可提高强度，植被可遮盖石块，使堤岸外貌更加自然。b) 与植物结合使用的插孔式混凝土块将预制的混凝土块以连锁的形式置于岸底的浅渠中，再将植物切枝或植株扦插于混凝土块之间和堤岸上部，其上覆土压实，再播种草本植物。堤岸生态化建设也存在一定的局限性。如：选用的材料及建造方法不同，堤岸的防护能力相差很大，需要运用多学科知识认真分析，这就为设计人员提出了更大的挑战；建造初期若受到强烈干扰，则会影响到以后防护作用的发挥等。这也就对河流堤岸的生态化设计提出了更高的要求。四、国内现状1）省会城市在我国省会城市及计划单列市中有近80％进行了堤岸景观规划。（参考文献[3]）城 市 项目名称 城 市 项目名称北 京 长河城市水系统综合治理 南 宁 堤岸园工程长 沙 湘江风光带 宁 波 滨江大道沿江景观工程成 都 府南河绿化工程 上 海 外滩、陆家嘴滨江大道福 州 闵江江滨公园 沈 阳 浑河观光旅游带广 州 珠江二沙段堤岸景观、芳村长堤建设 太 原 汾河公园贵 阳 南明河景观绿化工程 天 津 海河堤岸改造工程哈尔滨 松花江南岸沿江风景长廊 武 汉 汉口江滩一二期工程昆 明 盘龙江中段滨水生态景观建设 西 安 灞河大水大绿工程兰 州 黄河风情线 重 庆 南滨路滨江旅游观光大道从规划后建成情况看，这些城市河流堤岸景观项目都得到了当地政府与市民的肯定。在这些项目中，堤岸既可成为当地最具吸引力的城市公园，如太原的汾河公园和福州的江滨公园；堤岸也可成为市民日常休闲活动的热点地段，如南宁的堤路园和武汉的汉口江滩工程；堤岸还可成为城市最具特色的地段，如重庆的南滨路滨江旅游观光大道；堤岸更可成为城市旅游的热点，如上海的外滩和陆家嘴滨江大道。总之，经过景观规划的堤岸已成为当地最具特色的地区。从建设效果看，相对堤岸的原来面貌而言，统计资料中的这些景观工程都是较成功的，都成为当地城市关注的热点，成为当地政府的政绩工程，成为当地的民心工程。城市河流堤岸通过景观规划，有效地改善了滨河地段的环境，并带动滨河地段的开发。但必须清醒地认识到，这些城市堤岸景观项目规划并非尽善尽美，也存在这样或那样的问题，仍有待完善。2）中小城市城市经济实力的强大决定了其城市建设水平的高标准和高水平。中小城市河流堤岸景观与统计资料中的城市存在较大的差距，存在更多的问题。特别是由于资金问题，堤岸景观是，纯人工，状态的钢筋混凝土防洪堤，或保持自然防洪状态的土石堤，没有经过景观规划，易造成城市资源的极大浪费。五、前景目前，河流景观建设，特别是城市河流景观建设，在中国正方兴未艾；在发达国家中也是一个久盛不衰的话题。 回顾发达国家河流景观建设的历史，自20世纪70年代以来，随着人们环境意识的普遍增强，重视河流景观的生态功能已成为一个时代的呼唤，河流景观建设的生态设计方法也已得到了空前的重视和发展。他山之石可以攻玉，借鉴发达国家已经形成的成熟的理念和做法，可以使我们少走弯路，搭上隆隆前进的生态建设之车。
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土木工程常用英文期刊集粹土木工程常用英文期刊集粹1.Chaos, Solit***** and Fractals 2.Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 3.Computers and Structures 4.Engineering Structures 5.European Journal of Mechanics - A/Solids 6.Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 7.International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 8.International Journal of Solids and Structures 9.Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 10.Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 11.Reliability Engineering and System Safety 12.Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 13.Structural Safety 14.Thin-Walled Structures ASCE 1.Journal of Engineering Mechanics 2.Journal of Structural Engineering Academic Press 1.Journal of Sound and Vibration IOS Press 1.Shock and Vibration ASME 1.Journal of Applied Mechanics 2.Applied Mechanics Review John Wiley&S*****, Ltd. 1.International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 2.Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics Spring-Verlag 1.Archive of Applied Mechanics 2.Computational Mechanics 3.Structural Optimization Kluwer Academic Publishers 1.Nonlinear Dynamics AIAA 1.AIAA Journal ACI Structural Journal Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering Civil Engineering and Environmental Systems Structural engineering and Mechanics 所列期刊基本上都是属于SCI检索范围. 属土木类的顶级刊物,搞科研不可不看哦.田间阡陌2010-05-14 10:44我是搞桥梁抗震的：1 Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering(Springer)《地震工程通报》刊载地震工程研究方面的原始论文及跨学科文章。2 Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (GSW)《美国地震学会通报》美国地震学会刊物，刊载地震学、地震工程及相关领域研究论文。在地震学核心刊物中排名第18。2004年影响因子IF：1.8123 Canadian Geotechnical Journal (Canada NRC) 《加拿大土工杂志》是世界上地球勘察领域的三大学术期刊之一。其内容涉及地层基础，挖掘，土壤资源，水坝，筑堤，斜坡，地下水利的新发展，岩石工程，地球化学，废物管理和输送，土壤冻结，结冰，下雪，海岸土壤以及地缘战略学。4 Clay Minerals (GSW) 《粘土矿物》刊载粘土与粘土矿物分析、物理与化学性质、地质与土壤研究以及粘土矿的利用等方面的研究论文。在矿物学核心刊物中排名第12位，2005年影响因子IF：1.1845 Computational Geosciences (Springer) 《计算地球科学》 刊载以数学模拟、仿真模拟、数据分析、形象化、反演等手段研究地球科学的高质量论文。6 Disasters (Wiley Black) 《灾害》刊载研究各种自然灾害（地震、洪水、热带风暴等）的预防政策制定及其实施等方面学术论文、实地研究文章、会议报告和书评。7 Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics (Wiley) 《地震工程与结构动力学》 国际地震工程学会会刊。发表地震工程及其他动力负荷形式的研究文章，涉及地震频度、地面运动、土壤扩展与破坏、动力学分析方法、结构实验性能、震情分析等，兼载书评与会议消息。8 Natural Hazards (Springer) 《自然灾害》刊载自然灾害和技术性灾害的物理问题、灾难事件预测统计学、风险评价、灾害先兆的性质等方面的研究论文、评论、实例分析等，兼及相关的社会与政治问题及学术界动态。9 Natural Hazards Observer (NH Res. & Appl. Info. Center) 《自然灾害观察者》报道地震、洪水等自然灾害的研究、计划与活动。10 Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics. (AGU) 《地球物理学中的非线性过程》主要刊登以下两方面真正有创造性贡献的文章：动力学系统理论和应用非线性方法研究地球物理学基础问题。11Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology (GSW) 《工程地质学与水文地质学季刊》伦敦地质学会（GSL）刊物，刊载地质学在土木工程、采矿及水资源开发等领域的应用论文与评论。2004年影响因子IF：1.8912Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (Springer) 《岩石力学与岩石工程》刊载工程地质学、岩石工程、土壤力学、岩石力学等领域的实验、理论和应用方面的研究论文。我看了一下楼主列出的期刊，里面没有的我就补充了一下，这里给出的是我常用到的，主要是地震学、灾害学、地震工程学方面，大家可以看一看。如果有重复的，可能是我没有看仔细，还请见谅。
土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge project.Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering practices.Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development.
