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industrial designdesign of products made by large-scale industry for mass distribution. Designing such products means, first, planning their structure, operation, and appearance and then planning these to fit efficient production, distribution, and selling procedures. Clearly, appearance is but one factor in such a complex process. Nevertheless, in consumer goods especially, appearance design is widely accepted as the principal virtue of industrial design; it is that portion of the whole least subject to rational analysis and, like craft secrets of the past, most advantageous in commercial competition. On the other hand, design of equipment for production, for services, and for sports is expected to demonstrate utility; but in these products, too, appearance design is increasingly design is supplied to manufacturers by three kinds of designers: staff designers, fully employed by one firm; designers under contract, who may serve several clients simultaneously, generally avoiding conflicts of interest; and free-lancers, who sell designs, often with royalty agreements, to the best-paying first industrial designer recognized as such worked under admirable conditions: Peter Behrens (1868–1940) in 1907 was hired by the Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft in Germany to be their architect, industrial designer, and graphic designer—in fact, to give unified visible character to the numerous activities of a giant enterprise. Behrens had other clients and professional duties besides. A member of the architectural profession, Behrens applied its standards and ethics to his work as industrial designer, founding in 1907, with others, an important association of designers and businessmen, the Deutscher Werkbund. As a direct result, a number of these German and Swiss associations became well-established professional organizations of industrial designers. In the United States and Great Britain industrial designers initiated legally recognized professional associations, with codes of conduct, educational standards, etc. In London the Royal Society of Arts designates qualifying practitioners as Royal Designers for Industry; in the United States the Industrial Designers Society of America grants memberships only to those subscribing to codes and limitations of practice. In Britain the Council of Industrial Design was established in 1944 to advise on design, recommend designers, and provide courses in design appreciation for trade and exhibitions for the public. The International Council of Societies of Industrial Design was founded in London in 1957, and within 25 years it had members in more than 40 design has evolved no unified style, even for industries in which handwork is minimized. There have been, however, four significant style trends. The first of these is an emphasis on impersonality that Behrens was the first to establish. Design for industry, whether determined by an individual or by a group, shows a certain neutrality of expression. Impersonality has, on the one hand, been acclaimed as a natural aspect of mass production and marketing, of average taste in a democratic community; on the other hand, it has been criticized as submission to the machine, contradictory to free, individual expression. The style has, so far, second trend in industrial design is packaging, such that the designer provides a protective case for a product, leaving the inner workings to engineers. Complicated mechanical and electronic assemblies that have come into common use require protective shells for safety, cleanliness, and orderly appearance. In this instance, industrial designers are sometimes accused of superficial embellishment of a sort suitable to package design and third trend is streamlining, a design principle pioneered by Raymond Loewy and others in the 1930s and still widely employed, although the term itself has fallen out of fashion. As the name suggests, streamlining is characterized by contours designed to minimize resistance to motion through a fluid (as air). Originally associated with trains, automobiles, and other vehicles, the bullet shapes and sleek lines of streamlining were seized by industrial designers and applied to objects (., toasters) intrinsically unassociated with fourth trend is artificially accelerated obsolescence, that is, design changes that intentionally tempt owners to replace goods with new purchases more frequently than would be necessary as a result of normal wear and tear or established custom. Beginning in the field of fashion, artificial obsolescence has become something of a custom itself in industrialized countries. It operates through public opinion molded by advertising, through price changes, and through improvement and change in utility as well as through appearance change provided by designers. Its assessment must be established on wide social and economic considerations, not on design values alone. Especially in the design of automobiles and large home appliances, artificial obsolescence has aroused strong criticism; yet, because of its demonstrable economic effectiveness, it is used increasingly. It is an essential aspect of fashion and has met with wide approval in the form of disposability in health and hygiene design is a growing force, influencing and influenced by world economy, private efficacy and enjoyment, the arts, engineering, and, not least, education. It has contributed more to economic activity than to aesthetic achievement, and many see the latter as its greatest challenge. The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, among other institutions, has sought to recognize outstanding contributions to industrial design.

