论文开题报告基本要素
各部分撰写内容
论文标题应该简洁，且能让读者对论文所研究的主题一目了然。
摘要是对论文提纲的总结，通常不超过1或2页，摘要包含以下内容：
目录应该列出所有带有页码的标题和副标题， 副标题应缩进。
这部分应该从宏观的角度来解释研究背景，缩小研究问题的范围，适当列出相关的参考文献。
这一部分不只是你已经阅读过的相关文献的总结摘要，而是必须对其进行批判性评论，并能够将这些文献与你提出的研究联系起来。
这部分应该告诉读者你想在研究中发现什么。在这部分明确地陈述你的研究问题和假设。在大多数情况下，主要研究问题应该足够广泛，而次要研究问题和假设则更具体，每个问题都应该侧重于研究的某个方面。
翻译专业开题报告
开题报告是毕业论文答辩委员会对学生答辩资格审查的一个重要依据材料。下面是我为大家收集整理的翻译专业开题报告，欢迎阅读。
How to Deal with Ellipsis in English-Chinese Translation
I. Purpose and Significance
With the development of globalization, the world’s political, economic and cultural communications are becoming increasingly frequent. Therefore, the role of translation cannot be ignored. However, the differences between English and Chinese cultures that are reflected in the two languages pose considerable difficulty.
It is acknowledged that when doing translation one can not translate word for word, or sentence by sentence. Therefore, we must use some translation strategies such as amplification, ellipsis, conversion and so on. Ellipsis as one of the basic translation methods plays an essential role in English-Chinese rendition. Translators apply it in order to make their versions more coherent and understandable.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, ellipsis means leaving out a word or words from a sentence deliberately, when the meaning can be understood without them. Ellipsis in translation does not mean cutting some content from the original articles. What could be omitted are words that are useless in translated works or else they will make the versions redundant or disobey the manner of expression in another language.
Some words and phrases are useless in Chinese but necessary in English. Articles in English are the most significant phenomenon from this aspect. They are very important in English, but we can hardly see any reflection of this part in Chinese. Ellipsis is designed on the basis of faithfulness to the original text, making it more fluent, smooth, concise, thus conforming to idiomatic Chinese. The paper will explore ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from five aspects, which are ellipses of pronouns, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, modifications, so as to achieve smoother and clearer communications among China and English-speaking countries.
II. Literature Review
Long before, some people began to learn other countries’ languages to understand others cultures. In China, Xuanzang was the first translator who not only translated the Sanskrit sutras into Chinese, but introduced the first Chinese writings to foreign countries, making foreigners understand China’s ancient culture. Meanwhile, he was the first to translate Lao Tse's works into Sanskrit. Indian scholars had a high opinion of Xuanzang, "In China, there is no such great translator, and also in the human cultural history, we can only say that Xuanzang is the first great translator."(Ye Lang, 2008) We can say that it was Xuanzang who motivated people to know the different parts of the world, their cultures and the peoples who live there. Then, some big countries such as America, China, and so on became a melting pot.(Gu Zhengkun, 2000) People have imperceptibly spent thousands of years in knowing each other.
With China’s entry into WTO and its open-up policy, cross-cultural exchanges are increasingly frequent between this country and others. A lot of foreign tourists come to visit China. While traveling, these foreigners are not satisfied with the translations of the scenic spots. Sometimes, they even feel confused. A lot of problems exist in the translation, such as misuse of words, poor expression of meaning and so on. All of these poor translations do harm to our country’s international image, and cause a lot of inconveniences for the foreign visitors. (Ma Zuyi, 2000). I am fond of tourism and being a free tourist like the others who are good at enjoying their wonderful lives. The love of tourism makes me feel the need to improve the translation. But every time when I have a trip, many unsuitable translations of the names of those scenic spots will embarrass me. Tourism is part of intercultural communication, so proper translation of the scenic spots become more and more important to our country.
Communication plays a significant role in the globalized society. In order to know each other better, people from all over the world have tried a verity of ways. Of course, translation is one of them. All translators have done their best to make the translated works more consistent with the needs of people.(Gu Jinming, 1997) From my perspective, they really have done a great job. And I want to retrospect the cause of their development. After a thorough evaluation, I choose a branch of translation—ellipsis in translation from English to Chinese, then I did the following jobs.
I put all my researches and other stuffs together, and then I found that it is a common case in English and Chinese which draws much academic interest. In 1976, Halliday and Hsan classified ellipsis into nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis. This classification exerts great influence in academic circle. Thereafter, ellipsis in Chinese and English has been studied according to this theory, which is based on different layers of structure. This kind of study underlines differentiations and similarities of ellipsis in Chinese and English.
Another famous theory to explain ellipsis is Economy Principle. Economy Principle was put forward by Chomsky (1991,1993, and 1995) in his Generate Crammer. It maintains that language and linguistic study follow Economy Principle, which means using the least effort to express the most information. This principle just coincides with ellipsis in function.
In this thesis, I think that brevity is the most obvious and common function of ellipsis, especially in daily language. And in both English and Chinese, people advocate brevity. Shakespeare once remarked, “brevity is the soul of wit”, and in Chinese there are numerous idioms like “yan jian yi gai” (meaning compendious). However, apart from the function of brevity, ellipsis embodies other functions which are also pretty common in the two languages but less noticed.(Hua Xianfa,2002)These functions distribute in both English and Chinese unevenly and represent great colorfulness of language. Exploring other functions of ellipsis and searching for functional recreation in translation will be of much benefit to both English to Chinese and Chinese to English translation.
