第一步，读懂材料，抓住主旨。首先要注意材料的特点：单则材料要从整体上把握其主旨；多则材料应弄清它们的异同，从而把握中心；比喻性材料要理解其比喻意义；含哲理性寓言材料，要把握其寓意。所谓抓住主旨（即材料的意想倾向和感情倾向），其方法是：一要抓住材料中关键句子或暗示性语言；二要注意对比材料划分层次，归纳层意，综合分析材料的基本观点；三要用正确的观点和对正反材料作出正确的判断。例如：阅读下面的材料，根据要求写一篇不少于800字的文章。乌龟和兔子赛跑，因为兔子骄傲，乌龟出人意料地赢得了比赛。蝴蝶知道此事后，也想和乌龟比赛。乌龟考虑了一下，便接受了蝴蝶的挑战，但他提了一个要求：“我只会爬行，你还会飞。我们就比60米吧，20米钻圈，20米河流和20米花丛。”蝴蝶同意了。比赛开始，蝴蝶早就钻过了圈，飞过了河，可当来到花丛时，她看到了那漂亮的花朵，嗅到了花蜜的香甜，还见到了美丽的同伴。看看此时乌龟连圈都没钻过，蝴蝶放心了，她在花丛里玩得越来越开心，竟然忘记了比赛的事情。万万没有想到，乌龟已经钻过了圈，穿过了花丛，悄悄地到达了终点。对某些人来说，钻圈、过河流很难，可对某些人来说，花丛才是最难逾越的。要求选准角度，明确立意，自选文体，自拟标题；不要脱离材料内容及含义的范围作文，不要套作，不得抄袭这则寓言故事的内涵是十分丰富的。要准确把握材料的含义，可以从以下几个方面来思考：1．为什么乌龟能够赢得比赛。2．蝴蝶为什么如此流连花丛。3．联系现实人生，钻圈、过河指什么？花丛又是什么？4．蝴蝶为什么能够迅速钻过圈、飞过河，却过不了花丛？指导：据此可以立意：我们的人生应该有个大目标、大方向。乌龟之所以能够赢得比赛，就是应为他能时刻牢记自己的大目标。而蝴蝶之所以半途而废，则是因为没有能够摆脱一些东西的诱惑，由此迷失了方向。写作时，可以从整体上思索，可以从细微处发掘。值得思考的有很多。一定要写出个人的认识。第二步，看清材料作文要求，抓住原材料的主旨提炼出一个正确的主题（即观点），确立中心（即立论）。主旨单一的材料据材料立意即可，例如我们在考试中遇到的第二个作文（立意时应从“团结”入手）。蕴涵丰富的材料，可从多角度立意，即发散思维多向立意（例如第一个作文可以分别从“分享”“奉献”的角度入手）。一般说来，一则材料至少可从肯定与否定两个角度审视：“一事多人”的材料，有几个“人”往往就有几个审视角度；“一事多因”的材料，有几个“因”往往就有几个审视角度。一个事件，针对其背景、写作目的的不同，就产生了几个不同的审视角度。在这一环节，可考虑从以下三个方向发散：①横向发散：即由材料的基本主题展开引申类比联想，由此及彼，比较求同，看哪些事物或现象是有类似或相关的属性，或者这个道理可以推及到哪些事物或现象上。②纵向发散：即研读材料所表现的社会现象或事实，并由表及里，追根溯源，寻求事物发展变化的因果关系，把握其所反映的普遍而深刻的道理。③逆向发散：即由正而反，从事物的相反方向思考，多问几个如果不这样将会如何。有了以上角度开掘出来的主题后就要选最佳的角度和立意来写。第三步，有的同学将这次考试中的作文写成了议论文（我们讽刺这类文章为“四不像”文章），不过想写成议论文也未尝不可，我们上期的课本就选了很多议论文，不过你要掌握一些方法------运用材料合理入文，引议联结构思谋篇（根据曹组长讲话整理）。①“引”，分析材料，提出观点或中心论点。②“议”，承上启下，展开议论（先写一个过渡段或过渡句，再写本论）。一般来说，应先正面论述中心论点，揭示正面道理，然后举正面事例论证“为什么是这样，有何好处”之后，最好再能从反面事例加以论证“为什么不可以这样”，举反面事例论证。③“联”，联系实际，深化中心（主要是社会或个人的实际，从生活中选取典型材料进一步论证中心论点）。④“结”，总结照应，解决问题（可以照应材料或开头，起点题作用或总结、升华、发号召等）。这个公式可用，但千万不要搞成新八股文。材料作文是根据既定材料，对材料进行分析、提炼，从而得出一定的看法和观点的一种作文形式。它既有命题作文的限制性，又有自拟题目作文的自由性；既能考查学生按要求作文的能力，又给学生提供了充分显示写作能力的广阔空间。由于材料作文所具有的灵活性、丰富性、与时俱进性，这类作文命题形式备受命题作文老师的青睐。综观近年全国各地中考作文题都少不了材料作文。我们考试中遇到的第一篇作文就是河南省2009年中考作文二选一的第2篇材料作文所提供的材料的来源和形式是多种多样的，或是寓言故事、历史事实，或是诗歌、漫画、名人名言，或是最近发生的事件、报刊上刊登的新闻等等。这些材料有时是单一材料，有时则是一组材料。材料作文包含的内容很广泛，根据题目的要求，可以写成记叙、说明、议论等各种文体来写作，甚至，有的要求写一篇文章的读后感，有的要求根据材料自选角度写议论文，有的要求根据图画、画表写一段说明文字，还有的要求以提供的材料为开头续写，或根据材料扩写、缩写。 三、写好材料作文立意也是一个关键，作文审题立意要准。由于材料本身是松散的、不紧凑的，它的意思是由阅读者本人领会的，所以造成理解上的多样性。这种多样性，只要符合材料的题旨、命题者的意图，是允许存在的。但问题在于许多考生不能准确把握材料所传达的信息。要想准确把握题旨必须对材料加以提炼整合，即把材料中那些共通的精华的东西提炼出来，而不能随心所欲地判定或凭主观意念硬贴上去。一般性材料的题旨和意图是比较容易分辨的，而寓意性材料的题旨和意图却不那么容易分辨，因为它们的题旨和意图足隐含的、不外露的，只有更深一层地理解分析它的意义，才能正确地把握题旨和意图。好多同学将此次考试作文拟题为《分享》《团结就是力量》题目过大、过于平淡，让我阅卷时找不到你文章的中心，找不到出彩的地方，如何避免这种情况呢？认真阅读材料，吃透材料是写好材料作文关键的一步。如果没有准确把握材料的主旨，就会写出偏题、跑题的作文。把握文章的主旨有以下几种方法。1、注意材料的标题。有的文章标题就是文章的主题。 2、注意材料的开头和结尾。有的文章在开头或结尾就点出了文章的中心，尤其是文章的结尾。 3、注意材料里面抒情、议论性的句子，出题者往往在文章里借助抒情、议论性的句子点出文章的中心。。4、注意材料后面的要求或提示语。例如：一篇材料作文在原文后面，它提出了这样的要求，“读了材料我们很受启发，请就其中的一个方面（如成功与失败、诱惑、机遇------）自拟题目，自选文体，写一篇文章，不少于600字。”熟读材料后再看提示，不难发现，材料中的三层含义“成功与失败”“诱惑”“机遇”是写作的三个范围，可据其中的一个方面立意写作文。同时要把握材料作文的审题思路。审题是决定作文考试成败的关键。由于中考作文应试时间少，审题不可能花费太多的时间，因此，对文字表述较为复杂的材料必须集中思想，尽快地把握审入?选择什么立意?重点采用什么表现方法?如何体现文章构思?等等，之所以这样，是因为作文的材料往往可以从不同的角度来落笔，确定不同的立意，选定不同的写作方法，寻求不同的构思。其次还要注意文题的其他要求。作文题中常有一句“除诗歌之外，文体不限”的提示，对此理解必须注意两点：一，所谓“不限”，一般是指构思时对文体的选择余地较大，但一旦选定某种文体进入具体写作过程时，则应遵循某种文体的基本格局，不能写成议论文不像议论文，记叙文不像记叙文的“四不像”的文章。最后，要认真阅读，把握材料作文的主旨。有些同学考试中作文的分很高，有些得分却很低，为什么得分低呢？看看我下面的讲解你就知道了：四、材料作文的写作“四忌”。1、忌抛开材料，“另起炉灶”。材料作文和话题作文尽管都有材料，但二者对材料的处理有所不同。话题作文强调的是相关，材料可用可不用；材料作文所提供的材料是写作的依据，包孕着文章的主旨，材料在文中必须出现。不少考生写惯了话题作文，导致忽视了材料作文中的材料，以致于“另起炉灶”。例如有些同学就拟题为《叛逆也需要轨道》简直让人不知所云，怎么会的高分呢？2、忌不按指令写作。材料作文的试题，一般包括两上部分，一部分是材料，另一部分是写作要求。写作要求或以提示语出现，或另列出“要求”、“注意”。审题时，不仅要吃透材料，还必须看清写作的具体要求，按照试题的指令写作。切忌不看要求，或未看清要求，即下笔千言，却离题万里。 3、忌观点提炼不准确。材料作文的文章主旨是从材料中得来的，考生如果在阅读材料时提炼的观点背离了材料的内涵，那么将直接导致该篇作文的失败，即是“皮之不存毛将焉附？”。 4、忌漠视材料中的关键句。作为材料作文，每篇材料都有关键句，只不过有的不明显而已。关键句在文段中所起的作用或画龙点睛或提纲挈领，一些考生过分的强调整篇材料主旨而忽视了关键句，导致写出的文章很难出彩。第一，要明确材料作文和话题作文的区别。材料作文和话题作文的区别在于话题作文只提供一个话题，材料只引出话题，与写作无关。而材料作文则提供一定的材料。如一首诗、一则寓言、一个或几个典故、一个故事、几则名言警句、一幅或几幅画，是对现实生活中某种现象的介绍、社会某种看法的概述、一个特定情境的设计等等，要求基于所供的材料，根据题目要求和规定思路导向进行写作。最后我想说的是，我们有些同学在考试时为了抢时间，未及对材料细思慎辨，就匆匆落笔；甚至曲解了所提供的材料，其结果自然是“欲速则不达”，这就难免留下遗憾了。考试中有些同学考试中作文的分很低，甚至想找我理论。我觉得你大可不必烦恼，看看我在此次考试中发现的一些问题你就会明白为什么你的得分较低了：一、写作文的过程中有些同学未经深思出现了跑题偏题现象。“文章成败由立意”，跑题偏题是考场作文最要命的“硬伤”。审题经常出现的毛病有两种，一种是完全抛开题目(话题、材料)、另起炉灶而造成跑题，另一种是为了标新立异、另辟蹊径而造成偏题。审题要把握“三义”。一是要看懂字面义：准确地理解题目(话题、材料)的字面义(尤其是关键词语)是领悟题旨的第一步;材料作文和话题作文，题目的文字一般比较多，这就更需要仔细阅读，正确理解，全面把握。二是要吃透引申义：引申义是蕴涵在题目里面的，需要考生具有一定的认识水平和分析能力才能感知;题目的引申义，还包括它的比喻义和象征义。三是要领会提示义：有些题目附有提示语，提示语是命题人对考生的一种暗示，是为考生审题立意、打开思路铺设的台阶;提示语不论长短，考生都要高度重视，仔细阅读，认真揣摩，积极地从中获得写作的启示。审清题意之后，考生还要学会在行文中不断地扣题和点题，做到“一步三回头”、“回眸一笑百媚生”。二、个别同学文体不分材料作文一般要求“三自”——角度自选、文体自选和题目自拟。文体的开放性给考生创设了扬长避短的条件，同学们可充分发挥自己的优势。但是不少学生误以为“淡化文体”就是不要文体，致使所写的文章不伦不类：写议论文，不像议论文，不知道提出问题、分析问题、解决问题;写记叙文，人、地、事、时、物交代不明不白;写散文，线索不明晰，形散神也散。掐头去尾就没东西了，这样非驴非马的“四不像”作文只能在三类卷以下。同时不要贸然去写诗歌。建议考生根据自己的喜好，扬我所长。三、立题平淡标题是文章的眼睛。好的标题常常能起到先声夺人、在考试中，作文没有标题原则上要扣一定的分数。而事实上没有标题的作文不是一篇完整的文章，它会影响主题的表达，阅卷老师会认为你缺少了最基本的东西，在心理上会产生一种距离，也就在不知不觉中加大了扣分，考生可能会因此失去更多的分数。建议你平常养成先写标题后写正文的习惯，而且标题要写在正中间位置，同时写完文章后要仔细看一遍，这也是避免出现这类“硬伤”的有效方法。四、有些学生的作文，开头排比很长很长，结尾同样很长很长，甚至还有后记。这种“硬伤”表现在背离了“凤头豹尾”的基本要求，开篇缓慢，久久不能点出主旨;结尾拖沓冗长，无病呻吟。无论是开头还是结尾，都应该简洁，一般说来，每部分不得超过文章总字数的十分之一，才能充分保障“猪肚”的丰富性。建议文章开头开门见山，不蔓不枝，用刘勰的话说是“首唱荣华”，借用俗语就是“一句请出佛祖来”。结尾，或画龙点睛，收束全文;或照应开头，结构严谨;或引用诗文，点染升华;或抒情写意，余味无穷;或设问反问，启人心智。五、引用的实例或诗句不准确在阅卷时有些学生张冠李戴、贻笑大方。建议：一是加强平时的积累，尽可能避免犯常识性错误;二是尽可能避免如“我在电视上看到过这么一个故事或是曾经听过这样的一个故事或是那是小学三年级的事了……”等大篇幅的引用;三是如果对引用的诗文词句记不清，考生可以转述，即使出错，也一定会得到阅卷老师的谅解。六、有些同学言辞偏激胡乱批评青春期的你们容易意气用事，思想偏激，说“过头话”，语气武断。在考试写作文的时候，建议你以平和、辩证的心态来写，这样写出来的东西就会显得大气，给人波澜不惊的感觉，老师看了也会觉得舒服，千万要避免剑走偏锋，观点偏激。那样会让你的作文显得幼稚可笑。七、卷面脏乱卷面是你给阅卷老师的“见面礼”。有些学生由于平时养成了马虎潦草的坏习惯，作文卷面总是勾画涂改得脏兮兮的，不堪入目：有的字迹潦草，难以辨认;有的胡涂乱抹，面目全非。从阅卷的实际情况来看，书写规范、端正、美观，卷面整洁的作文，一开始就会赢得阅卷老师的青睐，阅卷老师对一些非原则性的问题也不会计较。反之，尽管文章观点鲜明，情节生动，语言流畅，文笔优美，但让人看着费劲，最终所扣的分数绝不止规定的书写分。另外，作文时不要用多色笔，字体不宜过大或过小，标点符号要占格。八、不该字数超常所谓字数超常，就是说字数过少或过多。有的学生写作时一发而不可收，洋洋洒洒上千言，方格内盛不下，边幅上都写满了，给人一种臃肿庞杂的感觉。解决这个问题的办法就是：充分利用好试卷所给的空间即可，写得不可过多或过少。九、有些学生认为只要写字了老师就会给分，以至于剩下很少的时间去仓促成文语文考试，有的时候考生因为精神紧张，往往忽视了对时间的合理安排，致使占“半壁江山”的作文未能写完，成为“残篇”。建议你平时作文按时完成，模拟考场考作文严格控制在40分钟之内完成