第17 卷第4 期 皮 革 科 学 与 工 程 Vol117 ,No142007 年8 月L EATHER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Aug1 2007Artical ID :1004 - 7964 (2007) 04 - 0003 - 06Received Date :20072052213 P. Mokrejs :Corresponding author. Phone N°: + 420 57 603 1230 ;Fax N°: + 420 57 603 1563 ;e2mail :mokrejs @f t . utb. c2Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning LiquorsP. Mok rejs1 3, D. J anacova2 ,M. Mladek1 , K. Kolomaz nik2 , F. L angmaier1 ,V . V asek2(1. Tomas B ata University , Faculty of Technology , Department of Protein and Leather , 275 , 762 72 Zlin, The Czech Republic ;2. Tomas B ata University , Faculty ofA p plied Inf ormatics , Institute of Processing Cont rol and A p plied Computer Science ,N ad S t ranemi 4511 , 760 05 Zlin, The Czech Republic)Abstract :Tannery belongs to typical indust rial branches which during t he technological processp roduce considerable quantities of liquid and solid wastes cont ributing to polluting t he environ2ment . The presented work describes dechromation of waste tanning liquor utilising chrome sludgep roduced t hrough enzymatic hydrolysis of chrome2tanned leat her wastes. The principle of dechro2mation consist s in sorption of chrome f rom waste liquor af ter tanning to chrome sludge. Recy2cling technology is characterised by an almost 99 % efficiency , simplicity and low investment re2quirement words :solid waste ;liquid waste ;chrome sludge ;waste tanning liquor ;chrome recoveryCLC number :X 794 Document code :A鞣制废液的循环技术摘 要:制革属于典型的工业分支,制革工业中会产生大量的污染环境的废液和废固。该论文利用铬鞣革废物的酶法水解用铬污泥除去鞣制废液中的铬。除去铬的原理是鞣后的铬污泥从废液中吸收铬。该循环技术回收率可达99 % ,操作简单、成本低廉。关键词:固体废弃物;液体废弃物;铬污泥;鞣制废液;铬回收1 INTRODUCTIONThe tanning indust ry p rocesses wastes of themeat indust ry , raw hides , and t ransforms t hemt hrough chemical , chemico2p hysical and mechani2cal processes into leather s. During t he technologi2cal process , solid and liquid wastes arise which ,particularly as a consequence of t he cont rover sialchrome t hey contain , burden the environment .Processing one met ric ton of raw hide produces ap2prox. 200 kg finished leat her . About 30 , 000 kgwastewaters arise through processing and moret han 70 % chrome passes into liquid and solidwastes [1 ] .In classic tanning , approx. 40 % chrome (t hestarting charge of 15 - 17 kg Cr / t ) remains inleat her , 26 % - 30 % chrome passes into solidwastes and 30 % - 34 % chrome remains in liquidwastes. In t he tanning of hides using technologicalprocedures ensuring high removal of chrome com2pounds by white hide , 54 % - 57 % chrome remains© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. leat her , 31 % - 38 % chrome passes into solidwastes and 5 % - 15 % remains in liquid wastes [2 ] .For modifying t he tanning process , organic acids ,e. g. are used , which cont ribute to improving theremoval of chrome . 1 Liquid wasteManufacture of chrome2tanned leat hers pro2duces 115 - 2 times quantities of wastewater s t hanmanufact ure of vegetable2tanned leat her s [3 ] . Los2ses of chrome compounds in waste tanning liquor smay be prevented in several ways. The simplestapproach is the direct recycling method consistingin re2using exhausted liquor in t he tanning main shortcoming of t his method is a negativeeffect of salt s and other contaminating substanceson quality of finished leather . Af ter being recycledseveral times , wastewater has to be discharged intosewage [4 ] . Anot her potential met hod is indirectrecycling , in which chrome is obtained f rom ex2hausted sludge t hrough precipitation using a suit2able alkaline agent , e. g. sodium hydroxide , sodi2um carbonate , sodium hydrogen carbonate , mag2nesium oxide , calcium sulp hate , calcium hydroxide[5 ] . A f urt her met hod consist s in employing elabo2rate techniques , e. g. elect ro2dialysis , membraneseparation , ion exchangers , wit h which chromemay be separated f rom ot her salt s contained in ex2hausted sludge. Chrome thus obtained is character2ised by much higher p urity than that obtainedt hrough indirect recycling. Disadvantages are ahigh cost and limited po ssibilities of applying t hesedemanding technologies in tanning factories [ 4 ] .Unutilised chrome in liquid wastes , apartf rom significant economic losses for tanneries , al soposes great hazard for t he environment and forman. The most stable and most important oxida2tion state is Cr ( III) . Compounds of Cr (VI) occurin t he form of chromates and dichromates and ex2hibit quite st rong oxidative properties [6 ] .Chrome is found in liquid tanning wastes in it st rivalent form , there exist s , however , potentialdanger of it s oxidising to hexavalent compounds ,particularly when t reating groundwater s to drink2ing waters. Hexavalent compounds , when com2bined wit h calcium or magnesium ions , are st rong2ly carcinogenic[7 , 8 ] .An extensive research exploring negativeeffect s of tanning wastewaters f rom local tannerieson t he adjacent ecosystem was conducted in Indi2a[9 ] . Highest level s of chrome contained in soilwere found in t he vicinity of tanneries , at g/ kg. Highest chrome accumulation was ob2served in cauliflower stalks (72 mg/ kg) in locali2ties near tanneries. In st udies investigating Cr ac2cumulation in fish organs it was found t hat mostchrome accumulates in t he liver (approx. 22 mg/kg) and least in muscles (approx. 1 mg/ kg) . Thepo ssible t ransfer of hazardous Cr doses into t hefood chain and consequently to human beings ist hus quite Sol id wasteTannery processing al so produces a considera2ble quantity of solid chrome2tanned wastes whichpresent a significant problem due to t heir chromecontent . The problem of solid wastes has beensolved so far by land filling which , of course , be2side ever increasing land filling co st s al so bringst he danger of chrome escaping into t he to t heir containing a sizeable proportion ofprotein material , solid tanned wastes started to beprocessed. Enzymatic hydrolysis has being em2ployed to considerable extent in latest year s , wit hit s particular advantages being mild reaction condi2tions and economic cost2effectiveness [10 , 11 ] . Themain product of enzymatic hydrolysis is collagenhydrolysate , whose application possibilities arebroad , e. g. as feed additive , nit rogenous fertili2ser , raw material for preparing adhesives , corro2sion inhibitor s , etc. The remaining waste productaf ter enzymatic hydrolysis (chrome sludge) has notyet found lucrative application. It s employment ,due to chrome content , has not been much adoptedfor preparing combined tanning bat of the presented work is potential use4 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. t he waste product af ter enzymatic hydrolysis ofchrome2tanned solid wastes (chrome sludge) for i2solating chrome compounds f rom waste tanningliquor MATERIALS AND METHODSSolid was determined according to ISO 4684[12 ] , ash according to ISO 4047 : 1998[13 ] , nit rogenaccording to ISO 5397 : 1984 [14 ] , Cr2 O3 accordingto ISO 5398 [ 15 ] , Cr according to ISO 9174 : 1998[16 ] and Mg according to ASTM D511203 [ 17 ] .Chrome sludge is a waste product of enzymatichydrolysis of chrome2tanned solid waste and it scomposition is given in Tab. 1. Typical composi2tion of chrome2tanned solid waste is given in Composition of chrome sludge1)表1 铬污泥成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 1614Ash/ % 3410N / % 114Cr2O3 / % 1215MgO / % 1115 1) based on total solidsTab12 Composition of chrome2tanned solid waste1)表2 铬鞣革固体废弃物成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 6911Ash/ % 1019N/ % 2011Cr2O3 / % 415 1) based on total solidsTab13 Composition of waste tanning liquor表3 鞣制废液成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 718Ash/ %1) 8713N/ %1) 018Cr/ (mg/ kg) 1 ,769Mg/ (mg/ kg) 693p H 412colour blue2green 1) based on total solidsWaste tanning liquor was obtained f rom tan2ning of cowhides and it s composition is presentedin Tab. experimental part was divided into twopart s. The fir st part contained five selected massratio s of chrome sludge ∶ waste liquor and threevarious dechromation times , see Table 4. Practicaldechromation was performed under laboratory con2ditions by stirring chrome sludge with waste tan2ning liquor at room temperat ure in accordance wit ht he scheme shown in Fig. 1. Af ter dechromation ,t he heterogeneous mixt ure was cent rif uged. A partof supernatant was analysed for Cr content . Theinvestigated object in view was quantity of residualchrome in waste tanning liquor af ter second part of test s followed up result s ofwaste liquor dechromation efficiency in t he first ex2perimental part . The mass ratio of chrome sludge∶waste liquor producing greatest dechromation ef2ficiency was selected and a series of test s per2formed to t he p urpo se of st udying dechromation re2action 1 Scheme of dechromation of waste tanning liquor图1 鞣制废液的脱铬流程3 RESULTSTest s and dechromation result s at variousmass ratios of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor and va2rious dechromation times are shown in t hen shows dechromation result s at mass ra2tio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and va2rious dechromation times. Each test was performedt hreefold and arit hmetic mean calculated , standarddeviation ranged wit hin ±5 %.第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 5© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor at mass ratios of Cr sludge/ waste liq. and dechromation times表4 铬污泥与废液不同质量比以及不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果( g)sludge :liquort/ minIn2processpHCr liq. /( mg/ kg)Eff iciency/ %1 7114 ∶50 30 6134 - 7108 807 54142 90 190 89123 180 116 93154 20183 ∶50 30 6195 - 7148 146 91175 90 58 96176 180 33 98117 35171 ∶50 30 7121 - 7168 53 97108 90 33 98119 180 36 981010 50 ∶50 30 7130 - 7190 24 981711 90 23 981712 180 17 991013 70 ∶50 30 7148 - 8102 41 971714 90 32 981215 180 79 9516 1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor = 1769 mg/ kgTab1 5 Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor andtimes1)表5 铬污泥与废液质量比为1 ∶1 不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果 minIn processpHCr liq./ ( mg/ kg)Eff iciency/ %1 4 7120 - 7133 438 75122 8 7127 - 7145 351 80123 12 7151 - 7189 299 83114 16 7176 - 7194 230 87105 20 7180 - 7191 206 88146 24 7181 - 7194 200 88177 28 7181 - 7196 139 92118 32 7182 - 7199 43 97169 36 7188 - 8103 32 981210 40 7190 - 8104 19 981911 60 7186 - 8106 28 981412 80 7187 - 8107 22 981813 100 7180 - 8111 35 9810 1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor =1769 mg/ kg ;mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1∶1Figure 2 shows column plot s representing re2sidual chrome content in waste tanning liquor af tert he dechromation procedure at various chromesludge ∶waste liquor ratios and various dechroma2tion times. With a mass ratio of 1 ∶7 af ter 30 mindechromation , a drop of chrome in liquor exceeding50 % was found , af ter 180 min the dechromationefficiency was greatest . Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶214 ,t he tendency of chrome content in liquor to de2crease wit h time was at it s greatest , residualchrome content in liquor coming down to 3314 ppmwhich represent s dechromation efficiency exceeding98 %. Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶114 t he tendency ofchrome decrease is similar , when t he greatest dropof chrome content in liquor was already recordedaf ter 90 min of dechromation ( to 3312 mg/ kg) .Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶1 , lowest level s of residualchrome in liquor were already at tained in 30 min ofdechromation app rox. 24 mg/ kg , representing al2most 99 % dechromation efficiency. A f urt her in2crease in dechromation times produced but negli2gibly decreased chrome content in liquor . Wit h aratio of 114 ∶1 , t he greatest drop of chrome con2tent in liquor was recorded af ter 90 min dechroma2tion. Fig13 shows dechromation kinetics of wastetanning liquor at mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and various dechromationtimes. From result s it is obvious t hat af ter 40 min6 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. chrome content in waste tanning liq2uor decreased to approx. 20 mg/ kg , which com2pared wit h starting content of chrome in waste tan2ning liquor ( 1769 mg/ kg) signifies almost 99 %chrome removal efficiency. Further increases indechromation time did not show in markedly in2creased chrome removal efficiency , and values ofresidual chrome content in slurry fluct uated be2tween 20 and 35 mg/ DISCUSSIONDuring past decades , a t ransfer occurred of anotable part of tanning plant s f rom economicallyadvanced west European count ries to developingcount ries and to count ries of t he Asian continent .In latest year s , however , t he environmental loadproduced by t hese plant s became unsustainable andintensive negotiations on resolving t he mat ter gotunder way. When rest ructuring existing and con2st ructing new tanning plant s , issues coming partic2ularly under consideration are solid and liquidwastes containing chrome. Contamination ofgroundwater s wit h liquid wastes containing chromeis obvious. Release of chrome f rom solid wastes第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 7© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. proceed particularly t hrough elution by rainwith great hazard of groundwater danger of Cr ( III) oxidising to Cr (VI) was al2ready mentioned in t he fir st part of this cont result s showed t he solid waste product ,chrome sludge , may be successf ully employed to i2solate chrome f rom waste tanning liquors , and t hatwith an efficiency of app rox. 99 %. The advanta2ges of recycling technology may primarily comprisesimplicity and low demand for investment cost s ,which make it ideally applicable when recyclingwaste tanning liquor s especially in tanning plant sin t he developing of chrome2enriched sludge remainsan open issue. A feasible alternative is it s combus2tion and separation of chrome , which may be used ,e. g. in pigment manufacture. A particular compli2cation is presented by accompanying magnesium ,which is undesirable for t hese applications. Isola2ting magnesium f rom chrome sludge will be subjectof a following research. Employment of chrome2enriched sludge for p reparing f resh tanning bathsal so remains an open CONCLUSIONRecycling technology developed for removingchrome f rom waste tanning liquors wit h applicationof waste chrome sludge achieves almost 99 % effi2ciency. Dechromed waste liquor represent s a mini2mal load on t he environment . Chrome2enrichedsludge , following isolation of ot her accompanyingelement s (especially magnesium and calcium) com2plicating it s f urther processing , could serve to pre2pare pigment s. Result s of experimental measure2ment s and an elaborated mat hematical model of re2cycling technology will serve to propose an algo2rit hm of enclosed dechromation cycle cont rol whichwill be t he subject of pilot2plant test : The aut hors would like tot hank to The Minist ry of Education of The CzechRep ublic for financial support to t his work execu2ted under MSM Grant No : :[1 ] Process technology for recovery and recycling of chromi2um f rom leather waste and sludge , BLC , EV5VO542(1994 1996) .[2 ] Ludvik J . Chrome balance in leather processing [ J ] .UNIDO , US/ RAS/ 92/ 120/ 11 - 51 (2000) .[3 ] Mladek M ,et al . Leather indust ry waste t reatment [M] .State Technical Literature Publishing , Prague ( 1971) :261 - 265.[4 ] Rajamani S. A system for recovery and reuse of chromi2um f rom spent tanning liquor using magnesium oxide andsulphuric acid[J ] . UNIDO (2003) .[ 5 ] Covington A D , Sykes R L , Barlow J R , et al. A practi2cal chrome recovery system using magnesium oxide[J ] . JSoc Leather Technol Chem ,1985 , (69) :166 - 174.[6 ]Cotton F , Wilkinson G. Advanced Inorganic Chemist ry( A Comprehensive Text ) [ M ] . Academia , Prague(1973) . 788 - 803.[7 ] Hartford W H. Proceedings Chromium Symposium [J ] .Indust rial Health , Foundation , Pitt sburg (1989) .[8 ]Vijayalakshm R . A Study of the interaction of Cr ( III)complexes and their selective binding with B2DNA. Amolecular modelling approach[J ] . J Biom St ruc Dynam ,2002 (19) :1063 - 1072.[9 ] Chattopadhyay B. The environmental impact of wastechromium of tannery agglomerates in the east Calcuttawetland ecosystem[J ] . J Soc Leather Technol Chem ,2000(84) :94 - 100.[ 10 ] Cabeza L F. Isolation of protein product s f rom chromi2um2containing leather waste using two consecutive en2zymes and purification of final chromium product : Pilotplant studies [ J ] . J Soc Leather Technol Chem , 1999(83) :14 - 19.[11 ] Langmaier F. Product s of enzymatic decomposition ofchrome2tanned leather waste [J ] . J Soc Leather TechnolChem , 1999 (83) :187 - 195.[12 ] ISO 4684 , Determination of volatile matter.[ 13 ] ISO 4047 : 1998 , Determination of sulphated total ashand sulphated water insoluble ash.[14 ] ISO 5397 : 1984 , Determination of nit rogen and hidesubstance.[15 ] ISO 5398 , Determination of chromic oxide.[16 ] ISO 9174 :1998 , Water quality 2 Determination of chro2mium 2 Atomic absorption spect romet ric methods.[17 ]ASTM D511 - 03 , Standard test methods for calciumand magnesium in 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.