有一篇施工监控的论文，你查收一下吧，希望对你有用！
可以看看这个 呵呵 是 土木专业英语上的课文 building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
Civil engineering in the long history of mankind "science and technology" as a system of civil engineering activity a substantial production processCivil engineering and construction of engineering science and technology it refers to the engineering construction collectively objects, namely, ground, built in underground engineering facilities also refers to water used materials, equipment and inspection in design, construction, maintenance, repair, etcAs an important basis for civil engineering discipline is the important attribute: comprehensive social economic and practical technology with human society advances art unity and development of civil engineering has been turned into a large-scale integrated disciplines and have many branches such as: the railway engineering construction engineering construction bridge engineering specialty structure of water and wastewater engineering of port engineering environment engineering disciplines such as water conservancy project consists of six major in civil engineering, architecture, city planning and civil engineering construction environment and water drainage engineering and equipment engineering road and bridge projectThrough a semester civil engineering introduction lessons I have deeply felt civil engineering covers a wide appreciates the previous achievements also realized as a civil engineer major responsibility, of course, we can't make brilliant achievements is immersed in the immobilized we shall also keep pace with The Times to go to think to dig the imagination to innovation in China's future as a civil engineer I want with civil engineering history with China's national conditions and the situation of the world talk of civil engineering road of the future!
你是哪个省的啊 看看如果可以的话 可以给你一份全面的
有一篇施工监控的论文，你查收一下吧，希望对你有用！
这是要写毕业论文了吗？老师会给的，自己翻译一下就好了。
第十部分：科技资料翻译一科技资料原文二科技资料翻译RTICLE IN PRESSEngineering Structures ( ) –新结构控制概念的应用Xilin Lua,_, Zhiguo Gongb, Dagen Wenga, Xiaosong Rena同济大学国家重点防震减灾土木工程实验室,上海四平路1239号, 200092, 中国上海建筑科学研究院(集团)有限公司,上海200032,中国2005年12月21日收到; 2006年10月5日修订; 2006年10月6日通过审查摘要:目前已经提出并广泛研究了联合建筑控制的概念.但是仅限于关于两条平行相邻建筑的理论与实验研究. 进一步,本文扩大了控制应用的范围,对一个高层建筑(60层总高333米)和周边大型平台架构(10层共49米),以主要减少平台结构的地震扭转效应导致的刚度和质量偏心. 首先引入一个宏观有限元结构的概念来简化建筑物. 简单的介绍了连接粘滞性阻尼器的模型分析和测试结果. 接下来,分析了建筑的双向水平地震作用包括了两个不同的回归周期的地震影响. 结果表明,使用连接阻尼器,可有效减少平台架构的地震扭转反应. 此外,主楼抗震性能可以采用不同的方法提高 最后,平台和主楼用每个最大容量600KN的粘滞性阻尼器连接,此建筑已经在2005年竣工并投入使用. 关键词:连接建筑物控制手段;主楼; 大型平台架构;连接流体阻尼器;地震的扭转反应;实际应用1. 介绍由于高强度材料和现代建筑技术使用的不断增长、现代化城市设计和建造了越来越多的高楼大厦. 在市中心,很多建筑由于土地的限制和集中功能的需要而造的靠近或者设计成复合式. 为了防止温度裂缝和不均匀沉降,这些建筑物没有任何联系结构. 如果它们的距离不足以调节,可能在强烈地震作用下发生相互碰撞事件.在以前的强烈地震中,已经发现了临近建筑碰撞的后果[[12].怎样防止相互撞击是个严重的问题.它是为邻近的建筑物的设计或者被波及的建筑设计的.研究者在过去30年已经作出相关努力, 调查分析相邻两单自由度系统地震的冲击效应. 我们建议安装粘弹性阻尼器在碰撞可能接触的位置. 可能在动力设计中没有预料的是,阻尼器可能使冲击荷载在两个系统中传递. Westermo [4] Westermo建议使用连接绞连接两相邻相对楼层,那么显然这个系统能减震. 但是可能在一定程度上改变不连接建筑物的地震动特性.如果建筑在几何上不对称,那么就加大了地震反应. 而且增加了建筑的基础剪力. 事实上,刚联结建筑物受力特点更像一个单一建筑体系.因此, 只有在设计阶段采取适当的措施,才能采用新的临近建筑体系的建议. 但对邻近现有建筑物的防震,他们之间有相互作用因而这个建议不能正确的实现其功能. 