英语简史论文模板

The Dimensions of Management The Essential Drucker Peter F. Drucker Business enterprises—and public-service institutions as well—are organs of society. They do not exist for their own sake, but to fulfill a specific social purpose and to satisfy a specific need of a society, a community, or individuals. They are not ends in themselves, but means. The right question to ask in respect to them is not, what are they? But, what are they supposed to be doing and what are their tasks? Management, in turn, is the organ of the institution. The question, what is management, comes second. First we have to define management in and through its tasks. There are three tasks, equally important but essentially different, that management has to perform to enable the institution in its charge to function and to make its contribution. Establishing the specific purpose and mission of the institution, whether business enterprise, hospital, or university; Making work productive and the worker effective; Managing social impacts and social responsibilities. Mission An institution exists for a specific purpose and mission; it has a specific social function. In the business enterprise, this means economic performance. With respect to this first task, the task of economic performance, business and nonbusiness institutions differ. In respect to every other task, they are similar. But only business has economic performance as its specific mission; it is the definition of a business that it exists for the sake of economic performance. In all other institutions—hospital, church, university, or armed services—economic considerations are a restraint. In business enterprise, economic performance is the rationale and purpose. Business management must always, in every decision and action, put economic performance first. It can justify its existence and its authority only by the economic results it produces. A business management has failed if it does not produce economic results. It has failed if it does not supply goods and services desired by the consumer at a price the consumer is willing to pay. It has failed if it does not improve, or at least maintain, the wealth-producing capacity of the economic resources entrusted to it. And this, whatever the economic or political structure or ideology of a society, means responsibility for profitability. Worker Achievement The second task of management is to make work productive and the worker effective. A business enterprise (or any other institution) has only one true resource: people. It succeeds by making human resources productive. It accomplishes its goals through work. To make work productive is, therefore, an essential function. But at the same time, these institutions in today’s society are increasingly the means through which individual human beings find their livelihood, find their access to social status, to community and to individual achievement and satisfaction. To make the worker productive is, therefore, more and more important and is a measure of the performance of an institution. It is increasingly a task of management. Organizing work according to its own logic is only the first step. The second and far more difficult one is making work suitable for human beings—and their logic is radically different from the logic of work. Making the worker achieving implies consideration of the human being as an organism having peculiar physiological and psychological properties, abilities, and limitations, and a distinct mode of action. Social