I found that when Chinese authors try to analyse ellipsis in English to Chinese translation, they always initially put articles in the list. They consider that it is a common phenomenon that Chinese always leave out personal articles. While it is obviously different in English that almost every sentence has a subject, we can see articles fluently. That is because when we translate from English to Chinese, personal articles can be omitted, even though sometimes it may appear once, it can also be omitted if necessary. Furthermore, if the objects can be seen obviously, personal articles should also be omitted. However, it never happens in English. From this point, it is not only allowable but also necessary when we translate personal articles which are objects in sentences into Chinese.
In my point of view, the development of society has in some way has deliberately promoted the way of people’s thinking, translation system has become more and more perfect, people from all over the world have enjoyed the convenience. However, we can not neglect that there are still some problems in this field in China, and we have less influential Chinese translators in the world. Therefore, we still have a long way to go in translation.
III. Feasibility Analysis
This academic paper is a feasible project and the reasons are as follows:
1.I have great interests in the way of English-Chinese translation.
2.I have already studied translation methods and have been familiar with the functions and applications of ellipsis .
3.I have collected enough references both Chinese and Western on ellipsis in
translation and do a scrupulous study of the relationship between them.
4.I have a carefully planned schedule and have worked out a detailed outline of this thesis.
5.I have acquainted myself with the correct format, a clear and complete structure required by the academic paper, and my adequate English competence will enable me to write in fluent and precise English.
6.My instructor is a qualified translator who is familiar with the subject I havechosen.
IV. Problems of the research and solutions
1. Problems
Despite the references I have collected and read, a thorough study of ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from the point of freely using still needs far more. What’s more, owing to the limited ways of getting references in Xinjiang, I will have to make full use of my present resources. Also, this is the first time I have ever written such a serious academic paper. I am therefore a learner and lack the needed training and experience.
2. Solutions
(1) I shall make full use of my already acquired references which come from books, magazines and the Internet as well.
(2) I shall value my own original thoughts and mainly rely on detailed analysis that I have read from the books which have closely idea with my purpose.
(3) When I have difficulties in the writing process, I shall consult my instructor and seek for help.
V. Necessary conditions
1. Our university and school of foreign languages have provided the basic study and research conditions and facilities, including books and journals in the library and reading rooms.
2. The Internet is another source of information and on the campus we have easy access to the Internet.
3. I have been assigned an instructor to guide me through the whole process of planning and writing.
VI. Outline
I. Introduction
A. A Brief Introduction of Ellipsis in Translation
B. What Should We Pay Attention to When Dealing with Ellipsis
C. The Reason Why Ellipsis Is So Widely Used in Translation
1. Chinese Expressions Are Much Briefer Than That of English
2. English Grammar Is Wee-Knit and Complete in Sentence Structure
II. The Principles of Ellipsis
A. Omitted Words Must Be Useless And Unnecessary in the Translated Works
B. The Meaning of the Omitted Words Is Implied in the Test
C. Omitted Words Which Are Self-Evident
Ш. The Functions and Applications of Ellipsis
A. The Coherence of the Meaning of Expression
B. The Coincidence of the Manner of Expression
1. Ellipsis of Articles
a. Ellipsis of Definite Articles
b. Ellipsis of Indefinite Articles
2. Ellipsis of Prepositions
3. Ellipsis of Pronouns
a. Ellipsis of Personal and Impersonal Pronouns
b. Ellipsis of Indefinite Pronouns
c. Ellipsis of Relative Pronouns
4. Ellipsis of Conjunctions
a. Ellipsis of Coordinating Conjunctions
b. Ellipsis of Subordinate Conjunctions
5. Ellipsis of Rhetoric
a. Ellipsis of Repeated Words
b. Ellipsis of Synonyms
选题的原因、基本内容：
英语成语(idiom)是英语的核心与精华。其内容丰富，寓意深刻，具有浓厚的感情色彩。如果能在文章、谈话或对外交往中，恰当地加以运用，会大大增加语言的表达能力，收到良好的效果。英语谚语是英语语言的'精华，是英国艺术宝库的瑰丽明珠。英语谚语的句式特点是句式简单，语言精炼，富于形象比喻，充满浓郁的民族色彩。学习和研究英语谚语有助于启迪思想，开拓视野，了解英国的历史文化、风土人情，以及英国人民的人生哲理，同时还可以学到生动活泼的大众语言。
本文通过比较英汉成语及谚语这两种语言的相似及不同之处，详细的介绍英语成语及谚语。第一部分主要从内容和形式两方面谈谈英语成语及谚语的基本特色;第二部分谈及英语成语及谚语的一般翻译方法和翻译时应该注意的一些问题。
相关资料收集情况：
陈亚光。小议英谚语和成语的创新。上海外国语学院学报，1983。
黄粉保。英汉成语翻译漫谈。云梦学刊，1999/2
顾雪梁。语成语英译探索。广州师范学院学报，1993/2。
张培基，喻云根，李宗杰，彭谟禹。《英汉翻译教程》。北京：中国外语教育出版社，xx/8
杨永和。英语谚语的修辞特点研究。重庆工学院学报,xx/3。
论文提纲：
thesis statemen：this essay discourse the features and translation of english
idioms and proverbs. and from the society culture to find out the basic different between chinese.
outline
ⅰ. introduction: for chinese students, english idioms and proverbs is a stumbling block. so the characteristics and translation of idioms and proverbs should be studied.