进一步,消极的想法只是避免结构的相互冲击、 更积极的想法是要利用撞击减少建筑物的动态效应. 提出用被动阻尼器,半主动阻尼器或者主动阻尼器连接临近建筑或者复合式建筑的想法来改进抗震或抗风性能.减震建筑系统具有两个基本特点.当地震或者强风发生的时候,第一是地震或者强风作用下两个邻近的建筑物之间的相互作用. 第二是联结减震器的耗能作用. 后者在减震中更加重要而且它一般情况下部分取决于前者. 结合这两个特点,下文中用阻尼器连接临近建筑的控制概念称为联合建筑控制.在美国,Klein [5] 在1972年第一次提出平动-扭转耦联体系来增强抗风性能的计划.在日本, Kunieda [6] 在1976年建议连接多重结构减少地震反应.从那时以来,许多调查已经对探查控制建筑物的动态反应的可能性使用连接建筑物控制手段的对策. 调查的绝大部分是理论上和数字的分析.涉及被动控制技术[7–12], 半自动和自动控制技术 [13–17]. 此外,一些实验研究也证明了控制手段的有效性[18,19]. 这些调查得出一个共同的结论. 如果两个邻近的建筑物的粘滞性阻尼器在适合位置恰当安装,那么风应力和地震动力响应将被减少很多. 基于这些研究,日本正在进行大规模试验或正在考虑中. 如我所知,1989年东京建造的鹿岛智能建筑是第一个应用有关连接建筑物控制手段的[20]. 在这计划中,有一种凹型绞安装在办公室楼的5-层楼和9-层楼. 这种钢质凹型绞有一种稳定的滞后性.它能在强烈地震期间通过屈服而吸收振动能量. 但是,刚性绞也能明显改变单独的建筑物的动态特性. 2003年,Asano and Yamano et al. [21]在日本东京建设局也描述了这种刚性绞.为什么连接建筑物控制手段是少见的?有两点理由: 第一,是邻近的建筑物的相互影响有可能产生潜在不良反应, 特别对于那些联结阻尼器,例如粘弹性阻尼器或者粘滞性阻尼器.他们可能有害于地震附近建筑. Xu and Lu et al提出了一个简单的解决方案. [10,18,19], 就是向连接建筑物使用减速阻尼器例如各种各样粘滞性阻尼器. 将两个建筑的动响应降低到最小同时将屈服阻尼升到很高的水准 因此,这在设计很快将在工程中得到应用. 第二,邻近的建筑物中连接建筑物控制并没有很多适合的例子. 通常新设计的大厦, 结构工程师通过改变结构布置或者改变结构体系来解决撞击问题或扭转力问题. 因此,对于适用的建筑控制耦合限于有限范围.为了使控制方法提高到更加适用的水平,本文对基于大型平台架构的高层控制的实际应用进行了全面研究.此建筑为一个简单的例子. 然后对宏观结构的有限元模型进行解析其性能测试和分析模型采用的阻尼. 随后,联结阻尼器提高建筑的抗震性能的效果.特别是通过一系列地震反应分析的估计解决平台架构的结构扭力反应.2. 建筑描述2.1. 建设纲要该项目为位于上海南京路步行街起点的上海世茂国际广场. 这是中国最著名的商业街. 整个工程包括主楼、平台结构和公共广场. 主楼,其低层作为高档办公楼,其高层是五星级饭店, 共60层及三层地下室. 主楼楼顶海拔约246米, 若附加在装饰天线桅杆,总高度达到 333米,这将是上海市区黄浦江以西最高的建筑了.其结构图和建筑表现图将在一年内出图. 图1上海世茂国际广场配置结构和连接阻尼的安排[注:平台和广场为点ABCD主楼的点A0,B0,C0,D0,7楼到10楼安排阻尼器的位置 图2:同济大学用三轴震动台试验的1:35模型2.2. 结构体系主楼为钢筋混凝土核心筒,外加支腿系统. 从第一层至11层、外墙钢筋混凝土框架和核心筒选段一级 钢筋混凝土框架的外墙改为钢筋混凝土框架结构. 3个支点组成悬臂桁架结构加强主楼、 各自位于11层和28层和47层. 该平台部分,设计10层钢筋混凝土框架墙结构抵制纵向和横向荷载. 至于广场部分,从一到六层是空地,除了一些支撑七到十层的填充柱,屋顶有一个巨大跨度的网架结构.在第七至十楼有一个平台广场.2.3. 结构设计是主要难点在初步结构设计中, 对整个平台及广场安装巨大的斜支撑来加强细长的混凝土柱解决刚度分配不均匀的问题. 然而,为了保持弹性空间加强斜撑的建议被取消了. 因此,为整个平台和广场,扭转反应可能会因大偏心突出刚度和质量分布而加剧.广场部分刚度过于薄弱,其位移响应可能严重到失控的程度,设计规范不能完全满足. 作为一个解决办法, 设计师尝试在各楼层之间安装刚性杆来连接主楼与整个广场及平台. 尽管如此, 连接杆强度和变形能力可能不足以抵御地震.因为主楼和整个广场及平台刚度和质量差别很大. 同济大学市政工程系在防震减灾国家重点实验室进行了一系列振动台模型试验来验证是否可以使用连接杆连接主楼与周边部分.振动台试验结果表明,在预先设计的建筑仅在基本地震下运行 (50年一遇) 根据地震基本烈度,建筑物发生各种损害情况.当评估建筑物的抗震性能(见2000年期刊), 整个广场及平台刚性杆扭转反应还是很大的. 应当指出,抗震设计实施的的三个层次的保护措施,要按全国抗震设计规范与上海本地的法律的规定设计. 其中 一级地震基本做到了详细设计和施工,另外两项措施须经计算地震作用. 上海本地的规范中震幅7度时加速度在0.035g,0.10g and 0.20g 对应 相应的三个层次. 表a:1940年E1地震中心E–W 和 S–N的加速时间表b:记录在加州理工学院的1952年7月21日发生在肯德基州的E–W 和S–N方向的加速时间历史表c: 上海SHW2人工加速度产生的峰值为0.1g图三加速时间历史对三个地震模拟振动台模型试验2.4. 联结阻尼器的应用为了避免刚性杆件的缺点,有人建议在主楼及周边配备部分安装粘滞性阻尼器来代替刚杆刚性使耗能阻尼器更有效地控制地震反应、尤其是减少整个广场及平台的扭转反应. 图表1显示上海世茂国际广场中粘滞性阻尼器的计划配置. 在一系列优化之前用SAP 2000设计的简化模型进行详细的分析. 对三个方案进行时程分析来比较减弱的效果X. Lu et al. / 工程结构 ( ) – 5表 17楼到10楼中点A到点D不同的阻尼遭受的相对水平位移Floor Point Case 1 Case 2 Case 37FA 96.8 29.0 28.2D 58.3 27.9 27.58FA 104.5 30.1 30.0D 63.0 29.4 29.09FA 109.6 31.3 31.6D 66.0 31.8 31.210FA 113.7 32.6 33.3D 68.3 34.6 34.0情况1, 主楼及周边部分没有联结阻尼器情况2: 主楼及周边部分从七楼到十楼分布40个联结阻尼器情况3:主楼及周边部分从一楼到 十楼分布100个联结阻尼器十楼从A点到D点的位移比较如表1. 可以得出情况2能得到比较满意的减弱效果.但是情况2增加的阻尼器效果增加不明显.所以采用情况2中阻尼器的数量和位置详细分析.3:选择的联结阻尼器和结构的动荷载3.1.分析模型及基本假设文中建立了两个分析模型.SAP2000软件建立的有限元模型, 主要用于进行特征值分析和弹性分析、由于地震的不确定性和局限性,不能满足非线性时程分析的要求.用CANNY软件进行非线性时程分析的宏观单元模型. 图4为宏观要素分析模型.该模型是用来描述杆件基于剪力墙材料的应力应变关系. 图5为钢筋混凝土在循环荷载下的应力应变曲线. 