[1] 【英】莱夫特瑞;欧美工业设计5大材料顶尖创意;上海人民美术出版社,2007-1[2] 【丹】阿德里安•海斯;西方工业设计300年;吉林美术出版社,2003-3

工业设计英语论文参考文献

[1] 【英】莱夫特瑞;欧美工业设计5大材料顶尖创意;上海人民美术出版社,2007-1[2] 【丹】阿德里安•海斯;西方工业设计300年;吉林美术出版社,2003-3

第17 卷第4 期 皮 革 科 学 与 工 程 Vol117 ,No142007 年8 月L EATHER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Aug1 2007Artical ID :1004 - 7964 (2007) 04 - 0003 - 06Received Date :20072052213 P. Mokrejs :Corresponding author. Phone N°: + 420 57 603 1230 ;Fax N°: + 420 57 603 1563 ;e2mail :mokrejs @f t . utb. c2Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning LiquorsP. Mok rejs1 3, D. J anacova2 ,M. Mladek1 , K. Kolomaz nik2 , F. L angmaier1 ,V . V asek2(1. Tomas B ata University , Faculty of Technology , Department of Protein and Leather , 275 , 762 72 Zlin, The Czech Republic ;2. Tomas B ata University , Faculty ofA p plied Inf ormatics , Institute of Processing Cont rol and A p plied Computer Science ,N ad S t ranemi 4511 , 760 05 Zlin, The Czech Republic)Abstract :Tannery belongs to typical indust rial branches which during t he technological processp roduce considerable quantities of liquid and solid wastes cont ributing to polluting t he environ2ment . The presented work describes dechromation of waste tanning liquor utilising chrome sludgep roduced t hrough enzymatic hydrolysis of chrome2tanned leat her wastes. The principle of dechro2mation consist s in sorption of chrome f rom waste liquor af ter tanning to chrome sludge. Recy2cling technology is characterised by an almost 99 % efficiency , simplicity and low investment re2quirement words :solid waste ;liquid waste ;chrome sludge ;waste tanning liquor ;chrome recoveryCLC number :X 794 Document code :A鞣制废液的循环技术摘 要:制革属于典型的工业分支,制革工业中会产生大量的污染环境的废液和废固。该论文利用铬鞣革废物的酶法水解用铬污泥除去鞣制废液中的铬。除去铬的原理是鞣后的铬污泥从废液中吸收铬。该循环技术回收率可达99 % ,操作简单、成本低廉。关键词:固体废弃物;液体废弃物;铬污泥;鞣制废液;铬回收1 INTRODUCTIONThe tanning indust ry p rocesses wastes of themeat indust ry , raw hides , and t ransforms t hemt hrough chemical , chemico2p hysical and mechani2cal processes into leather s. During t he technologi2cal process , solid and liquid wastes arise which ,particularly as a consequence of t he cont rover sialchrome t hey contain , burden the environment .Processing one met ric ton of raw hide produces ap2prox. 200 kg finished leat her . About 30 , 000 kgwastewaters arise through processing and moret han 70 % chrome passes into liquid and solidwastes [1 ] .In classic tanning , approx. 40 % chrome (t hestarting charge of 15 - 17 kg Cr / t ) remains inleat her , 26 % - 30 % chrome passes into solidwastes and 30 % - 34 % chrome remains in liquidwastes. In t he tanning of hides using technologicalprocedures ensuring high removal of chrome com2pounds by white hide , 54 % - 57 % chrome remains© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. leat her , 31 % - 38 % chrome passes into solidwastes and 5 % - 15 % remains in liquid wastes [2 ] .For modifying t he tanning process , organic acids ,e. g. are used , which cont ribute to improving theremoval of chrome . 1 Liquid wasteManufacture of chrome2tanned leat hers pro2duces 115 - 2 times quantities of wastewater s t hanmanufact ure of vegetable2tanned leat her s [3 ] . Los2ses of chrome compounds in waste tanning liquor smay be prevented in several ways. The simplestapproach is the direct recycling method consistingin re2using exhausted liquor in t he tanning main shortcoming of t his method is a negativeeffect of salt s and other contaminating substanceson quality of finished leather . Af ter being recycledseveral times , wastewater has to be discharged intosewage [4 ] . Anot her potential met hod is indirectrecycling , in which chrome is obtained f rom ex2hausted sludge t hrough precipitation using a suit2able alkaline agent , e. g. sodium hydroxide , sodi2um carbonate , sodium hydrogen carbonate , mag2nesium oxide , calcium sulp hate , calcium hydroxide[5 ] . A f urt her met hod consist s in employing elabo2rate techniques , e. g. elect ro2dialysis , membraneseparation , ion exchangers , wit h which chromemay be separated f rom ot her salt s contained in ex2hausted sludge. Chrome thus obtained is character2ised by much higher p urity than that obtainedt hrough indirect recycling. Disadvantages are ahigh cost and limited po ssibilities of applying t hesedemanding technologies in tanning factories [ 4 ] .Unutilised chrome in liquid wastes , apartf rom significant economic losses for tanneries , al soposes great hazard for t he environment and forman. The most stable and most important oxida2tion state is Cr ( III) . Compounds of Cr (VI) occurin t he form of chromates and dichromates and ex2hibit quite st rong oxidative properties [6 ] .Chrome is found in liquid tanning wastes in it st rivalent form , there exist s , however , potentialdanger of it s oxidising to hexavalent compounds ,particularly when t reating groundwater s to drink2ing waters. Hexavalent compounds , when com2bined wit h calcium or magnesium ions , are st rong2ly carcinogenic[7 , 8 ] .An extensive research exploring negativeeffect s of tanning wastewaters f rom local tannerieson t he adjacent ecosystem was conducted in Indi2a[9 ] . Highest level s of chrome contained in soilwere found in t he vicinity of tanneries , at g/ kg. Highest chrome accumulation was ob2served in cauliflower stalks (72 mg/ kg) in locali2ties near tanneries. In st udies investigating Cr ac2cumulation in fish organs it was found t hat mostchrome accumulates in t he liver (approx. 22 mg/kg) and least in muscles (approx. 1 mg/ kg) . Thepo ssible t ransfer of hazardous Cr doses into t hefood chain and consequently to human beings ist hus quite Sol id wasteTannery processing al so produces a considera2ble quantity of solid chrome2tanned wastes whichpresent a significant problem due to t heir chromecontent . The problem of solid wastes has beensolved so far by land filling which , of course , be2side ever increasing land filling co st s al so bringst he danger of chrome escaping into t he to t heir containing a sizeable proportion ofprotein material , solid tanned wastes started to beprocessed. Enzymatic hydrolysis has being em2ployed to considerable extent in latest year s , wit hit s particular advantages being mild reaction condi2tions and economic cost2effectiveness [10 , 11 ] . Themain product of enzymatic hydrolysis is collagenhydrolysate , whose application possibilities arebroad , e. g. as feed additive , nit rogenous fertili2ser , raw material for preparing adhesives , corro2sion inhibitor s , etc. The remaining waste productaf ter enzymatic hydrolysis (chrome sludge) has notyet found lucrative application. It s employment ,due to chrome content , has not been much adoptedfor preparing combined tanning bat of the presented work is potential use4 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. t he waste product af ter enzymatic hydrolysis ofchrome2tanned solid wastes (chrome sludge) for i2solating chrome compounds f rom waste tanningliquor MATERIALS AND METHODSSolid was determined according to ISO 4684[12 ] , ash according to ISO 4047 : 1998[13 ] , nit rogenaccording to ISO 5397 : 1984 [14 ] , Cr2 O3 accordingto ISO 5398 [ 15 ] , Cr according to ISO 9174 : 1998[16 ] and Mg according to ASTM D511203 [ 17 ] .Chrome sludge is a waste product of enzymatichydrolysis of chrome2tanned solid waste and it scomposition is given in Tab. 1. Typical composi2tion of chrome2tanned solid waste is given in Composition of chrome sludge1)表1 铬污泥成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 1614Ash/ % 3410N / % 114Cr2O3 / % 1215MgO / % 1115 1) based on total solidsTab12 Composition of chrome2tanned solid waste1)表2 铬鞣革固体废弃物成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 6911Ash/ % 1019N/ % 2011Cr2O3 / % 415 1) based on total solidsTab13 Composition of waste tanning liquor表3 鞣制废液成份Parameter ValueTS/ % 718Ash/ %1) 8713N/ %1) 018Cr/ (mg/ kg) 1 ,769Mg/ (mg/ kg) 693p H 412colour blue2green 1) based on total solidsWaste tanning liquor was obtained f rom tan2ning of cowhides and it s composition is presentedin Tab. experimental part was divided into twopart s. The fir st part contained five selected massratio s of chrome sludge ∶ waste liquor and threevarious dechromation times , see Table 4. Practicaldechromation was performed under laboratory con2ditions by stirring chrome sludge with waste tan2ning liquor at room temperat ure in accordance wit ht he scheme shown in Fig. 1. Af ter dechromation ,t he heterogeneous mixt ure was cent rif uged. A partof supernatant was analysed for Cr content . Theinvestigated object in view was quantity of residualchrome in waste tanning liquor af ter second part of test s followed up result s ofwaste liquor dechromation efficiency in t he first ex2perimental part . The mass ratio of chrome sludge∶waste liquor producing greatest dechromation ef2ficiency was selected and a series of test s per2formed to t he p urpo se of st udying dechromation re2action 1 Scheme of dechromation of waste tanning liquor图1 鞣制废液的脱铬流程3 RESULTSTest s and dechromation result s at variousmass ratios of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor and va2rious dechromation times are shown in t hen shows dechromation result s at mass ra2tio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and va2rious dechromation times. Each test was performedt hreefold and arit hmetic mean calculated , standarddeviation ranged wit hin ±5 %.