英语论文大致的写作结构如下：
Cell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life.[1] Some organisms, such as most bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are multicellular. (Humans have an estimated 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a typical cell size is 10 µm; a typical cell mass is 1 nanogram.) The largest known cell is an unfertilized ostrich egg cell.[2]In 1835 before the final cell theory was developed, Jan Evangelista Purkyně observed small "granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.[3]The word cell comes from the Latin cellula, meaning, a small room. The descriptive term for the smallest living biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke in a book he published in 1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope to the small rooms monks lived in.[4][edit] General principles Mouse cells grown in a culture dish. These cells grow in large clumps, but each individual cell is about 10 micrometres acrossEach cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary. Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities.All cells have several different abilities:[5]Reproduction by cell division: (binary fission/mitosis or meiosis). Use of enzymes and other proteins coded for by DNA genes and made via messenger RNA intermediates and ribosomes. Metabolism, including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting energy, molecules and releasing by-products. The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This energy is released and then used in metabolic pathways. Response to external and internal stimuli such as changes in temperature, pH or levels of nutrients. Cell contents are contained within a cell surface membrane that is made from a lipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. Some prokaryotic cells contain important internal membrane-bound compartments,[6] but eukaryotic cells have a specialized set of internal membrane compartments.[edit] Anatomy of cellsThere are two types of cells: eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually independent, while eukaryotic cells are often found in multicellular organisms.[edit] Prokaryotic cellsMain article: Prokaryote Diagram of a typical prokaryotic cellThe prokaryote cell is simpler than a eukaryote cell, lacking a nucleus and most of the other organelles of eukaryotes. There are two kinds of prokaryotes: bacteria and archaea; these share a similar overall structure.A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:on the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells; enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a cell wall covering a plasma membrane though some bacteria also have a further covering layer called a capsule. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter. Though most prokaryotes have a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma (bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea)). The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and finally bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure against a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryote cells (plant cells and fungi cells) also have a cell wall; inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the cell genome (DNA) and ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease). Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular. Plasmids enable additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance. [edit] Eukaryotic cellsMain article: Eukaryote Diagram of a typical animal (eukaryotic) cell, showing subcellular components.Organelles:(1) nucleolus(2) nucleus(3) ribosome(4) vesicle(5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)(6) Golgi apparatus(7) Cytoskeleton(8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum(9) mitochondria(10) vacuole(11) cytoplasm(12) lysosome(13) centrioles within centrosomeEukaryotic cells are about 15 times the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a cell nucleus, a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true nucleus." Other differences include:The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present. The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA. Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus be "viewed as sensory cellular antennae that coordinate a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."[7] Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. The flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes. Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Typical organisms bacteria, archaea protists, fungi, plants, animals Typical size ~ 1–10 µm ~ 10–100 µm (sperm cells, apart from the tail, are smaller) Type of nucleus nucleoid region; no real nucleus real nucleus with double membrane DNA circular (usually) linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteins RNA-/protein-synthesis coupled in cytoplasm RNA-synthesis inside the nucleusprotein synthesis in cytoplasm Ribosomes 50S+30S 60S+40S Cytoplasmatic structure very few structures highly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeleton Cell movement flagella made of flagellin flagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actin Mitochondria none one to several thousand (though some lack mitochondria) Chloroplasts none in algae and plants Organization usually single cells single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells Cell division Binary fission (simple division) Mitosis (fission or budding)Meiosis Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cells Typical animal cell Typical plant cell Organelles Nucleus Nucleolus (within nucleus) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Smooth ER Ribosomes Cytoskeleton Golgi apparatus Cytoplasm Mitochondria Vesicles Lysosomes Centrosome Centrioles Vacuoles Nucleus Nucleolus (within nucleus) Rough ER Smooth ER Ribosomes Cytoskeleton Golgi apparatus (dictiosomes) Cytoplasm Mitochondria [edit] Subcellular components The cells of eukaryotes (left) and prokaryotes (right)All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell. Inside the membrane, a salty cytoplasm takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells. This article will list these primary components of the cell, then briefly describe their function.[edit] Cell membrane: A cell's defining boundaryMain article: Cell membraneThe cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane. The plasma membrane in plants and prokaryotes is usually covered by a cell wall. This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules. Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer. It may also be called a fluid mosaic membrane. Embedded within this membrane is a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell. The membrane is said to be 'semi-permeable', in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, pass through to a limited extent or not pass through at all. Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.[edit] Cytoskeleton: A cell's scaffoldMain article: Cytoskeleton Bovine Pulmonary Artery Endothelial cell: nuclei stained blue, mitochondria stained red, and F-actin, an important component in microfilaments, stained green. Cell imaged on a fluorescent microscope.The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility. The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules. There is a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments. The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.[8][edit] Genetic materialTwo different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses (e.g., retroviruses) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the genetic code itself. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add specific amino acids during the process of protein translation.Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome). In humans the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs of linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production as well as specific tRNAs.Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is. Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.[edit] OrganellesMain article: OrganelleThe human body contains many different organs, such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of "little organs," called organelles, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions.There are several types of organelles within an animal cell. Some (such as the nucleus and golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands). The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.Mitochondria and Chloroplasts – the power generators Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria play a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria generate the cell's energy by the process of oxidative phosphorylation, utilizing oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP. Mitochondria multiply by splitting in two. Organelles that are modified chloroplasts are broadly called plastids, and are involved in energy storage through the process of photosynthesis, which utilizes solar energy to generate carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water.