找出钢筋混凝土三轴压应变最高的压应力, __c and "u是压力应变控制点的下降部分所能承受的最大压力. _t是钢筋混凝土最高单轴应力相关应变._ "t 是下降点的最大强度控制点; "0 是起点,到达之前的定点 _c; --为参数,指示混凝土应力卸载前到达_c _y和"Y是钢材拉伸屈服应力和相关的应变. _0y and "0y 是钢的相关的压缩屈服强度和变形. --是卸载控制参数. 考虑到矩轴力互动和材料应力应变曲线. 此体系能自动形成双向弯矩-曲率关系根据有限元模型的结果,宏观模型采用的详细楼层重量在表2. 阻尼比率是结构预测响应的关键组成之一. 经过仔细比较不同类型阻尼比的分析反应. 电脑模式对于模式1和模式2定义4%临界阻尼为瑞利型阻尼.在计算中采用以下基本假设:(1)楼层是刚性平面;(2) 忽视土和结构的相互作用;(3) 基础能承载上部结构;(4) 忽视地震垂直作用.3.2. 联结阻尼器分析模型根据粘滞性阻尼器减少临近建筑的变形反应的优越性[19], 设计中采用一种非线性粘滞性阻尼器.粘滞性阻尼器的机械特性可用下式表示:Fd = CvSign(V/Vmax)@_(1) Cv: 阻尼系数 (kN).V: 活塞和容器中的流体相对速率(mm/s).Vmax: 活塞和容器中的流体最高速率(mm/s)._:速度指数,通常介于0.1和1.0. --等于1.0时,线性速度存在. 随着--的数值下降, 在小型平台阻尼力随速度增长很快,但在大型平台,阻尼力随速度增长速度缓慢. OBE和SEE对高层建筑,如上海世茂国际广场的设计必须都满足上海本地抗震设计规范. 为了充分利用耗能阻尼器的能力, _应该选择较小值. 同时根据两个因素判定_ 和Cv的阻尼系数 (1) 流体阻尼器耗能表现佳,为在OBE范围下减少平台架构下的扭转反应,表4用CANNY程序进行整体结构的宏观模型分析
Research on the construction safety management of Civil EngineeringIn recent years, the construction accident in civil engineering in our country often occur. This not only caused casualties, also caused great loss of national property, and resulting in a very bad social influence. Therefore, in our country, the construction units in the civil engineering construction projects, shouldstrengthen the construction safety management, all aspects ofsecurity control for engineering, to prevent dangerous accidentsin the end it all. The cause of the civil engineering constructionaccidents are in many aspects. In order to enhance security,should be combined with the characteristics of construction projects and the enterprise's internal and external conditions, the rational allocation of production factors, optimization of management process. In order to realize the construction safetymanagement, construction units should establish a safety management system of a project, it should be carried out from the following aspects:A construction safety consciousness, cultivate the modern safety science theory, occurrence of unsafe human behavior causedcasualties. To implement safety management, it should becombined with psychology, behavioral science to strengthen the education and training of employees in production safety,improve the consciousness of safe production, so as to guide the safety production behavior of employees. For the construction enterprises should strengthen safety awareness and educationproject personnel, developing the regular safety education to the construction personnel involved in the project, and to carry outsecurity work. Three level education to the new participate in the work of the operating personnel; often transform types of employees, should be safety training for new types of work, makeoperation personnel matters needing attention can be familiar with the safe operation of the. In order to make safe productionconsciousness win support among the people, enterprisemanagement personnel but also in engineering project, using a variety of promotional tools to start a variety of education,cultivate the construction personnel safety consciousness. Andin the management of enterprises, the production safety systemthought to. Leaders at all levels and