Responsibilities The third task of management is managing the social impacts and the social responsibilities of the enterprise. None of our institutions exists by itself and is an end in itself. Every one is an organ of society and exists for the sake of society. Business is no exception. Free enterprise cannot be justified as being good for business; it can be justified only as being good for society. Business exists to supply goods and services to customers, rather than to supply jobs to workers and managers, or even dividends to stockholders. The hospital does not exist for the sake of doctors and nurses, but for the sake of patients whose one and only desire is to leave the hospital cured and never comeback. Psychologically, geographically, culturally, and socially, institutions must be part of the community. To discharge its job, to produce economic goods and services, the business enterprise has to have impact on people, on communities, and on society. It has to have power and authority over people, e.g., employees, whose own ends and purposes are not defined by and within the enterprise. It has to have impact on the community as a neighbor, as the source of jobs and tax revenue (but also of waste products and pollutants). And, increasingly, in our pluralist society of organizations, it has to add to its fundamental concern for the quantities of life—i.e., economic goods and services—concern for the quality of life, that is, for the physical, human, and social environment of modern man and modern community. A Philosophy of Management What the business enterprise needs is a principle of management that will give full scope to individual strength and responsibility, and at the same time give common direction of vision and effort, establish team work, and harmonize the goals of the individual with the common weal. The only principle that can do this is management by objectives and self-control. It makes the commonweal the aim of every manager. It substitutes for control from outside the stricter, more exacting and more effective control from the inside. It motivates the manager to action not because somebody tells him to do something or talks him into doing it, but because the objective needs of his task demand it. He acts not because somebody wants him to but because he himself decides that he has to—he acts, in other words, as a free man. Picking People the Basic Rules Making the right people decisions is the ultimate means of controlling an organization well. Such decisions reveal how competent management is, what its values are, and whether it takes its job seriously. No matter how hard managers try to keep their decisions a secret—and some still try hard—people decisions cannot be hidden. They are eminently visible. Decision-Making and the Computer The Effective Executive Peter F. Drucker As a result, decision-making can no longer be confined to the very small group at the top. In one way or another almost every knowledge worker in an organization will either have to become a decision-maker himself or will at least have to be able to play an active, an intelligent, and an autonomous part in the decision-making process. What in the past had been a highly specialized function, discharged by a small and usually clearly defined organ—with the rest adapting within a mold of custom and usage—is rapidly becoming a normal if not an everyday task of every single unit in this new social institution, the large-scale knowledge organization. The ability to make