[citation needed] Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own genome, which is separate and distinct from the nuclear genome of a cell. Both of these organelles contain this DNA in circular plasmids, much like prokaryotic cells, strongly supporting the evolutionary theory of endosymbiosis; since these organelles contain their own genomes and have other similarities to prokaryotes, they are thought to have developed through a symbiotic relationship after being engulfed by a primitive cell.[citation needed] Ribosomes The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules. They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where mRNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids. Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes).[9] Cell nucleus – a cell's information center The cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur. The nucleus is spherical in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm. Diagram of a cell nucleus Endoplasmic reticulum – eukaryotes only The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface and secretes proteins into the cytoplasm, and the smooth ER, which lacks them. Smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release. Golgi apparatus – eukaryotes only The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell. It is particularly important in the processing of proteins for secretion. The Golgi apparatus forms a part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells. Vesicles that enter the Golgi apparatus are processed in a cis to trans direction, meaning they coalesce on the cis side of the apparatus and after processing pinch off on the opposite (trans) side to form a new vesicle in the animal cell.[citation needed] Diagram of an endomembrane system Lysosomes and Peroxisomes – eukaryotes only Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system. These organelles are often called a "suicide bag" because of their ability to detonate and destroy the cell.[citation needed] Centrosome – the cytoskeleton organiser The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key component of the cytoskeleton. It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus. Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle. A single centrosome is present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.[citation needed] Vacuoles Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which are able to pump water out of the cell if there is too much water. [edit] Structures outside the cell wall[edit] CapsuleA gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell wall. The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as bacillus anthracis or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.[citation needed] Capsules not marked by ordinary stain and can detected by special stain. The capsule is antigenic. The capsule has antiphagocytic function so it determines the virulence of many bacteria. It also plays a role in attachment of the organism to mucous membranes.[citation needed]
一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。
如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。
二、提纲
英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。
主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母；处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。
需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。
三、摘要
1、英文摘要是应用符合英文语法的文字语言，提供论文内容梗概为目的的短文。（内容基本与中文摘要相同，但不用完全逐句对应）。
2、英文题目、摘要、关键词自成一页（1页即可），放在中文摘要页之后。
3、英文字体与行间距： 统一使用“西文字体”中的“Times New Roman”，1.5倍行间距。
4、英文题目： 使用三号字加粗。
5、英文摘要： “Absract”顶格，使用四号字，并加粗。
英文摘要具体内容使用四号字。
6、英文关键词： “Key Words”顶格，使用四号字并加粗。
四、正文
有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。
正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码；阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。
在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。
五、文中引述
正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节；既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 （即英语论文参考文献）的规范性。
引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。
六、文献目录
论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:
目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。
目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码；如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。
标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm；各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。
各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等；各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。
英语论文摘要又称文摘，是论文的重要组成部分，它是以提供文献内容梗概为目的，不加评论和补充解释，简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。摘要应具有独立性和自明性，并拥有与文献同等量的主要信息，即不需阅读全文，就可获得重要的信息。
摘要通常置于文题之后，文章之首。在论文发表后，论文摘要常被文献检索系统所收集。英语论文摘要一般为200-300单词，并有与英文摘要表达观点一致的中文摘要与之对应。
扩展资料：
发表论文作用：
论文是指进行各个学术领域的研究和描述学术研究成果的文章。它既是探讨问题进行学术研究的一种手段，又是描述学术研究成果进行学术交流的一种工具。不同的人发表论文的作用也不同：
1、评职称（晋升职称）：研究生 毕业需要；教师 、医护人员 、科研院所的人员、企业员工 等 晋升高一级的职称时，发表期刊论文是作为一项必须的参考指标。
2、申报基金、课题 ：教育、科技、卫生系统 每年申报的国家自然科学基金项目、其它各种基金项目、各种研究课题时，发表论文 是作为 基金或课题 完成的一种研究成果的结论性展示。
3、世界性基础领域的研究，比如在医学、数学、物理、化学、生命科学 等领域开展的基础性研究，公开发表论文 是对最新科技 科学研究成果、研究方法的一种展示和报道。以推动整个社会的科技进步等。