enterprises in issuing the project production task, should also carry out safety productionmeasures. Such as the production safety requirements to the construction personnel, so conducive to safe thought into the production of management, let each employee has consciously in the psychological sense of security.Two, the establishment of management system for safety in production in addition to strengthen production safety education and awareness of construction project staff, should alsoestablish a safety management system, protect the system from the construction enterprise safety in production of. In order toavoid the frequent occurrence of sudden accident, the construction enterprise should according to the project, to develop a comprehensive, the system of safety management,and invest the necessary manpower and funds to ensure the implementation of the project. Ensure the production safetyconstruction from the system implementation, the project section of construction enterprises should establish the safety inspectionsystem, and regularly to the project construction of the security check. Make a clear record of project construction process,record the dangerous post, and regularly check the work. Self evaluation and construction team every week to organize asafety activities, the project department to make regular safetyevaluation for project production. Construction enterprises in theconstruction of civil engineering, in order to establish a safety management system, need to make corresponding technical measures for safety management system, a comprehensivescientific standard for project.Therefore, the safety work of construction enterprise project technical measures should be prior to commencement of works.As for engineering and technical measures should be strict examination and approval, the approval before implementation. If the design changes during construction, corresponding safety technical measures should be coordinated with the adjustment,will follow. The safety technical measures enacted personnel andparticipation, should fully understand the project as the construction scheme, construction environment, the actualoperation has, and combined with relevant laws and regulations or the security policy to establish safety technical measures,which can ensure the safety measures. In civil engineering construction of large, corresponding safety technical measuresshould be formulated more comprehensive and more specific,must be carried out through the whole process of construction,and mainly covers to other engineering safety. To establish the system of safety management, construction enterprises should also be strict safety procedures.As before the construction of the project, technical personnel should to the technical measures for the construction personnelwork. Such as technical personnel issue written materials relatedto the construction personnel, and the implementation of safety technical measures of construction workers to regularly check;when technicians found construction personnel in violation oftechnical measure