第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 5© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor at mass ratios of Cr sludge/ waste liq. and dechromation times表4 铬污泥与废液不同质量比以及不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果( g)sludge :liquort/ minIn2processpHCr liq. /( mg/ kg)Eff iciency/ %1 7114 ∶50 30 6134 - 7108 807 54142 90 190 89123 180 116 93154 20183 ∶50 30 6195 - 7148 146 91175 90 58 96176 180 33 98117 35171 ∶50 30 7121 - 7168 53 97108 90 33 98119 180 36 981010 50 ∶50 30 7130 - 7190 24 981711 90 23 981712 180 17 991013 70 ∶50 30 7148 - 8102 41 971714 90 32 981215 180 79 9516 1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor = 1769 mg/ kgTab1 5 Dechromation results of waste tanning liquor andtimes1)表5 铬污泥与废液质量比为1 ∶1 不同脱铬时间条件下鞣制废液的脱铬结果 minIn processpHCr liq./ ( mg/ kg)Eff iciency/ %1 4 7120 - 7133 438 75122 8 7127 - 7145 351 80123 12 7151 - 7189 299 83114 16 7176 - 7194 230 87105 20 7180 - 7191 206 88146 24 7181 - 7194 200 88177 28 7181 - 7196 139 92118 32 7182 - 7199 43 97169 36 7188 - 8103 32 981210 40 7190 - 8104 19 981911 60 7186 - 8106 28 981412 80 7187 - 8107 22 981813 100 7180 - 8111 35 9810 1) Starting content of chrome in waste tanning liquor =1769 mg/ kg ;mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1∶1Figure 2 shows column plot s representing re2sidual chrome content in waste tanning liquor af tert he dechromation procedure at various chromesludge ∶waste liquor ratios and various dechroma2tion times. With a mass ratio of 1 ∶7 af ter 30 mindechromation , a drop of chrome in liquor exceeding50 % was found , af ter 180 min the dechromationefficiency was greatest . Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶214 ,t he tendency of chrome content in liquor to de2crease wit h time was at it s greatest , residualchrome content in liquor coming down to 3314 ppmwhich represent s dechromation efficiency exceeding98 %. Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶114 t he tendency ofchrome decrease is similar , when t he greatest dropof chrome content in liquor was already recordedaf ter 90 min of dechromation ( to 3312 mg/ kg) .Wit h a ratio of 1 ∶1 , lowest level s of residualchrome in liquor were already at tained in 30 min ofdechromation app rox. 24 mg/ kg , representing al2most 99 % dechromation efficiency. A f urt her in2crease in dechromation times produced but negli2gibly decreased chrome content in liquor . Wit h aratio of 114 ∶1 , t he greatest drop of chrome con2tent in liquor was recorded af ter 90 min dechroma2tion. Fig13 shows dechromation kinetics of wastetanning liquor at mass ratio of chrome sludge ∶waste liquor = 1 ∶1 and various dechromationtimes. From result s it is obvious t hat af ter 40 min6 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. chrome content in waste tanning liq2uor decreased to approx. 20 mg/ kg , which com2pared wit h starting content of chrome in waste tan2ning liquor ( 1769 mg/ kg) signifies almost 99 %chrome removal efficiency. Further increases indechromation time did not show in markedly in2creased chrome removal efficiency , and values ofresidual chrome content in slurry fluct uated be2tween 20 and 35 mg/ DISCUSSIONDuring past decades , a t ransfer occurred of anotable part of tanning plant s f rom economicallyadvanced west European count ries to developingcount ries and to count ries of t he Asian continent .In latest year s , however , t he environmental loadproduced by t hese plant s became unsustainable andintensive negotiations on resolving t he mat ter gotunder way. When rest ructuring existing and con2st ructing new tanning plant s , issues coming partic2ularly under consideration are solid and liquidwastes containing chrome. Contamination ofgroundwater s wit h liquid wastes containing chromeis obvious. Release of chrome f rom solid wastes第4 期 P. Mokrejs ,et al :Recycling Technology for Waste Tanning Liquors 7© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved. proceed particularly t hrough elution by rainwith great hazard of groundwater danger of Cr ( III) oxidising to Cr (VI) was al2ready mentioned in t he fir st part of this cont result s showed t he solid waste product ,chrome sludge , may be successf ully employed to i2solate chrome f rom waste tanning liquors , and t hatwith an efficiency of app rox. 99 %. The advanta2ges of recycling technology may primarily comprisesimplicity and low demand for investment cost s ,which make it ideally applicable when recyclingwaste tanning liquor s especially in tanning plant sin t he developing of chrome2enriched sludge remainsan open issue. A feasible alternative is it s combus2tion and separation of chrome , which may be used ,e. g. in pigment manufacture. A particular compli2cation is presented by accompanying magnesium ,which is undesirable for t hese applications. Isola2ting magnesium f rom chrome sludge will be subjectof a following research. Employment of chrome2enriched sludge for p reparing f resh tanning bathsal so remains an open CONCLUSIONRecycling technology developed for removingchrome f rom waste tanning liquors wit h applicationof waste chrome sludge achieves almost 99 % effi2ciency. Dechromed waste liquor represent s a mini2mal load on t he environment . Chrome2enrichedsludge , following isolation of ot her accompanyingelement s (especially magnesium and calcium) com2plicating it s f urther processing , could serve to pre2pare pigment s. Result s of experimental measure2ment s and an elaborated mat hematical model of re2cycling technology will serve to propose an algo2rit hm of enclosed dechromation cycle cont rol whichwill be t he subject of pilot2plant test : The aut hors would like tot hank to The Minist ry of Education of The CzechRep ublic for financial support to t his work execu2ted under MSM Grant No : :[1 ] Process technology for recovery and recycling of chromi2um f rom leather waste and sludge , BLC , EV5VO542(1994 1996) .[2 ] Ludvik J . Chrome balance in leather processing [ J ] .UNIDO , US/ RAS/ 92/ 120/ 11 - 51 (2000) .[3 ] Mladek M ,et al . Leather indust ry waste t reatment [M] .State Technical Literature Publishing , Prague ( 1971) :261 - 265.[4 ] Rajamani S. A system for recovery and reuse of chromi2um f rom spent tanning liquor using magnesium oxide andsulphuric acid[J ] . UNIDO (2003) .[ 5 ] Covington A D , Sykes R L , Barlow J R , et al. A practi2cal chrome recovery system using magnesium oxide[J ] . JSoc Leather Technol Chem ,1985 , (69) :166 - 174.[6 ]Cotton F , Wilkinson G. Advanced Inorganic Chemist ry( A Comprehensive Text ) [ M ] . Academia , Prague(1973) . 788 - 803.[7 ] Hartford W H. Proceedings Chromium Symposium [J ] .Indust rial Health , Foundation , Pitt sburg (1989) .[8 ]Vijayalakshm R . A Study of the interaction of Cr ( III)complexes and their selective binding with B2DNA. Amolecular modelling approach[J ] . J Biom St ruc Dynam ,2002 (19) :1063 - 1072.[9 ] Chattopadhyay B. The environmental impact of wastechromium of tannery agglomerates in the east Calcuttawetland ecosystem[J ] . J Soc Leather Technol Chem ,2000(84) :94 - 100.[ 10 ] Cabeza L F. Isolation of protein product s f rom chromi2um2containing leather waste using two consecutive en2zymes and purification of final chromium product : Pilotplant studies [ J ] . J Soc Leather Technol Chem , 1999(83) :14 - 19.[11 ] Langmaier F. Product s of enzymatic decomposition ofchrome2tanned leather waste [J ] . J Soc Leather TechnolChem , 1999 (83) :187 - 195.[12 ] ISO 4684 , Determination of volatile matter.[ 13 ] ISO 4047 : 1998 , Determination of sulphated total ashand sulphated water insoluble ash.[14 ] ISO 5397 : 1984 , Determination of nit rogen and hidesubstance.[15 ] ISO 5398 , Determination of chromic oxide.[16 ] ISO 9174 :1998 , Water quality 2 Determination of chro2mium 2 Atomic absorption spect romet ric methods.[17 ]ASTM D511 - 03 , Standard test methods for calciumand magnesium in 皮革科学与工程 第17 卷© 1994-2008 China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House. All rights reserved.