一、引出开头1：It is well-known to us that……（我们都知道……）==As far as my knowledge is concerned, …（ 就我所知…）2：Recently the problem of…… has been brought into focus. ==Nowadays there is a growing concern over ……（最近……问题引起了关注）3：Nowadays（overpopulation）has become a problem we have to face.（现今，人口过剩已成为我们不得不面对的问题）4：Internet has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life. It has brought a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.（互联网已在我们的生活扮演着越来越重要的角色，它给我们带来了许多好处但也产生了一些严重的问题）5：With the rapid development of science and technology，more and more people believe that……（随着科技的迅速发展，越来越多的人认为……）6：It is a common belief that……==It is commonly believed that……（人们一般认为……）7：A lot of people seem to think that……（很多人似乎认为……）8:It is universally acknowledged that + 句子（全世界都知道...）二、表达不同观点1：People's views on……vary from person to person. Some hold that……However, others believe that……（人们对……的观点因人而异，有些人认为……然而其他人却认为……）2：People may have different opinions on……（人们对……可能会持有不同见解）3：Attitudes towards （drugs）vary from person to person.==Different people hold different attitudes towards（failure）（人们对待吸毒的态度因人而异）4:There are different opinions among people as to……（对于……人们的观点大不相同）三、表示结尾1：In short, it can be said that……（总之，他的意思是……）2：From what has been mentioned above, we can come to the conclusion that……（从上面提到的，我们可以得出结论……）3：Taking all these factors into consideration, we naturally/reasonably come to the conclusion that……（把所有的这些因素加以考虑，我们自然可以得出结论……）4：Hence/Therefore, we'd better come to the conclusion that……（因此，我们最好的出这样的结论……）5:There is no doubt that (job-hopping)has its drawbacks as well as merits.（毫无疑问，跳槽有优点也有缺点）6：All in all, we cannot live without……,but at the same time we must try to find out new ways to cope with the problems that would arise.（总之，我们没有……无法生活，但同时我们必须寻求新的解决办法来面对可能出现的新问题）四、提出建议1：It is high time that we put an end to the (trend).（该是我们停止这一趋势的时候了）2：There is no doubt that enough concern must be paid to the problem of……（毫无疑问，对……问题应予以足够重视）3：Obviously ,if we want to do something … it is essential that……（显然，如果我们想要做么事，很重要的是……）4：Only in this way can we ……（只有这样，我们才能……）5：Sparenoeffortto+V（不遗余力的）五、预示后果1：Obviously，if we don't control the problem, the chances are that……will lead us in danger.（很明显，如果我们不能控制这一问题，很有可能我们会陷入危险）2：No doubt, unless we take effective measures, it is very likely that ……（毫无疑问，除非我们采取有效措施，否则我们很可能会……）3：It is urgent that immediate measures should be taken to stop the situation（很紧迫的是应立即采取措施阻止这一事态的发展）六、表示论证1：From my point of view, it is more reasonable to support the first opinion rather than the second.(在我看来，支持第一种观点比第二种更有道理)2：I cannot entirely agree with the idea that……（我无法完全同意这一观点）3：As far as I am concerned/In my opinion,……（就我来说……）4：I sincerely believe that……==I am greatly convinced (that)子句.（我真诚地相信……）5：Finally, to speak frankly, there is also a more practical reason why ……（最后，坦率地说，还有另外一个实际的原因……）七、给出原因1：The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 （...的原因是...） 2:This phenomenon exists for a number of reasons .First,…….Second,…….Third，……。这一现象存在有很多原因的，第一……第二……第三……3：For one thing,…… For another thing，…… ==On the one hand,……On the other hand……一方面……另一方面……4：I quite agree with the statement that……The reasons are chiefly as follows.我十分赞同这一论述，即……。其主要原因如下。八、列出解决办法和批判错误观点做法1：The best way to solve the troubles is……解决这些麻烦的最好办法是……2：As far as something is concerned,……就某事而言，……3;It is obvious that……很显然……4：It may be true that……but it doesn't mean that……可能……是对的，但这并不意味着……5;It is natural to believe that……but we shouldn't ignore that……认为……是自然的，但我们不应忽视……6：There is no evidence to suggest that……没有证据表明……九、表示好处和坏处1：It has the following advantages.它有如下优势2：It is beneficial/harmful to us.==It is of great benefit/harm to us.它对我们有益处3:It has more disadvantages than advantage.他有很多不足之处十、表示重要、方便、可能1：It is important(necessary/difficult/convenient/possible)for sb to do sth.对于某人做……是……2：It plays an important role in our life.十一、采取措施1：We should take some effective measures.我们应该采取有效措施2：We should try our best to overcome/conquer the difficulties.我们应该尽最大努力去克服困难3：We should do our utmost in doing sth.我们应该尽力去做……4：We should solve the problems that we are confronted/faced with.我们应该解决我们面临的困难十二、显示变化1：Some changes have taken place in the past five years.过去五年发生了很多变化2：Great changes will certainly be produced in the international communications.在国际交流中理所当然会发生很多大的变化3：It has increased/decreased from…to…他已经从…增加/减少到…4：The output of July in this factory increased by 15%.这个工厂7月份产量以增加了15%十三、表明事实现状1;We cannot ignore the fact that……我们不能忽略这个事实……2：No one can deny the fact that……没人能否认这个事实……3：This is a phenomenon that many people are interested in.4:becloselyrelatedto~~（与...息息相关）十四、进行比较1：Compared with A,B……与A比较，B……2;I prefer to read rather than watch TV.十五、常用英语谚语1：Actions speak louder than words.事实胜于雄辩2：All is not gold that glitters.发光的未必都是金子3：All roads lead to Rome.条条大路通罗马4：A good beginning is half done.良好的开端是成功的一半5：Every advantage has its disadvantage有利必有弊6：A miss is as good as a mile.失之毫厘，差之千里7：Failure is the mother of success.失败是成功之母8:Industry is the parent of success.勤奋是成功之母9:It is never too old to learn.活到老，学到老10:Knowledge is power.知识就是力量11:Nothing in the world is difficult for one who sets his mind to it.世上无难事，只怕有心人
写作准备：