ⅱ. the characteristics of english idioms and proverbs
a. the characteristics of english idioms
1. simple but rich
2. harmonious phonology
3. vivid metaphor
b. the characteristics of english proverb
1. concise and clear
2. symmetrical sentence pattern
3. rich and varied rhetoric
ⅲ. the translation of english idioms and proverbs
a. the theories of translation
1. literal translation
2. free translation
3. mechanical application of the synonym chinese proverb
4. literal translation and free translation
b. the points of translation
1. the literal translation of proverbs prohibited
2. the translation of proverbs to keep the original text style
3. the translation of proverbs to notice the national characteristic
4. the translation of proverbs to notice the artistic characteristic
ⅳ. conclusion
指导教师意见：
指导教师签名：
年 月 日
英语毕业论文开题报告本科一般1000-2000字吧，研究生多点。字数不是关键，主要是内容，当时我写了几次都没过，还是学长给介绍的莫文网，高手就是不一般，一次性就通过了经贸英语语篇翻译策略探析旅游景点英语翻译中的跨文化意识探析跨文化交际中的新闻英语翻译实践探讨从功能角度研究商务英语翻译的原则和策略大学英语翻译教学存在的问题及对策浅谈科技英语翻译中的常见错误及应对技巧论国际商务英语翻译的多元化标准英语翻译中笔译要点分析 优先出版大学英语翻译教学的问题与对策研究文化视角下的旅游英语翻译科技英语翻译的省译商务英语翻译教学的探索与思考国际科技交流中科技英语翻译存在的问题及技巧探析语义翻译和交际翻译观下科技英语翻译研究影响法律英语翻译的因素商务英语翻译的文化适应性问题探析国际商务英语翻译中的文化信息等值研究构建任务型商务英语翻译课程教学的研究旅游英语翻译与本土文化对接的思考项目依托式EAP教学实践研究——以《科技英语翻译》教学为例高中阶段英语翻译教学现状的调查研究国际贸易中商务英语翻译的文化差异及应对策略框架语义学视角下的英汉科技翻译研究基于功能翻译理论的高职院校土木工程专业英语翻译与教学研究中国职业男子篮球俱乐部体育英语翻译现状调查和改善对策研究康巴藏区旅游英语翻译现状调查研究商务英语翻译中文化意象的传递高职英语专业英语翻译课教改初探探讨中西文化差异对英语翻译的影响论文化转向对商务英语翻译的启示非英语专业硕士研究生科技英语翻译能力分析航海英语翻译若干问题商务英语翻译教材建构模式探微国内英语翻译现状分析及产业化思考从建构主义观点谈商务英语翻译教学
proposal
opening report or opening thesis
明显就是中式英文。Thesis Presentation。
Proposal 更正式点 opening speech；opening report；Thesis Proposal 也都可以 但多数都用Proposal 如博士论文开题 Doctoral Dissertation Proposal
英语专业翻译方向论文开题报告范文
以下是由我整理的.英语专业翻译方向论文的开题报告范文，供大家参考!
How to Deal with Ellipsis in English-Chinese Translation
I. Purpose and Significance
With the development of globalization, the world’s political, economic and cultural communications are becoming increasingly frequent. Therefore, the role of translation cannot be ignored. However, the differences between English and Chinese cultures that are reflected in the two languages pose considerable difficulty.
It is acknowledged that when doing translation one can not translate word for word, or sentence by sentence. Therefore, we must use some translation strategies such as amplification, ellipsis, conversion and so on. Ellipsis as one of the basic translation methods plays an essential role in English-Chinese rendition. Translators apply it in order to make their versions more coherent and understandable.
According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary, ellipsis means leaving out a word or words from a sentence deliberately, when the meaning can be understood without them. Ellipsis in translation does not mean cutting some content from the original articles. What could be omitted are words that are useless in translated works or else they will make the versions redundant or disobey the manner of expression in another language.
Some words and phrases are useless in Chinese but necessary in English. Articles in English are the most significant phenomenon from this aspect. They are very important in English, but we can hardly see any reflection of this part in Chinese. Ellipsis is designed on the basis of faithfulness to the original text, making it more fluent, smooth, concise, thus conforming to idiomatic Chinese. The paper will explore ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from five aspects, which are ellipses of pronouns, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, modifications, so as to achieve smoother and clearer communications among China and English-speaking countries.
II. Literature Review
Long before, some people began to learn other countries’ languages to understand others cultures. In China, Xuanzang was the first translator who not only translated the Sanskrit sutras into Chinese, but introduced the first Chinese writings to foreign countries, making foreigners understand China’s ancient culture. Meanwhile, he was the first to translate Lao Tse's works into Sanskrit. Indian scholars had a high opinion of Xuanzang, "In China, there is no such great translator, and also in the human cultural history, we can only say that Xuanzang is the first great translator."(Ye Lang, 2008) We can say that it was Xuanzang who motivated people to know the different parts of the world, their cultures and the peoples who live there. Then, some big countries such as America, China, and so on became a melting pot.(Gu Zhengkun, 2000) People have imperceptibly spent thousands of years in knowing each other.