effective decisions increasingly determines the ability of every knowledge worker, at least of those in responsible positions, to be effective altogether. There are additional implications of the computer for decision-making. If properly used, for instance, it should free senior executives from much of the preoccupation with events inside the organization to which they are now being condemned by the absence or tardiness of reliable information. It should make it much easier for the executive to go and look for himself on the outside; that is, in the area where alone an organization can have results. There is indeed ample reason why the appearance of the computer has sparked interest in decision-making. But the reason is not that the computer will “take over” the decision. The reason is that with the computer’s taking over computation, people all the way down the line in the organization will have to learn to be executives and to make effective decisions. 管理的范畴 彼得·德鲁克 商业企业和公共服务机构一样也是社会的基本组成部分。它们的存在不是为了自己，而是为了实现某种特定目标和满足社会、组织或个人的某种特殊需求。它们本身不是目的，而是手段和工具。对企业提出的正确问题不是“企业是什么？”，而是“它们应该做什么？”和“它们的任务是什么？” “管理层是什么？”这个问题是次要的，首先我们必须根据并通过管理层的任务来对它下定义。 管理层面对着三项必须执行以确保组织机构履行其自身的职责和功能并完成任务，他们同样重要，但性质不同。 1)确保组织机构的特定目标和使命，无论其为企业，医院或是大学； 2)使工作富有成效，员工工作效率更高； 3)对社会产生影响并肩负起社会责任。 使命 一个组织机构是为了其特定的目标和使命而存在，并有着特定的社会功能。企业的使命和社会功能就是创造经济业绩。 就第一项任务——经济业绩而言，企业和非企业组织是不同的。而他们其他的任务则非常相似。但只有企业才把创造经济业绩作为其特定使命；我们为旗下的定义为：为创造经济业绩而存在的组织。而其他组织如医院、教堂、医院、大学和军队是不以经济业绩为目标和使命的。作为企业，经济业绩却是基本的任务和目标。 企业做任何决策和行动都会把经济业绩放在首位。只有通过它生产的成果才能证明它的存在的价值。如果管理层无法使得企业创造经济成就，那它就是失败的；如果企业不能提供有消费意愿的消费者能支付价格的范围内的产品和服务，那么它就是失败的；如果企业不能改进或提高创造财富的能力，那么它同样是失败的。这就意味着，无论社会实行什么样的经济或者政治政策，企业的责任都是盈利。 使员工取得成就 管理层的第二项任务就是使员工工作卓有成效并取得成就。企业或任何其他组织机构只有一种真正的资源：人。企业管理层通过有效地利用人力资源而使得企业达到成功。企业的管理层通过工作获得业绩。因此，使工作富有成效使管理层的基本任务。但同时，当今社会的各种组织机构越来越成为个人发挥自己专业特长，谋求自身在社会、团体中的地位，以及寻求自我成功、实现自我价值的场所。所以，使员工取得成就就日益重要，并且成为衡量组织机构业绩的一种尺度，并成为了管理层的一项任务。 根据工作本身的规律来组织工作仅仅是工作富有成效的第一步。使工作富有成效的第二步要困难得多，它需要使工作室和员工去做——这一规律和工作本身的规律是截然不同的。要使员工取得成就，这意味着要将人作为一种具有各种独特的生理和心理特征、能力，以及具有各种独特的局限性和独特的行为方式的生命个体来对待。 社会责任 管理的第三项任务就是使企业承担起社会责任，对社会产生积极的影响。没有一个组织机构可以独立于社会，并以自己为目的。每一个机构都是社会的一个组成部分，为社会而存在。企业机构也不例外。我们不能因为自由的企业对商业界有利就想当然地认为它是正当的，只有它有利于社会时，我们才可以认为它是正当的。 企业的存在并不是为工人和管理者提供工作岗位或是为向股东提供红利，而是为了向消费者提供商品或服务。医院的存在也不是为了医生和护士，而是为了那些想通过医院的治疗就能不在重返医院的患者提供医疗服务。从心理的角度、地理的角度、文化的角度和社会的角度来看，各种组织机构都应该是整个社会的组成部分。 为了做好自己的本职工作——创造和提供更经济的物品和服务，企业必然会对民众、社团、和社会起到一定的作用。企业就必须对某些人，例如那些自己的目的和目标并不局限于企业的雇员，行使自己的责权。企业必然对社会的其他成员起到某种作用，例如，它与社会其他成员有着一种“邻里关系”，它为社会其他成员提供就业岗位，为政府提供税收来源，同时，它也会造成产品的浪费和环境的污染。于是，在我们这个由各种组织机构组成的、具有各种功能的社会中，企业就必须逐渐地将自己的基本注意力放在人类生活的量（即不断通过向社会提供更多的产品和服务）和质（即通过不断提高与现代人和现代社会相适应的物质、生活、社会环境质量）上。 基本管理原则 企业所需要的管理原则必须既能充分调动每个员工的专长和责任感，同时又能规定共同的努力方向和愿景，开展团队工作，并对个人目标和共同利益进行协调。 能做到这一点的唯一途径就是实施目标管理和自我管理。目标管理和自我管理能把企业的共同利益变成每个管理人员的目标，并且以要求更高、更严并富有成效的内部控制来取代外部控制。这种管理原则会激励管理者采取行动，不是因为有人要他们这样或说服他们这么做，而是因为他们的目标需要他们采取行动。管理人员之所以会采取行动，不是因为有人要求他们，而是因为他们自己决定要采取行动。换句话说，他们能够向自由人一样行动。 用人决策的基本原则 正确的人事决策是控制好组织机构的重要手段。人事决策体现了管理层的竞争力和他们的价值观，以及他们对待本职工作的态度。无论管理者如何设法保密他的人事决策，虽然有人还正在这么做，但人事决策是不会被隐瞒的。它们是显而易见的。 这样一来，决策不再是最高层中少数人的事。在现代机构户，几乎每个知识工作者或多或少都已成为决策者，要不至少也得在决策的过程个发挥着积极的、主动的和令人大开眼界的作用。在过去，决策是一件高度专业化的工作，它是由极少数人和专业部门来做的。而对其他部门来说，只是按照某种习惯的模式贯彻执行这些决策罢了。可是在当前那些规模较大的知识机构中，决策正在变成一种常规工作．尽管目前尚未达到日常工作的程度。进行有效决策的能力．现在已越来越成为知识工作者工作能力强弱的一种表现，至少对那些想提高工作效率、负有一定责任的知识工作者更是如此。 决策和电脑 彼得·德鲁克 电脑当然还可以用于决策的其他方面。比如，只要使用适当，电脑可以帮助高级管理者从繁杂的事务中解脱出来。由于缺乏可靠的信息，他们往往不得不埋头于那些事务之中。有了电脑后，管理者就会有更多的机会走到外界去看一看，因为只有外界才是企业效益的真正根源。 的确有充分的理由可以说明，电脑的出现已激起了人们对决策的新兴趣。但这并不是说电脑将会“取代”人来进行决策。电脑真正的好处是它可以代替人进行复杂的运算，从而使机构内的各层管理人员有更多的时间可以学习如何当好管理者，如何做出卓有成效的决策。