1、熟悉写作要求。首先建议买本带讲解的真题作文集，浏览范文。熟悉常考话题、惯常写法、用词用句组段的特点。另外，结合官方评分标准，熟悉作文的各个得分档次，为以后自评自改作文做个铺垫。
2、积累写作素材。准备个笔记本，通读细读范文来积累常用词汇及替换词、词伙、句型、语法、话题、观点、案例、甚至写作样本等素材。
除过阅读真题作文集，还注意在平时的阅读和听力训练中收集话题写作相关素材。我个人喜欢的一档电台节目是中国国际广播电台（CRI）的“圆桌会议（Round Table）”，里面有当下非常接地气的话题讨论，比如拼车、快递、青少年犯罪等。
另外，TED演讲里也有非常好的原创观点，话题涉及教育、文化、科技、社会等不同领域。看演讲不但可以开拓视野，锻炼思考能力，有兴趣的话也可以研究其演讲词的写作技巧，对写作能力的提高也大有裨益。
3、打好写作基本功。英文底子不够扎实的同学可以从历年优秀范文中选取若干篇进行翻译-回译、背诵-默写等练习，在语法书、词典、写作老师的帮助下，锻炼遣词造句的能力。
组词造句这一关过了之后，就可以研究写作技巧了。写作技巧包括如何开头、如何展开话题、如何结束作文、如何让文章更有说服力等方面。写作技巧可以参照作文书里的技巧介绍，也可以自己通过分析范文来研究总结。
4、玩中写（可选）。应试作文写作模式比较单一，常常被同学戏谑为“八股文”，练习一段时间一般会产生厌倦感。这时候可以结合自己的兴趣，选择非常喜欢的看图说话类、故事类、时尚类、抒情类好句好文进行仿写、改写、续写、扩写、缩写、口头写等练习；
也可以任意发挥进行自由写、创意写、记日记，这些看似“无用”的练习都可以提升写作兴趣和写作基础。综合使用各种练习方法，可以全面提升写作和口语表达水平。写作水平提高了，口语也无疑会有长足的进步。
写作格式：
1、审题：拿到题目后先读题，标出关键信息。这一步注意弄清题意，知道通过写作要解决什么问题。
2、明确立场：作为当代大学生，需要以国际化的视野，科学、批判性地看待问题和分析问题。因此，注意我们的观点最好符合社会发展的大趋势，同时又能辩证地分析大趋势下的部分逆流并加以诊断性分析。
3、头脑风暴收集素材、并简单分类：这一步把自己的话题观点、案例、相关词汇等列出来，备忘。基于读题信息和收集的素材，形成论点，根据题意选择适当的素材，形成一个两百多字能说清楚的论点。
4、打好框架：一般来讲，250字儿的作文可以分为四至五段。第一段先给出论点，主体段结合审题阶段的观点类素材进行分类，草拟出每段的主题句（可以是短语），即分论点。然后把细节、事实、案例等素材与主题句对应，以便进行解释、举例、或补充。最后一段可以是对论点的情境化深入，也可以是分论点的整体性解析。
5、修改：写完后，用官方评分标准来分析自己的作文，给自己评分。然后与范文对比优缺点，再修订或重写。经得起推敲的好文是一遍遍修改出来的。
扩展资料：
英语议论文的注意事项：要坚持积累和训练，要写就写得整齐。应试中短文写作部分通常叫essay writing，其实只是要求考生表达对某事的立场或观点加之简要的分析和解释而已，因此除非有明确要求，通常不需要写题目。因为在国外所谓有题目的essay要正式的多，通常为上千字到几千字，有些甚至包括文献综述及分析。
如果要求写题目，那也是为了提醒考生在写作过程中时刻保持focus不至于跑题。作文题目一般有名字短语（如My View on Learning with APPs）、问句(如Is Learning with APPs a Good thing?)等形式。
其实质上是对审题阶段所提问题discussion question的陈述或回答，而正文其实就是对问题的分析和解答。 如果正文不能回答题目中蕴含的问题，那就是“文不对题”了。
一，议论文的格式：
议论文的格式应由三个部分组成：
2.论证部分。
3.结论部分。
二，一般说来，议论文可分三个基本段落来写：
1.第一段引出话题，
2.第二段立论且加以论证，
3.第三段给出明确的结论。
第二段是中心段落，应试者应将主要的内容放在第二段中，同时也要注意开篇及结尾段落的完整性，且应尽量做到首尾呼应，切忌前后矛盾。
三，写作攻略：
初中生在写议论文时要首先考虑自己的观点是什么，明确观点后要围绕观点进行论证，最后再进行总结。议论文在写作手法上以议论为主，但有时也要运用说明，叙述，描写等手法。初中议论文的写作格式一般为三段式：开头，主体和结尾。
四，一般写作步骤如下：
1.确定主题，引出论点。
2.通过摆事实，讲道理来支持自己的观点。所用的事实，原因，理由应紧密地同结论联系在一起。
3.得出结论。要简明扼要，回扣全文。
扩展资料：
1.模板范文
Many students think that they do not need to learn Engish, because they don't plan to go abroad。
But as to me, I am not in favour of this point of view。I think that English is very important to us, so we should learn English well。First of all, in the opening times, if you want to do business with foreigners, you must use English because most of them speak and write in English。
Secondly, in the world today most books are written in English。If you know much English, you can read newspapers and magazines in English。Most important of all, you can learn something more widely。
All in all, I hold the opinion that we should learn English well。 And I hope that all the students can use English freely。
参考资料：百度百科——英语作文
As is known to all, it is important to be/ do… I think there are at least two reasons for… For one thing,… For another,…. Let’s take… for example… From what I have mentioned above we can see that without… we can not … it is clear that…. play an important part in…Different people, however, have different opinions on this matters. Some people think that … According to them all of us should… Others argue that … in their point of view, nobody can without … Compared with…, has a lot of advantages over… There is no doubt that … As a consequence, …. In short, I firmly support the view that … It is because… So my conclusion is that ….(109words)1． 对立观点式： A．有人认为X 是好事，赞成X， 为什么？ B．有人认为X 是坏事， 反对X，为什么？ C．我的看法。 Some people are in favor of the idea of doing X. They point out the fact that 支持X 的第一个原因。They also argue that 支持X 的另一个原因。 However, other people stand on a different ground. They consider it harmful to do X. They firmly point out that 反对X 的第一个理由。An example can give the details of this argument: 一个例子。 There is some truth in both arguments. But I think the advantages of X overweigh the disadvantages. In addition to the above-mentioned negative effects it might bring about, X also may X 的一个坏处。 2． 批驳观点式： A．一个错误观点。 B．我不同意。 Many people argue that 错误观点。By saying that, they mean 对这个观点的进一步解释。An example they have presented is that 一个例子。（According to a survey performed by X on a group of Y, almost 80% of them 赞成这个错误观点或者受到这个错误观点的影响）。 There might be some element of truth in these people's belief. But if we consider it in depth, we will feel no reservation to conclude that 与错误观点相反的观点。There are a number of reasons behind my belief.（以下参照辩论文的议论文写法）。 3． 社会问题（现象）式 A．一个社会问题或者现象。 B．产生的原因 C．对社会和我们生活的影响 D． 如何杜绝。（如果是问题的话） E． 前景的预测。 Nowadays, there exists an increasingly serious social/economic/environmental problem. (X has increasingly become a common concern of the public). According to a survey, 调查内容说明这种现象的情况。（或者是一个例子） There are a couple of reasons booming this problem/phenomenon. 下面参照辩论式议论文的写法。 X has caused substantial impact on the society and our daily life, which has been articulated in the following aspects. 参照辩论式议论文的写法。 A dozen of measures are supposed to take to prevent X from bringing us more harm. 参照辩论式议论文的写法。 Based on the above discussions, I can easily forecast that more and more people will... 议论文有三要点：论点、论据、论证方法。论点：作者对某事某现象持有的见解或主张。论据：1.事实论据 2.理论论据 用来证明论点的理由或根据。论证方法：对比 归纳 演绎等......