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景观设计论文参考文献英语

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1.引言景观设计是环境设计的组成部分,大到绵延几十公里的风景区规划,小到十几平方米的庭院设计,都属于景观设计的范畴。本文的景观设计定位于城市景观设计的层次上,选择城市景观设计作为切入点,从中研究分析一般的设计要素和方法,是比较适宜的。近年来,我们生活的城市发生了很大的变化,大批的广场绿地、商业步行街、主题公园、街头小品出现在我们的视觉以内,影响着我们的感观和行为方式。而新建的住宅小区都以景观优美的园林作为卖点,影响着人们的思维和购买心理。景观设计已经不知不觉中走到了我们的周围,走近了我们的身边,并对我们施展着潜移默化的作用。你可以不到美术馆去欣赏艺术品,但你不得不在城市环境中行走,不得不在居住小区的环境中活动,它的景观视觉美感、造型形态、色彩、材质、以及在阳光下灯光下呈现出来的效果,时时会刺激你的目光,影响你的行为和心理的变化。一个有良好景观的城市环境、居住环境,为人们提供了物质功能和精神功能双重价值。“诗意的栖居”始终是人们内心的向往,而景观设计正式通过提高生活品质,提升生活品位,以人为主体,以空间环境为客体,构架着现实通向理想的桥梁。2.景观的概念景观(Landscape),什么是景观,无论是在西方还是在东方,都是一个美丽而难以说清的概念。哪怕是同一景象,不同的人都有不同的理解。景观是人类的栖息地,景观是人类的工艺品,景观是需要科学分析方法能被理解的物质系统,景观是有待解决的问题,景观是可以带来财富的资源,景观是反映社会伦理、道德和价值观念的意识形态,景观是历史,景观是美。我们可以从景观与人的物我关系与景观的艺术性、科学性、场所性及符号性入手,来认识景观。 景观的视觉美的含义:外在人眼中的景象景观作为城市景象景观的设计与创造,实际上也就是创造城市、造建筑的城市。景观作为视觉审美对象的含义,经历了一些微妙的变化。第一个变化来源于文艺复兴时期对乡村土地的贪欲,即景观作为城市的延伸;其二则来源于工业革命中后期对城市的恐惧和憎恶,即景观作为对工业城市的对抗。景观作为城市的延伸和附属 人们最早注意到的景观是城市本身,“景观的视野随后从城市扩展到了乡村,是乡村也成为景观”。文艺复兴之前的欧洲封建领主制度将人束缚在君权之下,人被束缚在土地之中,大自然充满神秘和恐怖,且又为人类生活之母,对土地的眷恋和依赖,使得人如母亲襁褓之中的婴儿。城市资本主义的兴起使人从土地中解放出来,土地的价值从生活和生存所必须的使用价值,转变成为可以交换的商品和资源,人与土地第一次分离而成为城里人。新兴的城市贵族通过强大的资本勾画其理想的城市,同时不断的向乡村扩展,将其作为城市的附属。1420年前后发明的ts原理,使理想城市的模式成为一个完全几何、数学的围有围墙的图案。在几何中心是一个大的开放空间,被行政建筑所包围:国王的宫殿,法院的大楼,主教堂,监狱,财务大楼和军事中心。这样的理想城市是为行政办公及法律公正而设立的,是为了城市生活而设计的,是纯粹理想化的。理想城市模式与文艺复兴时期的绘画一样,遵循了严格的比例关系和美学原则。而景观作为城市的延伸,也被同样的审美标准来设计和建造,因此有了凡尔塞为代表的巴洛克造园。景观作为城市的逃避 景观作为视觉美的含义的第二个转变,源于工业化带来的城市环境的恶化。工业化本身是文艺复兴的成果,但是至少从19世纪下半叶开始,在欧洲和美国各大城市,城市环境极度恶化。城市作为文明和高雅的形象被彻底破坏。相反成为了丑陋和恐怖的场所,而自然原野和田园成为了逃避的场所。因此。作为审美对象的景观也从欣赏和赞美城市,转向爱恋和保护田园。因此才有以Olmsted为代表的景观设计师的出现和景观设计学的诞生。一般来说,这个诞生的时间被确认为是1863年5月;因此才有以倡导田园风光为主调的美国城市公园运动,和以保护自然原始美景为主导的美国国家公园体系;因此也才有霍华德那深得人心的田园城市和随后的田园郊区运动。 景观的栖息地含义:内在人的生活体验景观是人与人、人与自然关系在大地上的烙印 每一景观都是人类居住的家,或者说是潜在的家。中国古代山水画把可居性作为画境和意境的最高标准。所谓的“山水有可行者,有可望者,有可居者,有可游者……但可行可望不如可居可游之为得”(郭熙、郭思《林泉高致》)。无论是作画还是赏画,实质上都是一种卜居的过程。也就是场所概念(place)的深层含义。这便又回到哲学家海得歌尔的栖居概念。栖居的过程实际上与自然的力量与过程相互作用,以便取得和谐的过程,大地上的景观是人类为了生存和生活而对自然的适应、改造和创造的结果。同时,栖居的过程也是建立在人与人和谐相处的过程。因此,作为栖息地的景观,是人与人,人与自然关系在大地上的烙印。景观是内在人的生活体验 景观作为人在其中生活的地方,把具体的人和具体的场所联系在一起。景观是由场所构成的,而场所的结构又是通过景观来表达的。与时间和空间的概念一样,场所是无处不在的,人离不开场所,场所是人于地球和宇宙中的立足之处,场所使无变为有,使抽象变具体,是人在冥冥之中有了一个认识和把握外界空间和认识及定位自己的出发点和终点。 景观作为系统的含义:科学、客观的解读在一个景观系统中,至少存在着五个层次以上的生态关系:第一是景观与外部系统的关系,如哈尼族村寨的核心生态流是水。哀劳山中,山有多高,水有多深,高海拔将南太平洋的暖湿气流截而为雨,在被灌溉,饮用和洗涤利用之后,流到干热的红河谷地,而后蒸腾、蒸发回大气,经降雨又回到本景观之中,从而有了经久不衰的元阳梯田和山上茂密的丛林,这是全球及区域生态系统科学研究的对象。根据Lovelock的盖娅理论,大地本来是一个生命体:地表、空气、海洋和地下水等通过各种生物的物理的和化学的过程,维持着一个生命的地球。第二是景观内部各个元素之间的生态关系,即水平生态过程。来自大气的雨、雾,经过村寨上丛林的截流、涵养,成为终年不断的涓涓细流,最先被引入寨中人所共饮的蓄水池;再流经家家户户门前的洗涤池,汇入寨中和寨边的池塘,那里是耕牛沐浴和养鱼的场所,最后富含养分的水流,被引入寨子下方的层层梯田,灌溉着他们的主要作物——水稻。这种水平生态过程,包括水流、物种流、营养流与景观空间格局的关系,正是景观生态学的主要研究对象。第三种生态关系,是景观元素内部的结构与功能的关系,如丛林作为一个森林生态系统,水塘作为一个水域生态系统,梯田本身作为一个农田系统,其内部结构与物质和能量流的关系,这是一种在系统边界明确情况下的垂直生态关系,其结构是食物链和营养阶,功能是物质循环和能量流动,这是生态系统生态学的研究对象。第四种生态关系则存在于生命和环境之间,包括植物与植物个体之间与群体之间的竞争、共生关系,是生物对环境的适应,及个体与群体的进化和演替过程,这便是植物生态、动物生态、个体生态、种群生态所研究的对象。第五种生态关系则存在于人类与其环境之间的物质、营养及能量的关系,这是人类生态学所要讨论的。当然,人类本身的复杂性,包括其社会、文化、政治性以及心理因素都使得人与人、人与自然的关系变得十分复杂。已远非人类生态本身所能解决,因此又必须借助社会学、文化生态、心理学、行为学等学科对景观进行研究。城市景观作为一个生态系统,几乎包含了所有上诉生态过程,而成为城市生态学的研究对象。 景观作为符号的含义:人类理想和历史的书人类是符号动物,景观是一个符号传播的媒体,是有含义的,它记载着一个地方的历史,包括自然和社会历史;讲述着动人的故事,包括美丽的或者是凄惨的故事;讲述着土地的归属,也讲述着人与土地,人与人,以及人与社会的关系,因此行万里路,如读万卷书。这本书是由符号和语言写成的,“景观具有语言的所有特征,它包含着话语中的单词和构成——形状图案、结构、材料、形态和功能。所有景观都是由这些组成的。如同单词的含义一样,景观组成的含义是潜在的,只存在于上下文中才能显示。景观语言也有方言,它可以是实用的,也可以是诗意的。海得歌尔把语言比喻成人们栖居的房子。景观语言是人类最早的语言,是人类文字及数字语言的源泉。“河出图,洛出书”固然是一个神话传说,但它却生动的说明了中国文字与数字起源于对自然景观中自然物及现象的观察和启示的过程。同文字语言一样,景观语言可以用来说,读和书写,为了生存和生活——吃、住、行、求偶和生殖,人类发明了景观语言,如同文字语言一样,景观语言是社会的产物。景观语言是为了交流信息和情感的,同时也是为了庇护和隔离的,景观语言所表达的含义只能部分地为外来者所读懂,而有很大部分只能为自己族群的人所共享,从而在交流中维护了族群内部的认同,而有效的抵御外来者的攻击。景观中的基本名词是石头、水、植物、动物和人工构筑物,他们的形态、颜色、线条和质地是形容词和状语。这些元素在空间上的不同组合,便构成了句子、文章和充满意味的书。一本关于自然的书,关于这个地方的书,以及关于景观中人的书。当然,要读懂,读者就必须要有相应的知识和文化。不同的社会文化背景的人,如同上下文关系中的景观语言一样,是有多重含义的,这都是因为人是符号的动物;而景观符号,是人类文化和理想的载体。3.景观设计的概念景观设计是指通过对环境的设计使人与自然相互协调,和谐共存。她是大工业时代的产物、科学与艺术的结晶,融合了工程和艺术、自然与人文科学的精髓,创造一个高品质的生活居住环境,帮助人们塑造一种新的生活意识,更是社会发展的趋势。 景观设计所涵盖的领域景观设计具有广泛的领域,大到国土与区域规划设计,小到庭院,甚至室内的绿色空间设计;从纯自然的生态保护和恢复,到城市中心地段的空间设计,都是景观设计多涵盖的领域。以下就初步的谈一下景观设计所涵盖的领域:城镇规划景观设计师很早就开始担当城市物质空间的规划角色,城镇规划是城市空间的中心规划。城镇规划是针对城市与乡镇的规划与设计。规划者运用区域规划技术与法规、常规规划、概念规划、土地使用研究和其他方法来确定城市地域内的布局与组织。城镇规划也涉及到“城市设计”内容,如广场、街道景观等开放空间与公共空间的发展。场地和社区规划环境设计是景观设计专业的核心问题。涉及到居住区、商业、工业、各机构的室内空间以及公共空间等室外空间的细部设计。它把场地作为艺术研究的对象来看待,综合平衡室内与室外的软、硬表面,建筑物与植物的材料选择以及灌溉、栽培等基础设施建设和详细的构筑物的规划说明与准备等。场地规划以某一地块内的建筑和自然元素的协调与安排为基础,场地规划项目涉及单幢建筑的土地设计、办公区公园设计、购物中心或整个居住社区的地块设计等。从更大的职业范围讲,基地设计还包括基地内自然元素与人工元素的秩序性、效率性、审美性以及生态等敏感性的组织与整合。其中,基地的自然环境包括地形、植物、水系、野生动物和气候。敏感性的设计有利于减少环境压力与消耗,从而提高基地的价值。(接下面!)