英语毕业论文参考文献的正文注释格式范文

英语毕业论文参考文献的正文注释格式范文

英语毕业论文参考文献注释格式范文

英语毕业论文参考文献注释格式范文

正文中的注释和参考文献是论文格式最为重要的部分，请论文作者逐条仔细阅读。建议先做好参考文献格式，再对照格式要求作夹注。

分脚注和夹注两种，。

1)脚注

正文内容如有需作出特别说明或解释之处以脚注的形式处理，编号格式设置为“○1,○2,○3…”，编号方式设置为“每页重新编号”，脚注会自动出现在当页正文下。字体采用默认值(小五号)。

2)夹注

对论文中的直接引用或间接引用部分所依据的文献以夹注的形式标出。夹注可以采用以下几种形式：

作者姓氏未在引文中出现，则夹注用括号标出作者姓氏，空一格字母再标出引文页码。为避免不必要的麻烦，中文作者用全名。

引用一位作者

“Time is no longer felt as an objective, causal progression with clearly marked-out differences between periods…” (Frank 20)

As the British novelist-critic Christine Brooke-Rose has put it, the novelists now have nothing new to tell since what should be told have been told altogether (Yin Qiping 33-35) .

引用两位作者

Medieval Europe was a place both of “raids, pillages, slavery, and extortion” and of “traveling merchants, monetary exchange, towns if not cities, and active markets in gain” (Townsend & Waugh 10-16).

作者有三个以上，

则在第一位作者的姓氏后写上et al.以示其余姓氏的省略，或列上全部姓氏，夹注中的形式应与参考文献中的形式保持一致。

Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Graff et al. 19-35).

Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Graff, Goldberger, & Tarule 15-20).

同姓作者

还需加名的开头字母予以区分，如：

Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).

文本中不指名列举持某一观点的'作者

Others hold the opposite point of view (e.g., Jakobson 9;Waugh 34)

作者姓氏在引文中出现，则只需用括号标出引文页码

Graff defines his recent book, Professing Literature, as “a history of academic literary studies in the United States” (10).

如在引文中提及整个文献及作者姓氏(不必夹注，但参考文献中要注明相关出版信息)

Slade’s revision of Form and Style incorporates changes made in the 1995 edition of the MLA Handbook.

集体作者如果组织名称太长，第一次提及时可采用全称后加注缩略

The annual report revealed substantial progress in fundraising (American Museum of Natural History 12, hereafter AMNH).

以后直接用缩略形式做夹注

The report surveys the major problems in fundraising (AMNH 15).

引用多卷本中的一卷

Between the years 1945 and 1972, the political party system in the United States underwent profound changes (Schlesinger, vol. 4).

Schlesinger pointed out the profound changes the political party system in the United States underwent between 1945 and 1972 (4: 98-104).

引文出自同一作者的不同文献

引用同一作者的两篇以上的文献, 可以分别以文献名全名(如果文献全名简短的话)或文献名的缩略形式(如果文献全名较长的话)注释。

文本中未出现引文作者姓氏，也未出现文献名的，夹注用括号标出作者姓氏，姓氏后加逗号，空一格字母标出带下划线的该作者的书名，书名后空一格字母标出引文页码，如：

Shakespeare’s King Lear has been called a “comedy of the grotesque” (Frye, The Anatomy of Criticism 237).

文本中出现作者姓氏的，夹注用括号标出带下划线的该作者的书名，空一格字母再标出引文页码，如：

Shaughnessy points out that “the beginning writer does not know how writers behave” (Errors 79).

若引文出自杂志，则把文章名放在双引号内，空一格字母再标出引文页码，如：

Teachers applauded Shaughnessy’s assertion that “teaching them [beginning writers] to write well is not only suitable but challenging work for those who would be teachers and scholars in a democracy” (“Diving In” 68).

文本中既出现作者姓氏又出现该作者的书名或文章名，则只需标出引文页码

In The Age of Voltaire, the Durants portray eighteenth-century England as a minor force in the world of music and art (214-48).

一个夹注中涉及一篇以上文献

(Lauter 34; Crane 98)

...as has been discussed elsewhere (Burke 3; Dewey 21).

转引

Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (Johnson qtd. in Boswell 2: 450)

Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd. in Boswell 2: 450)

引文来自于中文作者(对“孔子”等已有英文译名的必须使用标准译名，如Confucius 33; Mencius 22-25)

(Hu Zhuanglin 33)

(Zhu Xianzhi & Lin Chongde 89)

(Xu Guozhang et al. 33-35)

(Confucius 33)

短引文 (四行以内或诗歌三行以内)

引文须加双引号，括号内提供作者、页码(诗歌的话提供诗行)信息，标点符号在括号之后。如果问号、感叹号若是引文的一部分，则须放在引言内，否则，也放在括号之后。

According to some, dreams express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184), though others disagree.