这么w宽泛的题目，想必老师也e是个u。。。哎，个f人t建议吧，选定一q个d或者几x个k特定国家（含民族）的人r，介3绍下j他们的文3化7和谈判特点，写一o些自己x认5为4比7较适用的方8法。但是突出的主题则应该是，不m管对哪国或者哪个p公3司，自身的homework至关重要。你可以3结合如果做homework来写。 pヮ╔g瘠нl
英语论文大致的写作结构如下：
1、选题是至关重要的，在你写一篇文章的时候你就得构造好思路写什么，也可以浏览互联网找到题材，列一个清单，最后选择你感兴趣的话题。选择一些你感兴趣的东西是很重要的，因为在这种情况下，你有动力深入讨论这个话题。在开始写作之前，阅读至少10-15个信息源。创建3-5个主题，然后选择其中一个。2、有时学生更喜欢使用复杂的单词、短语和表达来吸引读者。然而，这不是正确的策略，因为读者倾向于选择简单的文本来阅读，而不是在复杂的表达中沉思。例如，你可以用“帮助”而不是“促进”或“使用”而不是“利用”。把复杂的单词留给教授，用简单易懂的语言与人交谈，而不用让读者花很多时间去阅读。3、简短的句子和段落易于阅读和理解。根据科学的说法，复杂性多了会造成混乱，但是让读者感到困惑并不是您最初的目标。在写段落时遵循同样的原则:试着阅读报纸上的一篇文章，你会明白在阅读短段落时更容易处理信息。如果你在写一篇文章或一篇博客文章，你可以使用一种非正式的风格，但是在一篇学术文章中制造短句和段落并不容易。因此，要记住你的论文是写给谁看的。4、作为一名作家，内容尽量简明扼要，但是要具体。我们都珍惜时间。因此，不要浪费你的时间或你的读者的时间，并用一个清晰和简洁的方式表达你的想法。我们保证，通过这种方式，您可以吸引许多忠实的读者。但是，不要错过任何重要的细节。不是说你在花园里种了很多水果而不认识它们就没事，如果你能详细说明这些水果的名称就更好了，比如李子、苹果和梨。
论文写作技巧：
一、写作前
1、要知道在引言中陈述论点。
2、用论文的剩余部分陈述理由和证据，使论点得到充分支持。
3、考虑一下呈现这些内容的顺序：怎样安排段落之间的结构才是最清晰、最有说服力。
二、论文结构安排技巧
1、相似的想法通常应该集中在一起，而不是四处分散。
2、每个段落应该在字体上有区别，比如缩进或在段落之间留出额外的行间距。
3、每一段只应该陈述一个要点。
4、每个段落都可以看作是一篇小短文。
5、每一段都应该使用过渡词或短语连接到下一段。
6、段落的顺序应该符合逻辑，前后一致。
7、一旦同学写好了初稿，试着用一句话总结每个段落的要点。
下面我们来说说英语专业的毕业论文怎么写：
英语专业能选择的方向包括翻译、教学、语言学、文学等主要几大类。从身边同学撰写的感受来看，翻译和文字方向比较好下手，相比之下，教学研究调查类论文则需要花大量时间收集资料，出问卷，访谈，做数据分析等等。这里主要谈一谈翻译类方向如何确定选题。首先，要确定自己的研究文本, 可以是一本书，一部电影，实地景点翻译研究等等……主要是选择自己感兴趣的研究对象，毕竟撰写论文是一个十分漫长且枯燥的过程,选一个喜欢的文本会是你想坚持下去的理由。其次就是选择一个比较合适但是又不要太常见的翻译理论，比如功能对等，目的论啥的，再结合文本中某一个比较细小的角度去研究。总之，翻译理论，文本，切入点三者必须有一两个比较创新，这样不容易撞题。
我去年自己去参加开题答辩的时候，同一个答辩场竟然有两位同学跟我理论和切入点一模一样! ! 不过幸好我的文本比较新，也花了很多心思，最后拿到了优秀论文嘻嘻。这里提醒大家，选题不要过于着急，而且在选题的过程中要反复去知网查证自己选的理论能否适用于自己的翻译文本研究，相关的研究多不多，早期多投入一些时间，后期开始撰写的时候几乎没有太大问题。
其实本科生的论文大多都是没什么内容的，因为都是在总结前人的研究成果，关键是你会不会用自己的话去阐述，从而避免知网查证不合格的想象发生。翻译方向的论文只有第四章是自己的内容，这一章节需要花大量时间寻找最合适的例子，将理论运用其中，达到你最终的目的。这里需要大家注意的是，千万不要出现低级的语法语言错误，这样你会被你的导师批斗死。不要指望导师给你该内容该语法，他只会给你基本的大方向和建议，论文的撰写完全要靠自己。
在学校查重之前，建议大家最好自己去查重一下。Paper系列里面建议使用PaperPP，相对准确一点。turnitin也是一个比较常见的英文论文查重系统，个人觉得偏高一点，价格在4.0元/千字。除了这个，知网、维普、万方也是可以查重英文论文的，turnitin的查重率在百分之20，学校知网查重结果百分之7，如果大家查重费用比较充足，可以直接用知网，结果是最准确的。
论文答辩我觉得最重要的就是要熟悉自己的论文，熟悉到答辩老师一问你就知道是在论文的哪一章节，哪一位置，最好提前预设一下问题我还是比较幸运的，被问到的三个问题有导师之前就问过我的，有的是我准备到的。实在不懂的话，就直接道歉吧，俗话说的好，答辩答辩，只答不辨，疯狂道歉哈哈。
好了，今天就讲到这里了，希望今年的考研er都要加油呀!写论文也不可怕，合理安排好时间，你一定既能考上研也能拿到优秀论文，祝你好运!