With China’s entry into WTO and its open-up policy, cross-cultural exchanges are increasingly frequent between this country and others. A lot of foreign tourists come to visit China. While traveling, these foreigners are not satisfied with the translations of the scenic spots. Sometimes, they even feel confused. A lot of problems exist in the translation, such as misuse of words, poor expression of meaning and so on. All of these poor translations do harm to our country’s international image, and cause a lot of inconveniences for the foreign visitors. (Ma Zuyi, 2000). I am fond of tourism and being a free tourist like the others who are good at enjoying their wonderful lives. The love of tourism makes me feel the need to improve the translation. But every time when I have a trip, many unsuitable translations of the names of those scenic spots will embarrass me. Tourism is part of intercultural communication, so proper translation of the scenic spots become more and more important to our country.
Communication plays a significant role in the globalized society. In order to know each other better, people from all over the world have tried a verity of ways. Of course, translation is one of them. All translators have done their best to make the translated works more consistent with the needs of people.(Gu Jinming, 1997) From my perspective, they really have done a great job. And I want to retrospect the cause of their development. After a thorough evaluation, I choose a branch of translation—ellipsis in translation from English to Chinese, then I did the following jobs.
I put all my researches and other stuffs together, and then I found that it is a common case in English and Chinese which draws much academic interest. In 1976, Halliday and Hsan classified ellipsis into nominal, verbal and clausal ellipsis. This classification exerts great influence in academic circle. Thereafter, ellipsis in Chinese and English has been studied according to this theory, which is based on different layers of structure. This kind of study underlines differentiations and similarities of ellipsis in Chinese and English.
Another famous theory to explain ellipsis is Economy Principle. Economy Principle was put forward by Chomsky (1991,1993, and 1995) in his Generate Crammer. It maintains that language and linguistic study follow Economy Principle, which means using the least effort to express the most information. This principle just coincides with ellipsis in function.
In this thesis, I think that brevity is the most obvious and common function of ellipsis, especially in daily language. And in both English and Chinese, people advocate brevity. Shakespeare once remarked, “brevity is the soul of wit”, and in Chinese there are numerous idioms like “yan jian yi gai” (meaning compendious). However, apart from the function of brevity, ellipsis embodies other functions which are also pretty common in the two languages but less noticed.(Hua Xianfa,2002)These functions distribute in both English and Chinese unevenly and represent great colorfulness of language. Exploring other functions of ellipsis and searching for functional recreation in translation will be of much benefit to both English to Chinese and Chinese to English translation.
I found that when Chinese authors try to analyse ellipsis in English to Chinese translation, they always initially put articles in the list. They consider that it is a common phenomenon that Chinese always leave out personal articles. While it is obviously different in English that almost every sentence has a subject, we can see articles fluently. That is because when we translate from English to Chinese, personal articles can be omitted, even though sometimes it may appear once, it can also be omitted if necessary. Furthermore, if the objects can be seen obviously, personal articles should also be omitted. However, it never happens in English. From this point, it is not only allowable but also necessary when we translate personal articles which are objects in sentences into Chinese.
In my point of view, the development of society has in some way has deliberately promoted the way of people’s thinking, translation system has become more and more perfect, people from all over the world have enjoyed the convenience. However, we can not neglect that there are still some problems in this field in China, and we have less influential Chinese translators in the world. Therefore, we still have a long way to go in translation.
III. Feasibility Analysis
This academic paper is a feasible project and the reasons are as follows:
1.I have great interests in the way of English-Chinese translation.
2.I have already studied translation methods and have been familiar with the functions and applications of ellipsis .
3.I have collected enough references both Chinese and Western on ellipsis in
translation and do a scrupulous study of the relationship between them.
4.I have a carefully planned schedule and have worked out a detailed outline of this thesis.
5.I have acquainted myself with the correct format, a clear and complete structure required by the academic paper, and my adequate English competence will enable me to write in fluent and precise English.
6.My instructor is a qualified translator who is familiar with the subject I havechosen.
IV. Problems of the research and solutions
1. Problems
Despite the references I have collected and read, a thorough study of ellipsis in English-Chinese translation from the point of freely using still needs far more. What’s more, owing to the limited ways of getting references in Xinjiang, I will have to make full use of my present resources. Also, this is the first time I have ever written such a serious academic paper. I am therefore a learner and lack the needed training and experience.
2. Solutions
(1) I shall make full use of my already acquired references which come from books, magazines and the Internet as well.
(2) I shall value my own original thoughts and mainly rely on detailed analysis that I have read from the books which have closely idea with my purpose.
(3) When I have difficulties in the writing process, I shall consult my instructor and seek for help.
V. Necessary conditions
1. Our university and school of foreign languages have provided the basic study and research conditions and facilities, including books and journals in the library and reading rooms.