摘要: Abstract 关键词: Key words 参考文献: Reference

英语论文参考文献标准格式

在各领域中,说到论文,大家肯定都不陌生吧,通过论文写作可以培养我们独立思考和创新的能力。那么一般论文是怎么写的呢?以下是我帮大家整理的英语论文参考文献标准格式,仅供参考,大家一起来看看吧。

用Times New Roman.每一条目顶格,如某一条目超过一行,从第二行起“悬挂缩进”2字符。参考文献中所有标点与符号均在英文状态下输入,标点符号后空一格。

参考文献条目排列顺序:英文文献、中文文献、网络文献。分别按作者姓氏字母顺序排列。文献前不用序号。

1)英文参考文献:

(1)专著与编著

排列顺序为:作者姓、名、专著名、出版地、出版社、出版年。

例如:

Brinkleyork: Knopf, 1993.

专著名中如果还包含其他著作或作品名,后者用斜体。

例如:

Dunn, Richard J ed. Charlotte Bront: Jane EyreNew York: Norton, 1971.

A、两个至三个作者

第一作者的姓在前,名在后,中间用逗号隔开;其余作者名在前,姓在后,中间无逗号;每个作者之间用逗号隔开,最后一个作者的姓名前用“and”,后用句号。

例如:

B、三个以上作者

第一作者姓名(姓在前,名在后,中间加逗号)后接“et al.”,其他作者姓名省略。

例如:

University of Hawaii Press, 1997.

C、同一作者同一年出版的不同文献,参照下例:

Widdowson, Henry G1998a.

Widdowson, Henry G. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1998b.

(2)论文集

参照下例:

Thompson, Pett. “Modal Verbs in Academic Writing”. In Ben Kettlemann & York: Rodopi, 2002: 305-323.

(3)百科全书等参考文献

参照下例:

Fagan, Jeffrey. “Gangs and Drugs”. ork: Macmillan, 2001.

(4)学术期刊论文

参照下例:

Murphy, Karen. “Meaningful Connections: Using Technology in Primary Classrooms”.

(5)网络文献

参照下例:

“Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About URL”.

(6)专著:

参照下例:

皮亚杰.结构主义[M] .北京:商务印书馆,1984.

(7)期刊文章:

参照下例:

杨忠,张韶杰.认知语音学中的类典型论[J].外语教学与研究,1999,(2):1-3.

(8)学位论文

参照下例:

梁佳.大学英语四、六级测试试题现状的理论分析与问题研究[D].湖南大学,2002.

(9)论文集

参照下例:

许小纯.含义和话语结构[A].李红儒.外国语言与文学研究[C].哈尔滨:黑龙江人民出版社,1999:5-7.

(10)附录

2)中文参考文献

一、参考文献的类型

参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识,具体如下:

[M]--专着,着作

[C]--论文集(一般指会议发表的论文续集,及一些专题论文集,如《***大学研究生学术论文集》

[N]-- 报纸文章

[J]--期刊文章:发表在期刊上的论文,尽管有时我们看到的是从网上下载的(如知网),但它也是发表在期刊上的,你看到的电子期刊仅是其电子版

[D]--学位论文 :不区分硕士还是博士论文

[R]--报告:一般在标题中会有“关于****的.报告”字样

[S]-- 标准

[P]--专利

[A]--文章:很少用,主要是不属于以上类型的文章

[Z]--对于不属于上述的文献类型,可用字母“Z”标识,但这种情况非常少见

常用的电子文献及载体类型标识:

[DB/OL] --联机网上数据(database online)

[DB/MT] --磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape)

[M/CD] --光盘图书(monograph on CDROM)

[CP/DK] --磁盘软件(computer program on disk)

[J/OL] --网上期刊(serial online)

[EB/OL] --网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online)

很显然,标识的就是该资源的英文缩写,/前面表示类型,/后面表示资源的载体,如OL表示在线资源。

二、参考文献的格式及举例

1.期刊类

【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[J].刊名,出版年份,卷号(期号)起止页码。

【举例】

[1] 周融,任志国,杨尚雷,厉星星。对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报,2003(6):107-109.

[2] 夏鲁惠。高等学校毕业设计(论文)教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育,2004(1):46-52.

[3] Heider, . The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3): 62 67.

2.专着类

【格式】[序号]作者。书名[M].出版地:出版社,出版年份:起止页码。

【举例】

[4] 刘国钧,王连成。图书馆史研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社,1979:15-18,31.

[5] Gill, R. Mastering English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: 42-45.

3.报纸类

【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[N].报纸名,出版日期(版次)。

【举例】

[6] 李大伦。经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报,1998-12-27(3)。

[7] French, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33)。

4.论文集

【格式】[序号]作者。篇名 [C].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码。

【举例】

[8] 伍蠡甫。西方文论选[C]. 上海:上海译文出版社,1979:12-17.

[9] Spivak,G. “Can the Subaltern Speak?”[A]. In & L. Grossberg(eds.)。 Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, .

[10] Almarza, . Student foreign language teacher's knowledge growth [A]. In and (eds.)。 Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996. .

5.学位论文

【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[D].出版地:保存者,出版年份:起始页码。

【举例】

[11] 张筑生。微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京:北京大学数学系数学研究所, 1983:1-7.

6.研究报告

【格式】[序号]作者。名[R].出版地:出版者,出版年份:起始页码。

【举例】

[12] 冯西桥。核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京:清华大学核能技术设计研究院, 1997:9-10.

7.专利

【格式】[序号]专利所有者。题名[P].国别:专利号,发布日期。

8.标准

【格式】[序号]标准编号,标准名称[S].

【举例】

[14] GB/T 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S].

9.条例

【格式】[序号]颁布单位。条例名称。发布日期

【举例】

[15] 中华人民共和国科学技术委员会。科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991-06-05

10.电子文献

【格式】[序号]主要责任者。电子文献题名。电子文献出处[电子文献及载体类型标识].或可获得地址,发表或更新日期/引用日期。

【举例】

[16] 王明亮。关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展[EB/OL].

[17] 万锦。中国大学学报论文文摘(1983 1993)。英文版 [DB/CD]. 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社, 1996.

11.各种未定义类型的文献

【格式】[序号] 主要责任者。文献题名[Z].出版地:出版者, 出版年。

特别说明:凡出现在“参考文献”项中的标点符号都失去了其原有意义,且其中所有标点必须是半角,如果你的输入法中有半角/全解转换,则换到半角状态就可以了,如果你的输入法中没有这一转换功能,直接关闭中文输入法,在英文输入状态下输入即可。

其实,很多输入法(如目前比较流行的搜狐输入法)都提供了四种组合:

(1)中文标点+ 全角:这时输入的标点是这样的,:【1】-(而这时,我没有找到哪个键可以输入 / 符号)也就是说,这些符号是一定不能出现在“参考文献”中的;

(2)中文标点+半角:这时输入的标点是这样的,:【1】-(这时,我还是没有找到哪个键可以输入 / 符号)也就是说,这些符号也不能出现在“参考文献”中的;

上面列出的符号,中间没有任何的空格,你能看出它们有什么区别吗?我看只是-的宽度有一点点不同,其它都一样

(3)英文标点+全角:这时输入的标点是这样的,.:[1]-/

(4)英文标点+半角:这时输入的标点是这样的,.:[1]-/

从这两项可以明显的看出,半角和全角其实最大的差别是所占的宽度不一样,这一点对于数字来说最为明显,而英文标点明显要比中文标点细小很多(也许因为英文中,标点的功能没有中文那么复杂,就是说英文中标点符号的能力没有中文那么强大)

所以,很多人在写“参考文献” 时,总是觉得用英文标点+半角很不清楚,间距也太小,其实这点完全不用担心如果你觉得真的太小不好看,就用英文标点+全角吧而在[1] 之后,一般也都有一个空格。

对于英文参考文献,还应注意以下两点:

①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则,具体格式是:姓,名字的首字母。 如: Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为:Cowley, .,如果有两位作者,第一位作者方式不变,&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面,姓放在后面,如:Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为:Norris, F. & .

②书名、报刊名使用斜体字,如:Mastering English Literature,English Weekly.