behavior, to give timely corrected. When theconstruction personnel technical mistakes when amended and supplemented immediately. In order to ensure the safety ofconstruction enterprises to implement, should take theseinspection of production safety measures the formation of rules and regulations, require employees to strictly abide by, so to ensure safety production system. At the same time, the construction enterprises can also follow the specific constructiondevelopment situation, formulate a set of safety technical measures linked to reward and punishment system, to strictly abide by the department or individual production safety, strictsecurity checks to reward, and if there are penalties for violations of the phenomenon. At the same time should have a goodproduction safety supervision work, and sent to the specialized production safety supervision work. When there is potential safety hazard factors in project development, should be timely analysis and inspection and make treatment immediately, so thatthe safety management to implement, implement the specificsystem, ensure the feasibility of production safety. The range ofcivil engineering projects involved in the construction processmore widely, because the factors which affect the engineering safety more. But in the construction process, the occurrence of safety accidents is often unexpected, with occasional andunexpected strong. These come unexpectedly accidents, serious damage often caused casualties and property.Three, strengthen the safety production and environment management in civil engineering construction process,environment is an important factor influencing the construction safety. So in order to guarantee safety in production, enterprises should be to strengthen the management of construction site. As in the construction site, the unnecessary equipment and surplus materials, should be timely treatment. In the pile construction materials in order to keep the construction site, the patency of the road accident, ensure to timely rescue, this is to protect the safety measures to realize. And construction enterprises shouldstrictly abide by the rules and regulations, which occurred on theconstruction site of the waste, garbage bag, cement, waste materials and other items should be clear, it can keep the siteclean, to create a civilized construction environment for safe construction. Create a safe production environment construction enterprises, should also be reflected in the risk disposal of equipment. For some such as the construction of electricity,dangerous equipment, cloth rod is used, should by the competent department of enterprise safety approval approval,the approval before they can be put into use after. And in the process of construction of civil engineering, a comprehensive analysis of the conditions of construction project. Some of the effects of environmental factors of the quality of construction, totake timely measures, and to conduct a comprehensivespecification, so that can realize the safe construction quality engineering to create good conditions.