According to Foulkes's study, dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (184).

Is it possible that dreams may express "profound aspects of personality" (Foulkes 184)?

诗行与诗行之间用“/”隔开，如：

Cullen concludes, "Of all the things that happened there/ That's all I remember" (11-12).

长引文

如果引文较长，超过4行，拟另起一行，不加引号，左边缩进10个英文字母, 夹注紧随引文末尾，句点应放在引用括号之前。

At the conclusion of Lord of the Flies, Ralph and the other boys realize the horror of their actions:

The tears began to flow and sobs shook him. He gave himself up to them now for the first time on the island; great, shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole body. His voice rose under the black smoke before the burning wreckage of the island; and infected by that emotion, the other little boys began to shake and sob too. (186)

引文为两段或两段以上，或引文来自诗歌，或引文来自剧本，或引文附带译文，详细说明分别参考《MLA科研论文写作规范》82页;83-84页;85页;93页。注意引文来自诗歌等韵文时，可以篇次和行次代替夹注中的页码;引文来自剧本等文献时，以幕次、场次和行次代替页码。

引文中的添加与省略

在添加的词两头加“[ ]”。

Jan Harold Brunvand, in an essay on urban legends, states: “some individuals [who retell urban legends] make a point of learning every rumor or tale” (78).

在省略的此处用省略号“…”代替，省略号前后各空一字母。

In an essay on urban legends, Jan Harold Brunvand notes that “some individuals make a point of learning every recent rumor or tale ... and in a short time a lively exchange of details occurs” (78).

词典词条

将词条在双引号中列出，后加 “def.”，空一字母后再加页码。

According to The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, “study” means “application of the mind to the acquisition of knowledge, as by reading, investigation, or reflection” (“Study,” def. 1888).

5. 关于参考文献

说明：

1)参考文献部分以Times New Roman小四号正体加粗居中标明“Works Cited”列在正文后(或尾注后)，另页书写。“Works Cited”与第一个参考文献之间空一行。不得罗列同正文没有直接关系的文献，参考文献条目与引文夹注要对应。外文文献排列在前，以姓氏的首字母为序排列，中文文献排列在后，以姓氏的拼音为序排列。每条文献顶格写，回行时英文空5个字母，中文空两格。

2) 建议论文作者多使用英文原版图书和学术期刊文献。引用英文原版图书和学术期刊文献至少2本(篇)以上。

4)主要作者(编者、译者)采用姓在前，名在后的形式，作者姓与名之间用逗号分隔(中文姓名不用分隔);2人以内全部写上，第2 者起姓名按正常顺序，两个主要作者(编者、译者)之间英语的加“&”、中文的加 “、”三个主要作者(编者、译者)以上只写第一人再加“et al.”或“等”(中文)。

5)英文图书、期刊、报纸一律使用斜体，如果图书中包含作品名，作品名使用正体。例如：

Parkes, Adam. Kazuo Ishiguro’s The Remains of the Day. New York & London: Continuum, 2001.

6)中文图书等采用汉英对照形式，以便正文中统一按照英文模式(格式同英文文献)做夹注，列中文图书、期刊、报纸一律使用书名号，作者与作者之间用“、”号，英 语文 献中的句点在中文文献中用宋体字体下的逗号代替、冒号也要是宋体字体下的冒号，且汉字之间或标点与汉字之间没有空格。中文文献的英文模式须加“[ ]”，下面参考文献格式不再赘述。例如：

王守仁、方杰，《英国文学简史》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2006年。

[Wang Shouren & Fang Jie. A Concise History of English Literature. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006.]

7)除了版本研究(如翻译版本对照研究)之外，不宜将同一本书的英文版本和中文版本同时列为参考文献。英 语文 学论文作者必须使用所研究作品的英文版本。

8) 非单行本短篇小说一般应参照文章格式处理，例如：

Joyce, James. “Araby.” Dubliners. London: Penguin, 1967.