三、注释

注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明注释应置于本页页脚,前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。

文具设计工业设计论文参考文献

法规和豆腐干梵蒂冈梵蒂冈

看网站和,可能有答案,网站里收集很多关于工业设计理论知识。

设计源于生活,工业设计也是源于生活的需求,那么你对工业设计的起源由来和发展轨迹感兴趣吗?以下是我为你整理推荐工业设计的起源及发展历史,希望你喜欢。工业设计的起源 设计源于生活需要,人类在解决生活需要的那刻起,设计就随之产生了。当人类祖先开始利用最原始的自然材料来制作简单的工具时,设计的思想在他们的大脑中已萌发。虽然开始是无意识的制造必需的工具,如用石头、树杆、骨头、动物皮革、茎蔓等,这些工具的制造和使用,提高了他们的生存能力,获得更多的食物,搭建了自已的住所,以及用这些最原始的工具跟凶猛的野兽进行对抗,使人类得以很好的生存。随着人类智慧不断的提高,技术的进步,冶炼技术的发明,从最早的石器时代,进入了青铜时代和铁器时代,每进入一个阶段都标志着人类进入了一个新的发明设计时代,设计的思想也逐步融入到各个生产使用中,设计并非是凭空想象的。 现代意义上的工业设计伴随着18世纪晚期英国工业革命的出现而兴起,蒸汽机的发明,标志着工业革命的到来,带来了生产方式的巨大变革,提高了生产效率和速度。机械化生产逐步代替了手工劳动,改变了人们过去的生活方式和工作方式,社会开始进入工业时代。设计与制造开始分离,随着社会工业化的发展,工业设计随之诞生。现在工业设计起源于欧洲,发展于美国。 1919年,德国著名建筑家,设计理论家沃尔特-格罗佩斯在德国魏玛创建世界上第一所完全为发展设计教育而建立的学院--包豪斯(Bauhuas)学院.于1933年4月被德国纳粹政府强行封闭。包豪斯的存在时间虽然短,但对现代设计产生的影响相当深远。从具体 的影响来说,它奠定了现代设计教育的结构基础,目前世界上的设计教育机构,乃至艺术教育院校通行的基础课,就是包豪斯首创的。这个基础课结构,把对平面和立体结构的研究,材料的研究,色彩的研究三方面独立起来,使视觉教育第一次比较牢固地奠立在科学的基础上。包豪斯同时还开始了采用现代材料的、以批量生产为目的的、具有现代主义物征的工业产品设计教育,奠定了现代主义的工业产品设计的基本面貌,对工业产品设计有深刻的影响。 工业设计的发展历史介绍 工业设计起源于包豪斯(Bauhaus,1919/4/1—1933/7),德国魏玛市 “公立包豪斯学校”(Staatliches Bauhaus)的简称,后改称“设计学院”(Hochschule für Gestaltung),习惯上仍沿称“包豪斯”。在两德统一后位于魏玛的设计学院更名为魏玛包豪斯大学 (Bauhaus-Universität Weimar)。她的成立标志着现代设计的诞生,对世界现代设计的发展产生了深远的影响,包豪斯也是世界上第一所完全为发展现代设计教育而建立的学院。“包豪斯”一词是格罗披乌斯生造出来的,是德语Bauhaus的译音,由德语Hausbau(房屋建筑)一词倒置而成。 第一阶段(1919—1925年),魏玛时期。格罗皮乌斯(WALTER GROPIUS)任校长,提出“艺术与技术新统一”的崇高理想,肩负起训练20世纪设计家和建筑师的神圣使命。他广招贤能,聘任艺术家与手工匠师授课,形成艺术教育与手工制作相结合的新型教育制度; 第二阶段(1925—1932年),德绍时期。包豪斯在德国德绍重建,并进行课程改革,实行了设计与制作教学一体化的教学方法,取得了优异成果。1928年格罗皮乌斯辞去包豪斯校长职务,由建筑系主任汉内斯·梅耶(HANNS MEYER)继任。这位共产党人出身的建筑师,将包豪斯的艺术激进扩大到政治激进,从而使包豪斯面临着越来越大的政治压力。最后梅耶本人也不得不于1930年辞职离任,由(L MIES VAN DE ROHE)继任。接任的密斯面对来自纳粹势力的压力,竭尽全力维持着学校的运转,终于在1932年10月纳粹党占据德绍后,被迫关闭包豪斯; 第三阶段(1932—1933年),柏林时期。L·密斯·凡·德·罗将学校迁至柏林的一座废弃的办公楼中,试图重整旗鼓,由于包豪斯精神为德国纳粹所不容,面对刚刚上台的纳粹政府,密斯终于回天无力,于该年8月宣布包豪斯永久关闭。1933年11月包豪斯被封闭,不得不结束其14年的发展历程。 包豪斯由魏玛艺术学校和工艺学校合并而成,其目的是培养新型设计人才。虽然包豪斯名为建筑学校,但直到1927年之前并无建筑专业,只有纺织、陶瓷、金工、玻璃、雕塑、印刷等科目,因此,包豪斯主要是一所设计学校。在设计理论上,包豪斯提出了三个基本观点:①艺术与技术的新统一:②设计的目的是人而不是产品:③设计必须遵循自然与客观的法则来进行。这些观点对于工业设计的发展起到了积极的作用,使现代设计逐步由理想主义走向现实主义,即用理性的、科学的思想来代替艺术上的自我表现和浪漫主义。 国内工业设计的发展现状 由于历史的原因,在我国比较系统地引进工业设计的理念、方法30多年中,前20多年发展缓慢。随着科学发展观的贯彻落实,转变发展方式的需求,十年工业设计发展的步伐大大加快。胡锦涛同志、吴邦国委员长、温家宝总理等国家领导人次有相关重要指示和批示;国家“十一五”、“十二五”规划及政府工作报告都列入了要发展工业设计;2010年,工信部等11个部委联合发布了专门文件《关于促进工业设计发展的若干指导意见》;2011年底,国务院发出的《工业转型升级》五年规划,以及2012年初国务院办公厅发出的《关于加快发展高技术服务业的指导意见》这两份重要文件,都具体强调了要发展工业设计。北京、上海、广东、浙江、江苏、深圳等20多个省、市和地级市都制定了促进工业设计发展的政策措施。在“大环境”大大改善的情况下,一些原来领先的企业继续领跑,一批新兴后上企业急步向前,涌现了一批领军人物和优秀产品,许多产品不但获得国内“红星奖”,还获得国际上知名的奖项。 以深圳为例。《中国工业设计行业发展模式与前景预测分析报告》[1]数据显示,2011年深圳各类工业设计机构近5000家,在职专业工业设计师及从业人员超过6万人。2010年度工业设计产值近20亿,2011年工业设计产值增长也在25%以上,而通过工业设计带来的产业附加值超过千亿。同时,深圳已经形成具有集聚效应的创意设计产业园区45个,广东省工业设计示范基地和企业共6家。2011年,上善工业设计有限公司设计的一款专门适于老人、小孩等人群开启的小瓶盖,一举摘得2011年德国红点奖。 我国设计产业在取得长足发展,北京、长三角、珠三角地区设计产业呈现欣欣向荣局面的同时,总体水平上还与成熟的发达地区有较大的差距。但我国工业设计产业仍具有较大的发展潜力,问题就在于如何正确合理地引导,这就需要借鉴国外先进国家发展的经验,找出适合我国发展的模式,实现我国工业设计产业的腾飞。 猜你还感兴趣的: 1. 工业设计专业职业生涯规划书范文 2. 工业设计论文参考文献 3. 工业设计学习计划 4. 工业设计产品特点

可以去数据库检索~~学校里面可以免费下载还有疑问联系~

小学英语课堂设计论文参考文献

小学英语论文参考文献(通用5篇)

在个人成长的多个环节中,大家都不可避免地要接触到论文吧,通过论文写作可以培养我们的科学研究能力。那么,怎么去写论文呢?下面是我为大家整理的小学英语论文参考文献,仅供参考,大家一起来看看吧。

[1] 高敏.幼儿英语教育[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2007

[2] Flege(1987).A critical period for learning to pronounce foreign language .Applied .

[3] [意大利]蒙台梭利.任代文主译校.蒙台梭利幼儿教育科学方法[M].北京:人民教育出版社,1993年版.

[4] 吴牧之.学前儿童英语教育研究综述[J].中国双语教育网,2004.

[5] [美国]乔姆斯基.乔姆斯基语言哲学文选[M].北京:商务印书馆,1992.

[6] 林泳海.幼儿教育心理学[M].北京:商务印书馆,2007.

[7] 束定芳,庄智象.现代外语教学—理论、实践与方法[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,1996.

[8] 强海燕,赵琳,西格尔.幼儿英语浸入式教育活动[M].陕西:西安交通大学出版社,2000.

[9] 哈默,田贵森.怎样教英语[M].北京:北京外语教学研究出版社,2002.

[10] 边静.TPR教学法在儿童英语学习中的运用[M].宿州学院学报,.

[11] 孟云.幼儿园双语教育研究—基于昆明市幼儿园英语教育调查[D].云南:云南师范大学,2006.

[12] 狄飞.幼儿英语浸入式教学的研究与试验 [D].甘肃:西北师范大学,2001.

[13] 颜晓芳.学前儿童英语启蒙教育的误区[J].广西教育学院学报,2004,4.

[14] 仲伟秀.幼儿英语教育存在的问题及解决策略[J].呼伦贝尔学院学报,2006,8.

[15] Jack Dictionary of Applied Linguistics[M]. Longman : Longman press,1985.

[16] John Lybolt,Catherine pre—school Language[M].INTERNATIONAL ACADEMY OF EDUCATION,2003.