2. The Internet is another source of information and on the campus we have easy access to the Internet.
3. I have been assigned an instructor to guide me through the whole process of planning and writing.
VI. Outline
I. Introduction
A. A Brief Introduction of Ellipsis in Translation
B. What Should We Pay Attention to When Dealing with Ellipsis
C. The Reason Why Ellipsis Is So Widely Used in Translation
1. Chinese Expressions Are Much Briefer Than That of English
2. English Grammar Is Wee-Knit and Complete in Sentence Structure
II. The Principles of Ellipsis
A. Omitted Words Must Be Useless And Unnecessary in the Translated Works
B. The Meaning of the Omitted Words Is Implied in the Test
C. Omitted Words Which Are Self-Evident
Ш. The Functions and Applications of Ellipsis
A. The Coherence of the Meaning of Expression
B. The Coincidence of the Manner of Expression
1. Ellipsis of Articles
a. Ellipsis of Definite Articles
b. Ellipsis of Indefinite Articles
2. Ellipsis of Prepositions
3. Ellipsis of Pronouns
a. Ellipsis of Personal and Impersonal Pronouns
b. Ellipsis of Indefinite Pronouns
c. Ellipsis of Relative Pronouns
4. Ellipsis of Conjunctions
a. Ellipsis of Coordinating Conjunctions
b. Ellipsis of Subordinate Conjunctions
5. Ellipsis of Rhetoric
a. Ellipsis of Repeated Words
b. Ellipsis of Synonyms
卒业论文の书きあけ/テーマ/専攻/名前/クラス/学生番号/先生一、テーマを选ぶ理由二、研究の基本的な内容と主に解决する问题三、研究の顺番、方法と施策四、研究の进度番号 时间 内容1 外国语の翻訳2 文献のまとめ3 论文の书き（一版目）4 论文の书き（二版目）5 论文の书き（三版目）6 论文の书き（四版目）7 ファイルの整理、答弁しようとしている五、参考になる文献
论文にオープンして报告书/トピック/短大/専门/名前/クラス/ 、 /インストラクター最初に基づいて、トピックス2つ目は、コンテンツの基本的な问题を解决しなければならメイン第三に、研究の手顺を実行し、メソッドと対策第四に、研究の进捗状况シリアル时间のコンテンツ1外国语翻訳2文学の见直し3书く论文（最初の草案） 4书く论文（第2版） 5书く论文（第3版） 6书く论文（最终的な） 7照合文书、防卫の准备5 、メインのリファレンス差不多吧！
日本文学的发展历史没有中国文学那么久远,在思想上的认识也不是像西方那样前卫。下面是我为大家整理的浅谈日本文学论文开题 报告 ，供大家参考。
《 20世纪日本中国现代文学研究的比较视野 》
摘要：在日本真正具有学术意义和比较视角的中国现代文学研究始于竹内好为代表的中国文学研究会的同人。继竹内好之后，关于中日现代文学关系的研究逐渐增加起来，特别是从20世纪50年代开始越来越多的研究 文章 涉及这一论题，进入八九十年代这一研究取得了长足进展。但是，真正具有一定理论建树和思想深度的研究并不多见。而相比之下，伊藤虎丸的研究以其宏阔的思维视界和独到的理论深度表现出不同的个性特征。
关键词：20世纪日本;中日现代文学研究;比较视野
中图分类号：I0-03文献标志码：A 文章编号：1002-2589(2011)24-0116-02
一
中国与日本自古以来特殊的 文化 关系和进入20世纪二三十年代后紧张的民族矛盾，使日本人在打量现代中国和中国文学时，就特别关注中日之间的文化、文学关系，比较早的像井东宪的《中华民国的新文艺——与日本文艺的关系》(《都新闻》，1929.2.13-15)、泽村幸夫的《支那小说家的日本女性观——从张资平的作品谈起》(《东洋》34—6.1931.6)、中村光夫《鲁迅与二叶亭》(《文艺》，1936.6，收入《文艺读本·鲁迅》)、山东赋夫在《读卖新闻》(1936年10月22—25日)上发表的《鲁迅与我国文坛》等都显示了关注中国和日本文学关系的新视角。不过，在日本真正具有学术意义和比较视角的中国现代文学研究无疑是始于竹内好为代表的中国文学研究会的同人。