桥梁式集装箱起重机设计113 1．前言………………………………………………………………………32．主要设计内容及参数……………………………………43．主梁结构设计……………………………………………………54．小车机构设计……………………………………………………77．起吊机构设计…………………………………………………116．支架设计……………………………………………………………148．设计小结……………………………………………………………159．主要参考文献…………………………………………………1610.图纸文件设计前言起重机被喻为“巨人之臂”，是广泛用于国民经济各部门进行物质生产和装卸搬运的重要设备。起重机的设计制造，从一个侧面反映了国家的工业现代化水平。我国起重机制造业奠基于20世纪50年代。70年代以来，起重机的类型、规格、性能和技术水平获得很大的发展。近年来在物流和工业企业发展的带动下，起重机行业进入飞速发展时期。起重机主要分为桥梁式、悬臂式、塔式、龙门式、拉索式、液压伸缩臂式等形式。本设计以桥式双梁单小车集装箱起重机为例，介绍起重机的设计思路、设计内容以及设计方法。起重机设计主要根据客户要求，在符合国家标准及机械工业标准中对起重机的要求下进行设计。设计方案的选择主要通过与客户沟通取得一致意见后确定，设计内容主要包括在起重机的实际工作环境下确定起重机的最大额定载荷、非正常载荷（如冲击载荷，风力载荷、震动载荷等）、操纵形式、使用寿命、检修方式以及安全等级等；确定起重机主要零部件的选材以及机加工和材料处理的方法；确定起重机的工作级别；确定其主要受力梁的截面形式、截面大小以及梁的材料选择和加工方法。由于桥梁式起重机体积和质量都比较大，所以在设计过程中还应考虑起重机的运输方案和安装方法。一 主要设计内容及参数1、起重机首先要确定的是工作级别本设计的起重机用于集装箱生产制造或物流行业。起吊件为生产下线的集装箱，或物流行业待装货的集装箱，所以都是空箱。起吊重量为5T 根据起重机行业标准，不管是集装箱生产行业还是物流行业都是生产节奏比较快的，因此该起重机的工作级别定为A5级，起吊机构工作级别为M5。2、根据以上所规定级别设置设计内容及参数a.主梁结构 主梁涉及到的主要设计内容或参数主要有：主梁的截面形式、截面大小、所用材料、制作方法、主梁上平面的平面度、侧面的平面度和垂直度、主梁应该具有的上拱度，还有主梁上的轨道安装等等。b.支架结构支架需要设计的主要内容和参数包括：截面形式、截面大小、使用材料、制作方法、支腿的垂直度误差、支腿与地面的连接方式等等。c.小车机构小车机构要设计的主要内容和参数包括：小车架设计；起吊机构设计；小车行走机构设计。根据起吊重量设计小车架截面；根据所需要元件的安装位置设计小车架的结构；根据工作级别设计行走机构中电机的功率和类型；根据起吊高度确定卷筒的直径和长度；根据工作级别确定主电机的功率以及减速机的型号。确定其他一些元件的型号。应符合起重机行业标准中的相关内容；控制电路属于电气范畴在此不予讨论。 本文来自: 一流设计吧(www.16sheji8.cn) 详细出处参考：
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings .industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities .Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well. Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的. 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。.古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃.English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project collectively. It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional skills. Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering disciplines. A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge project.Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, uniformity. Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 years. During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering practices.Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great strides. Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative analysis. Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and maturity. In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material basis. People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering development.