[17]Harlen Seyfer, 吴古华1998.《英语学术论文写作》, 北京:高等教育出版社

[18]穆诗雄2002.《英语专业毕业论文写作》,北京:外语教学与研究出版社

[19]文秋芳 2001.《应用语言学研究方法与论文写作》,北京:外语教学与研究出版社

[1]青海省民和县李二堡镇窑洞小学马雪红。浅谈小学英语学习兴趣的激发与培养[N].科学导报,2017-03-31C03.

[2]山东高密市咸家工业区学校李晓华。如何提高小学英语的学习兴趣[N].发展导报,2017-03-31029.

[3]忻州市静乐县爱乐希望小学段锦花。小学英语学习兴趣的培养[N].山西科技报,2017-04-21006.

[4]展宗艳。小学英语教学中学生学习兴趣的培养策略[J].西部素质教育,2017,02:142.

[5]王雪蕾。巧用单词卡,为小学英语学习打造兴趣课堂[A].吉林市东方智慧教育咨询服务有限公司。全国智慧型教师培养体系建构模式学术会议二等奖论文集[C].吉林市东方智慧教育咨询服务有限公司:,2016:4.

[6]柯尊燕。也谈农村小学学生英语学习兴趣的培养[A].教育部基础教育课程改革研究中心。2016年课堂教学改革专题研讨会论文集[C].教育部基础教育课程改革研究中心:,2016:2.

[7]张盼静。小学英语教学中学生学习兴趣的培养[J/OL].学周刊,2016(05)。

[8]耿琦。小学英语教学如何激发学生学习兴趣[J].学周刊,2016,09:207.

[9]于春环。小学英语教学中培养学生学习兴趣的新模式探究[J].中国校外教育,2016,08:111.

[10]闫琳。试论浅谈农村小学英语学习兴趣的培养[J].亚太教育,2016,15:9.

[11]张玉。小学一年级英语启蒙教学中如何培养学生的学习兴趣与习惯[J].西部素质教育,2016,13:164.

[12]曹智勇。浅谈小学英语教学如何激发学生英语学习的兴趣[J].读与写(教育教学刊),2016,09:235.

[13]于凤英。小学英语学习兴趣培养策略探析[J].新西部(理论版),2016,18:135+133.

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小学英语教学论文参考文献

现如今,大家都不可避免地会接触到论文吧,通过论文写作可以提高我们综合运用所学知识的能力。那么你有了解过论文吗?以下是我精心整理的小学英语教学论文参考文献,希望能够帮助到大家。

篇一

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[9]李秀婷:《学校社会工作视角下的留守儿童厌学分析--乌兰察布市凉城县第三中学学生为例》,内蒙古师范大学2013年硕士学位论文.

[10]刘亮、赵旭东、缪绍疆:《后现代主义下的叙事治疗及其临床应用》,《上海精神医学》2007年第4期.

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[13]史云云、靳钰炜:《论社会建构主义形成的'理论根源》,《科学之友》2008年第4期.

篇二

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浅谈小学英语高效课堂论文

摘 要: 以激发学生的学习兴趣为前提的,通过听、说、读、唱、玩、演等方式,着重于发展学生的学习主动性、积极性及学习智力,使之获得语言知识技能。

关键词 :小学英语;课堂教学;良好情境

21世纪,知识经济的发展使人类进入了一个学习社会。科学技术发展迅速,国际竞争也日趋激烈,世界范围的综合国力的竞争,主要是科学技术的竞争,而现代科学技术的主要标志是信息技术。小学开设英语是新世纪社会发展的需要,是知识经济时代为了更好的发展与国际发展接轨的必然要求。

一、营造宽松和谐的课堂环境

小学英语教师想使自己平常的英语教学更加有效,首先就得抓住并了解小学英语教学的特点。而要了解特点,又得先明确小学开设英语课程的目的是什么?小学阶段开设英语课程的目的是要使小学生通过生动活泼的课堂教学激发学生学习英语的浓厚兴趣,培养他们学习英语的积极情感,形成初步的英语语感,使学生具备良好的语音、语调基础,具备用所学英语进行简单日常交流的初级能力,并养成良好的英语学习习惯,为进一步学习打好基础。因此,在英语教学时就要充分激发每一个学生主动学习的.热情,让学生在自主、合作、探究的学习过程中展现自己,把学习变成一个积极参与、实现自我的过程,让学生在学习的过程中享受到快乐,体验到成功,形成一个民主、开放、互动、活跃的学习场,让学生在课堂上积极展示,并逐渐成为课堂的主角,投入到学习的情境中去,有效教学的目标才能实现。课堂教学以学习目标和学情为依据,以学生的学习为主线,以先学后教,先合作后探究,后教师点拨为教学方式。教学评价遵循"以学论教"的原则。不仅仅注重学生学业成绩的提高,更关注学生能力的养成和整体素养的提升,为每一个学生的终身发展奠定良好基础。

二、创设英语教与学的良好情境

正如小孩学说话需要一定的环境一样,语言的学习也是与环境分不开的。在一个全中国汉语式的环境中,让学生学地道的英语,确实不容易。

首先,在英语课堂上可以尝试改变学生的座位模式。我们的课堂座位大多是传统的“横排竖行”分布,师生面对面,教师成了课堂的中心。课改提出之后,“以学生为主体”的呼声也越来越强,要突出“以学生为中心”的思想,就要在课堂教学中体现出学生的主体地位。在英语课上,教师完全可以打破传统的座位模式,将座位布置成圆形或半圆型,这样学生之间能够面对面地交流。一方面开口练习的机会增多了,另一方面也能培养学生的自信心,使教学气氛更加融洽。

其次,英语课上应根据不同的教学内容设置不同的场景,这就需要有充分的英语教学场所和英语教学用具。

在课堂之外,也需要营造浓厚的英语氛围。比如开设英语广播、用英语整队集合、全校上下规定用英语打招呼和讲礼貌用语、粘贴英语图片和校训等。在有条件的情况下,学校还可以开展各种英语竞赛和英语夏令营。让学生在浓厚的英语氛围中学英语,感受英语。

再次,英语课要充分使用多媒体教学设备。根据课堂需要,借助电视机、投影仪、录音机、录像机、计算机课件等多媒体教学设备,可以使抽象的内容变得更为直观,有助于增强教学效果,这也突出了“以学生为主体”的教学思想。

三、兴趣培养

培养学生的学习兴趣,使小学生从无兴趣到有兴趣,从一点点兴趣到有较大的兴趣,要做的工作大部分是在他们学习的起始阶段,最佳时间也是在起始阶段。但学生的兴趣培养起来了,并不等于他们就能持久不变。所以,接下来便是要让他们把兴趣保持下来。

(1)要言出必行,有始有终。取信于学生,对一些有效的方法要求坚持做到底。我在学期初向学生做了这样一个规定:学生作业按完成质量的高低在本子封面上打"×"、"☆",期末按"×"、"☆"个数计分,一个"×"、扣一分,一个"☆"加两分,期末算到平时成绩里去。学生对这一规定热情很高,他们对分数的重视使他们把每次作业都尽量做得工工整整。制定了规定,但要坚持下去却不容易。平时作业一交就是上百本,改得头昏眼花,有时就忘了给他们打上"×"或"☆"。学生可不饶,他们每次都把打的星从头至尾数一遍,发现少了,非让老师加上去不可。这样一来,每次改作业我再也不敢马虎了,坚持下来,期末按规定加扣分记入成绩报告单。大多数学生尝到了甜头,第二学期更是努力要求自己认真完成作业了。如果我当初半途而废,自然就收不到现在的效果。同理,办黑板报、开展英语角等活动,一旦开始做了就要坚持做下去。

(2)要敏锐观察,不断给予刺激。教师平时要善于察言观色,时刻注意学生的变化。一旦发现学生失去兴趣就要耐心分析,找出原因,并对症下药,给予新的刺激。学生各异,他们失去兴趣的原因也不尽相同:有的因为成绩总跟不上同学,失去了信心;有的因为老师几次发言没叫到他,以为老师对他不够重视;有的则是对老师有了小小的误会,情绪受了影响等等。他们失去兴趣或兴趣淡化的表现方式也不同:有的表现明显,上课坐不直,两手闲不住,嘴巴说闲话,作业质量大大下降。而有的却不易察觉,他们上课照样很好,乍一看,挺专心,可实际上眼神游离,有气无力,似听非听,有的朗读时有口无声,有的一旦被叫到便是一问三不知。对此,教师对待他们的方法自然也不同:有的懂道理,一点便通;有的爱表扬,一表扬又信心十足;有的则要用激将法。总之,要根据不同情况采取不同的方法,不断激发他们的兴趣。

(3)采用多种教学手段,使学生的兴趣持久不衰。尽管现代化教学手段多样,但传统的粉笔、黑板仍起着重要作用,在教学中运用五彩粉笔射出的简单线条,构成生动、有趣的画面,既能帮助学生理解教学内容,又能增添乐趣。

(4)合理使用多种教学媒体手段辅助英语教学,还可以创新英语课堂教学,我们只有不断创新教学方法,才能求得英语教学的长足发展。英语教师应运用好多种教学媒体,创新教学手段,利用信息技术把英语知识直观化,传递更多的信息给学生,训练学生英语方面的各项技能,使课堂容量最大化,让学生在广阔的视觉空间遨游,不断接受新事物的刺激,保持英语学习的新鲜感,使学生热爱英语学习,在英语学习中主动思考,提高自身英语素养,进而提高英语课堂教学的效果。

参考文献:

[1]林丽. 多媒体在小学英语教学中应用现状的研究[D].华东师范大学,2010.

[2]王松. 小学英语让人欢喜让人忧[N]. 中国教育

[3]刘华蓉. 小学开英语,行[N]. 中国教育报,2002-06-04001.

[4]崔红娟,彭祺.多媒体课件在小学英语教学中的应用[J]. 学科教学探索,2009(11):35-36.

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