纵观竹内好的鲁迅和中国现代文学研究，始终内含着比较的视角。他从鲁迅那里，竹内好找到了自我反省和批判的契机，并由此展开对亚洲的近代化问题的思考。他说：“我看到，鲁迅以身相拼隐忍着我所感到的恐惧。更准确地说，从鲁迅的抵抗中，我得到了理解自己那种心情的线索。从此，我开始了对抵抗的思考。如果有人问我抵抗是什么，我只能回答说，就是鲁迅所拥有的那种东西。并且，那种东西在日本是不存在的，或者即使存在也很少。”也正是“从这一基本判断入手”，竹内“形成了对日本的近代与中国的近代的比较性思考”。[1]他的目的并不是停留在鲁迅和中国现代文学本身，而是以此为“镜子”，系统地对鲁迅所代表的中国现代文学进行分析,同时解剖与中国同属一个文化范畴的日本民族的文学及思想性，转而对日本的近代主义无情地加以鞭挞和批判。以此思想为基点，构筑了他的独特的思想体系，并以这一发展模式和价值取向从事其研究活动。比如竹内好强调鲁迅以文学启蒙国民精神的思想，肯定他通过“抵抗”，主体性地接受西方先进的思想与文化的“拿来主义”，据之以批判缺乏“抵抗”的“转向型”的日本近代化，实质上是把鲁迅研究纳入日本现实社会的批判之中，以鲁迅为媒介或参照展开自我反省与批判。对于他来说，亚洲，特别是中国的近代化亦即中国革命，使得对于近代日本进行批判成为可能。在他那里，亚洲首先就是中国。竹内经常说中国通过彻底否定传统而再生于现代，也就是通过“回心”而创造出新的自我。在这一意义上，竹内好得出了中国走的是不同于欧洲的近代化之路的结论。并主张通过现代中国这个媒介实现自我否定，这就是鲁迅所说的那种窃得别人的火烧自己的肉的行为，以促成新的文化自我形成。所以，丸山升认为，竹内好的中国论，比起论述中国本身来更倾向于论述和批评日本、日本文化、社会的“近代主义”。他指出：鲁迅之于竹内好，是“体现实现了与日本‘近代’不同性质近代中国之特征的文学家、思想家，他自身便是对日本近代的批判和镜子。竹内塑造的这种鲁迅像，之所以在战后不久的日本具有巨大的影响力，便是因为很多日本人开始回顾给日本带来那场战争的‘近代’究竟是什么，认真思考未能阻止那场战争的一方弱点是什么;而反过来，则对经过那场战争而作为新中国再生的中国抱有惊诧和敬意。竹内的鲁迅像正是抓住了这些日本人的心。”[2]
二
继竹内好之后，关于中日现代文学关系的研究逐渐增加起来。特别是从20世纪50年代开始越来越多的研究文章涉及这一论题，如武田泰淳的《中国小说与日本小说》(《文学》，第18卷10期，1950年10月),冈崎秀夫《中国作家与日本：关于郁达夫》(《文学》，第21卷9期，1953年8月)、丸山升的《鲁迅与厨川白村》(《鲁迅研究》19期，1957年12月)等。到了70年代上述论题得到了进一步拓展和细化，如今村与志雄的《鲁迅与日本文学》(《鲁迅与传统》日本劲 草书 房，1967年)、斋藤敏雄的《福本主义对李初梨的影响》(《野草》第19期，1975年6月)、小泉让《鲁迅和内山完造》(讲谈社，1979年)等。这些文章和论著都注意到了中国现代作家与日本及日本文学的关系问题，但是，基本上还停留在现象的描述和事实的求证上，像今村与志雄《鲁迅与日本文学》，直接把鲁迅与日本文学联系在一起，由鲁迅的留日经历来推断鲁迅与日本文学的关系。他认为，文学家鲁迅的形成，受到过日本近代文化的影响，也是顺理成章的。但是，他借助从1906年秋季以后就和鲁迅同在日本 留学 ，起居相守，又同是悉心文学的胞弟周作人在鲁迅去世后写的回忆，来证明鲁迅在漱石以外，对于日本文学并无兴趣。但事实上，鲁迅虽然没有对日本文学表示关心，但是，并不意味着鲁迅没有选择日本文学作为思想启蒙和文化批判的手段与工具。鲁迅一生翻译了相当一部分日本作品，据统计大约有六十五篇之多，像武者小路实笃的《一个青年的梦》、有岛武郎的《与幼小者》、夏目漱石的《挂幅》等。然而关于这一点，并没有引起今村与志雄的关注。
进入20世纪八九十年代这一研究取得了长足进展，不仅数量多，而且探讨的问题更加广泛，但是，真正具有一定理论建树和思想深度的研究并不多见。这个时期的研究视野从以下的文章题目中可以显示出来。像冈田英弘的《爱日本的中国人——陶晶孙的生涯和郭沫若》(《中央公论》95卷15期，1980年12月)、福田范正的《周扬和日本普罗文学运动》(《野草》第40期，1987年9月)、新谷秀明的《巴金和石川三四郎》(《野草》第54期，1994年8月)、小谷一郎的《日中近代文学交流史中的田汉—田汉和同时代日本作家的往来》(《中国文化》第55期，1997年)等。除了上述的论文外，1991年日本东方书店出版了由山田敬三和吕元明编著的《十五年战争与文学——日中近代文学的比较研究》，收辑了中日两国学者研究成果，从不同角度探讨了中日战争期间的中日文坛、在华反战文学、沦陷区文学和抗战文学，以及中日文学交流等,显示出强烈的“比较”意识和全面揭示中日现代文学关系的企图。像冈野辰之的《中国现代作家与日本文学》具有一定的代表性。它从和歌、俳句、私小说、文艺科学论和新村运动等几个方面，意欲全面地描述中国现代作家与日本文学的关系。然而，它所作的概述显得过于浅显和简单，并未能将中国现代作家与日本文学的复杂而矛盾的关系深刻地揭示出来。而相比之下，伊藤虎丸的研究以其宏阔的思维视界和独到的理论深度表现出与上述研究不同的个性特征。