参考资料：《英语专业的毕业论文怎么写？》
英语论文怎么写如下：
(说明:关键词Key Words为加粗。冒号后加空格再接关键词,相邻词间用逗号分隔。每个关键词.的首字大写。从"摘要”开始到”参考文献”结束，所有正文的字体均为Times New Roman， 12磅;两端对齐。均采用1.5倍行距)
范例：Abstract: Nida, a famous translator, says, "For truly successful translation, it is much more important to familiarize two cultures than master two languages, because words are assigned meanings in its particular cultures."(Background information) This is to say, translation is
closely related with not only languages but also cultures. Studies of the cultural distinction in idiom translation are still relatively weak in the field of translation in China. Exclusive research on the translation of Chinese and English idioms is still incomplete. In the last twenty years,
idiom translation has mostly emphasized the level of inter-lingual communication, butcultural differences were rarely involved in it.(ldentify problem) This thesis analyses the cultural differences in Chinese and English idioms, then studies English-ChineseChinese- English idiom translation methods(Research subject) from the angle
of culture(Method) and points out some warnings concerning idiom translation: pay attention to context and choose the right version in line with the style and meaning of the original passage(Results); culture is a whole way of life, when new culture emerges, new idioms also appear, therefore idiom
translation should develop with the time.(Conclusion)Key Words: idioms; culture; translation
一般要求都是英文的，没有办法。要努力了。主要是和导师沟通。
不会，我可以
汉语解释:杂志Magazine，有固定刊名，以期、卷、号或年、月为序，定期或不定期连续出版的印刷读物。它根据一定的编辑方针，将众多作者的作品汇整合册出版，定期出版的，又称期刊。想知道杂志的英文怎么说吗?
杂志[zá zhì]
杂志的英文释义:
magazine ; records ; notes ; journal
网 络magazine;journal;Magazines;Fortune
杂志的英文例句：
该杂志的销售量为2000份。
The distribution of the magazine is 2000.
时装杂志看起来很有光泽。
Fashion magazines are glossy.
我订阅了几份杂志。
I subscribed to several magazines.
这本杂志登载优秀的小说。
This magazine published excellent stories.
那位教育工作者在这些杂志上发表了许多文章。
That educator published many articles in these magazines.
这本杂志发行量很大。
This magazine has a large circulation.
当我们完成这部电影的时候—这部电影是和国家地理杂志合作的—我开始和国家地理杂志的同事们谈起我的研究。
And they got really excited about it.
在包裹里都是过期的杂志[旧杂志]。
In the parcel there are all back numbers of magazines.
你给我什么杂志我就读什么杂志。
I will read any magazine you give me.
1. I supported us by writing bilge for women's magazines. 我胡乱给女性 杂志 写点东西，维持我们的生计。
2. Frank Deford is a contributing editor for Vanity Fair magazine. 弗兰克·德福特是 杂志 《名利场》的特约编辑。
3. I have been a subscriber to Railway Magazine for many years. 我订阅《铁路 杂志 》已有很多年了。
4. Cruz had to scavenge rmation from newspapers and journals. 克鲁兹不得不从报纸和 杂志 中搜寻资讯。
5. Jill was starting to get some freelance writing jobs from trade magazines. 吉尔开始从一些行业 杂志 接点自由撰稿的活儿。
6. She turned down £1.2 million to pose nude in Playboy. 她拒绝了为《 *** 》 杂志 拍摄 *** 的120万英镑开价。
7. The magazine's aim is to discuss topical issues within a Christian framework. 该 杂志 的宗旨是在基督教框架下讨论时下的热门话题。
8. There'sno need for that kind of language in this magazine. 这份 杂志 没必要出现那种语言。
9. US magazines hailed her as the greatest rock'n'roll singer in the world. 美国 杂志 把她奉为世界上最伟大的摇滚歌手。
10. Would you turn down $7,000,000 to appear nude in a magazine? 给你700万美元要你裸体登上 杂志 ，你会拒绝吗?
11. Grace Robertson started as a photographer with Picture Post in 1947. 格雷斯·罗伯逊于1947年参加工作，做了《图片邮报》 杂志 的一名摄影师。
12. Thereafter she wrote articles for papers and magazines in Paris. 此后她给巴黎的报纸和 杂志 撰稿。
13. She had a libel action against the magazine pending. 她对该 杂志 提起的诽谤诉讼尚未判决。
14. For details of the nearest performance look in the local listings magazines. 欲知离自己最近的演出的详情，请查询当地文娱预告 杂志 。
15. No reason was given for the banning of the magazine. 杂志 被无端取缔了。
16. Before long he took over the editing of the magazine. 他不久就接手负责 杂志 的编辑工作。
17. In rural France, English language magazines are rather hard to e by. 在法国乡村，很难找到英语 杂志 。
18. Frank Deford is a special correspondent for Newsweek magazine. 弗兰克·德福特是《新闻周刊》 杂志 的特派记者。
19. They asked her to put together a dummy for a new magazine. 他们让她为一本新 杂志 攒一份小样。
20. The management tries to produce the magazine as cost-effectively as possible. 管理层试图尽可能地让 杂志 盈利。
杂志[zá zhì]词典magazine：杂志；弹药库；弹仓；胶卷盒。词典journal：日报，日志，日记；定期刊物，期刊，杂志；[会计]分类账。
1、杂志的英文是Magazine。 2、读音：英 [mæɡəˈzi:n] ；美 [mæɡəˈzin, mæɡəˈzin]。 3、双语例句：我读了她从杂志上剪下来的一段文字。 I read a snippet she had cut from a magazine.
杂志的英语是magazine。
一、读音： [ˌmæɡə'ziːn]
二、意思是杂志。
三、例句
This magazine has a large circulation.
这本杂志发行量很大。
四、词汇用法
1、magazine的意思是“期刊”“杂志”,指含有插图、图解的综合性连续出版物,内中可有各种文章、评论等,包括周刊、月刊或季刊等。在句中有时可修饰其他名词作定语。
2、magazine的另一个意思是“弹药库”,专指用来装有子弹或爆炸物的仓库,有时也可指枪上的“弹夹”。
扩展资料
近义词：periodical
一、读音： [ˌpɪəri'ɒdɪkl]
二、意思是期刊、杂志。
三、例句：
The periodical is obtainable on the very first day of every month。
这本杂志每月一号出版。
四、词汇用法
periodical指“期刊”或“杂志”。强调定期性发行的“连续物”，但不指日刊。