三
伊藤虎丸是日本战败后，经历了民族的历史性深刻反省思潮的洗礼，并在这一思潮最主要的代表人物之一竹内好的深刻影响下，走上了中国现代文学研究之路。伊藤虎丸的研究有一个突出特点，就是注重中日现代文学关系研究，无论是鲁迅研究，还是创造社研究，他都将他们与日本文学联系起来展开思考，从而构成了他的比较视角。诸如《早期鲁迅对尼采的理解与明治文学》(1979年)、《鲁迅与日本人》(1983年)、《在“脱亚论”与“亚洲主义”的中间——日中近代比较文化论序言》(1994年)等，这些论著主要体现了两个特点。
第一，视野宏阔、思想深刻。伊藤虎丸注重在大的历史背景下，以中国现代文学为媒介思考日本近代化和民族命运，就是孙玉石所说的“大文化比较的视角”。孙玉石指出：伊藤“他习惯于从大的历史背景，从整个亚洲国家民族命运的视野，来思考中国现代文学所可能提供的历史的启示”[3]。在他的《鲁迅与终末论》、《鲁迅与日本人》等书中，在他的许多学术论文中，都在大文化比较的视角上，阐发了自己关于日本近代民族命运的思考。伊藤虎丸强调了采取比较的 方法 对于认识各民族的“文化”的意义，他说：“各个民族都有这样的‘文化’。它是只有用‘比较’的方法才能认识到的”[4]。其内在包涵着竹内好的“比较性思考”的精神，不过，相对而言，竹内主要把鲁迅和中国作为内在的否定性的“精神”存在或参照坐标，当然这也是伊藤虎丸的思想基点和最终归宿，但他主要是在同时代的文化选择差异性的思想史的意义上使用了比较的方法。而且，他突破了竹内好否定鲁迅与日本文学关系的论断，在日本明治和大正时期的思想语境中和文化空间里考察鲁迅、创造社同人与日本文学以及西方文化的复杂关系。
第二，方法独特、角度新巧。与上述特点紧密相连，不是一对一地具体考证中日作家或中日文学作品间的相互影响关系或进行平行研究，而是将鲁迅及创造社等留日作家纳入日本近代思想史的语境中，考察和梳理留日作家与西方文化及日本文学关系。一方面从日本思想界变化的历史轨迹中，在与日本的同时代关系中考察和把握鲁迅和创造社作家与日本文学的精神联系，比如考察鲁迅对尼采思想的接受与日本在接受上的差异;在民族主义问题上，把鲁迅与石川啄木、斋藤野人、内村鉴三等人进行同时代性思考;在科学主义方面，将鲁迅与福泽谕吉展开同时代性探讨。另一方面对非同时代的鲁迅和创造社进行“非同时性”的思考，比较和检视处在明治和大正不同时期的中国留日作家与日本文学的精神联系和他们之间的差异。这种在复杂的语境中的“同时代性”和“非同时代性”的多重比较，使日中文学关系的研究充满了深刻的思想张力。
参考文献：
[1][日]竹内好著.李冬木等译.近代的超克[M].北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店，2005：196.
[2][日]丸山升.鲁迅、革命、历史[M].王俊文，译.北京：北京大学出版社，2005：346-347.
[3][日]伊藤虎丸.鲁迅、创造社与日本文学·序[M].孙猛等，译.北京：北京大学出版社，2005：4.
[4][日]伊藤虎丸.鲁迅、创造社与日本文学[M].孙猛等，译.北京：北京大学出版社，2005：26.
《 日本浪漫主义文学思潮 》
摘 要：浪漫主义文学思潮是18世纪末到19世纪前半期，以英国、法国、德国为中心在欧洲各地而兴起的一股革新思潮。这是欧洲资产阶级企图摆脱封建秩序和封建统治的运动在文学上的具体体现。在其影响之下，日本的浪漫主义文学也在约一个世纪之后兴起了。日本的浪漫主义文学思潮虽不像欧洲浪漫主义那般声势浩大，但也对日本文坛以及日本文学史产生了重大影响。
关键词：日本浪漫主义 背景 理论 作家 评价
欧洲浪漫主义文学思潮产生于18世纪末的英德两国，继而影响法国，席卷欧洲大陆。而这一时期的日本，由于资本主义得到了迅速发展，资产阶级迫切要求彻底摆脱封建主义的束缚。另外受西方文明刺激的影响，人们的自我意识觉醒，开始追求自我确立与自我解放。一批青年作家开始追求与以往的文学所不同的创作风格，使明治时期日本浪漫主义文学一度在日本文坛上占据半壁江山。
一、时代背景
明治维新之后，日本走上了发展资本主义的道路，资产阶级改革运动取得成功，日本社会极力要求摆脱封建主义的束缚。另外在西方浪漫主义和文化的刺激影响之下，日本人开始超越理性，注重关心自己的内心和情感，促进了自我意识的觉醒。于是自由且大胆地表达感情的感想、诗歌、评论等一些文体占据了日本文坛的半壁江山，在这种政治文化背景之下浪漫主义文学在日本也登上了历史舞台。
二、 理论表现
日本浪漫主义文学思潮深受西方浪漫主义的影响，对于人的崇拜代替了对于神的崇拜，开始重视人的力量，将人处于整个社会文化的中心地位， 宣扬人格的平等和自由、主张恢复人性、尊重人权、张扬人性爱。但是， 这种思想的变革， 与根深蒂固的封建保守势力发生激烈的冲突，文化上的开放与保守、民主与专制、 自由与禁锢两种思想的对立大大加剧。正是这种矛盾思想的激烈碰撞才使日本的浪漫主义文学拥有自己独特的理论。即：主张情感至上，追求人的真情实感的自然流露，追求个人自由，推崇人的内部生命。
三、代表作家及作品
根据时间先后可将日本的浪漫主义文学分为3个时期： 第一期是以北村透谷、 岛崎藤村的《文学界》为中心; 第二期是以与谢野铁干、与谢野晶子、薄田泣堇、蒲原有明、泉镜花等人的《明星》为阵地;第三期是北原白秋、吉井勇、永井荷风、谷崎润一郎等人的唯美主义、颓废文学。①
森鸥外是开日本浪漫主义文学之先河的先觉者，他的代表作《舞姬》、《泡沫记》、《信使》构成了他留德的青春爱恋的纪念三部曲。
(一)第一期代表作家及作品
如果说森鸥外开日本浪漫主义文学之先河的话，那么真正成为浪漫主义主导力量的是于1893年1月创刊的《文学界》杂志及其周围的年轻一代。这一时期的典型代表是北村透谷的评论、?口一叶的小说和岛崎藤村的诗歌。
北村透谷主要作品是长诗《楚囚之诗》和《蓬莱曲》等。但是北村透谷更加重要的史学价值体现于文化性评论方面，从1892年起陆续发表《厌世诗家和女性》、《何谓干预人生》、《内部生命论》等文章，其中最为著名的是《厌世诗家与女性》。这是他通过自己的实际感受和体验以伦理化的形式表达出来的结果，文中大胆地提出了“ 恋爱乃人生之妙药”这一具有划时代精神的主张。
岛崎藤村的《嫩菜集》等诗作，打碎了固有形式的桎梏，巧妙地把西方浪漫主义诗歌的表现手法和日本民族的传统表现形式糅合在一起;其内容摆脱了封建思想道德的束缚，热烈追求个性的解放和美好的生活，充满了青春的气息和奔放的浪漫情绪，开拓了前期浪漫主义文学。②
?口一叶是一位慧星一般的才女作家，一叶虽非《文学界》同人作家，却有许多传之后世的名作刊于《文学界》。其代表作品有《大年夜》、《青梅竹马》等。(二)第二期代表作家及作品
这个时期最伟大的天才是与谢野铁干的妻子与谢野晶子。她出版的第一部短歌集《乱发》是一部大胆而直率倾吐感观性与歌颂奔放的本能和主情的爱欲的诗集。反映了诗人对因袭封建旧道德的一种反抗，让人们感受到她是一位与众不同的新时代女性。
在文学史上，泉镜花的小说代表了这一时期的浪漫主义。在他的一生中大约创作了300多篇小说，都具有独特的浪漫主义风格。非常著名的代表作有《高野圣僧》、《照叶狂言》、《妇系图》和《和歌灯》等一系列优秀作品。
这个时期不得不提到的一个人物就是高山樗牛，他是一位著名且受人欢迎的评论家。他的主要作品有《论美的生活》、《 日本民族的特性和文学美术》、《爱情剧是不是梦幻剧》等等。其中，在同时代文学评论中最有影响的是《论美的生活》，从“生命重于身体、身体重于衣物”的立场出发，讽刺了那些汲汲于金钱、权势的人，“以人造之物制自然之物” 的时代弊端，重视“尔等内心的王国”，鼓励人们去大胆追求内心生活的幸福。
(三)第三期新浪漫主义作家作品
新浪漫主义以“牧羊神会”为主流，《昴星》、《屋上庭园》、《三田文学》、《新思潮》等是其主流文学。主要代表人物有北原白秋、木下?太郎、吉井勇、长田秀雄等“牧羊神会”的中心成员，高村光太郎、谷崎润一郎、永井荷风等人在文学思想上与之共鸣。这些作家摆脱了此前浪漫主义的影响，迎合唯美主义的思潮，用华丽的笔墨和丰富的词汇，凭感觉创作出了充满异国情调和肉欲主义的作品。
三、思潮评价
日本浪漫主义虽不像欧洲浪漫主义那般声势浩大，但也在日本产生了重要影响。它一度占据日本文坛的半壁江山，对日本人的思想、日本文学、文化、艺术都做出了不可磨灭的贡献。
首先，它主张恢复人性和尊重人权，将“人”置于整个社会文化的中心地位，并自始至终和封建主义作着斗争，促进了日本社会民众自我意识的觉醒，有利于资本主义的发展。其次，在文学创作上主张把人性和自我尊严作为文学的源泉或出发点，打破了古典主义的清规戒律，是继启蒙运动以来又一次在文学上的解放。再次，日本浪漫主义将日本古典的浪漫主义与西欧浪漫主义加以吸收发展，从而在构建日本的近代文化方面具有深远而伟大的意义。最后，浪漫主义主张个人的自由，赞美恋爱，使人们大胆地追求独特而自由的艺术创作，超越自然，解放艺术，因此在艺术史上都具有深远影响。
但是，日本的浪漫主义文学也具有局限性。表现在三个方面：
(一)软弱性和妥协性
它从一开始发展就面临着重重阻碍，自始至终都不如欧洲浪漫主义那般声势浩大。另一方面，明治维新的不彻底性造成了封建思想在市民社会中的长期残留，极大地阻碍了浪漫主义追求自由主义和个人主义的步伐。
(二)创作主张具有不确定性
日本浪漫主义从一开始就是在与拟古典主义和自然主义斗争中发展起来的，没有自身独立的发展时期。另外，浪漫主义作家内部围绕着文学创作的使命、文学的社会责任、文学的国民性、文学的民族性、文学与国家、文学与个人等问题进行论争，创作主张十分不确定。
(三)理论缺乏系统性
北村透谷、岛崎藤村、与谢野晶子、高山樗牛等人的创作虽然使浪漫主义的主要代表人物具有了开创新文学时代的个性鲜明的批评家、文学思想家的桂冠， 但却没有形成一个观点明确、前后一致、系统而又有说服力的文学理论体系。
注释
① 肖霞.日本浪漫主义文学的发展及特征[J].外国文学，2003(7).
② 叶渭渠，唐月梅.日本文学简史[M].上海：上海外语 教育 出版社，2006：149.
参考文献
[1] 叶渭渠，唐月梅.日本文学简史[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2006：149.
[2] 林洪亮.浪漫主义文学的产生及其代表作家[A]//外国历史大事集?近代部分(第三分册)[M].重庆：重庆出版社，1985.
[3] 王庆生.文艺创作知识辞典[M].武汉：长江文艺出版社，1987.
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