最佳答案翻译思想史表明，随着现代语言学的形成与日臻完善，20世纪中叶以来，建立在语言... 而起作用的只是语言的工具理性及其规律性。翻译理论由于长期受语言学的影响，形...
翻译思想史表明，随着现代语言学的形成与日臻完善，20世纪中叶以来，建立在语言学——普通语言学或结构主义语言学基础上的翻译研究获得了长足的发展，产生了许多积极的理论成果，在翻译研究领域逐步形成了独具“范式”的语言学派。由于语言学派的努力，翻译研究在学科化进程中迈出了坚实的一步，从而也使得翻译研究在很大程度上摆脱了“经验陈述”的模式而更具有科学的特性。多年来，国内外学者就翻译的语言学研究取得的成就所作介绍或论述，虽说不是汗牛充栋，却也是林林总总，举不胜举，在此就不赘述了。然而，在对语言学派的研究文献作详尽的观察之后，我们就会发现，这一学派的翻译研究还存在着理论偏向。虽然交际理论、社会符号学等的引入使得这一理论偏向在一定程度上得到修正。比如，纽马克（Peter Newmark）运用语义学理论分析了思维、言语与翻译的关系，阐述了语义翻译与交际翻译的特点，在其成名作《翻译研究途径》中所提出的“语义翻译”与“交际翻译”在理论上与实践上至今仍为人们所引用（Newmark，1981，1998）。但是，翻译的语言学研究的偏向始终存在着。纵观语言学派研究文献，我们可以将它们分为两类：一类是结构主义语言学家关于翻译的论述；另一类是以现代语言学理论为基础专门从事翻译问题研究的学者的论述。前者立足于结构主义语言学自身的研究，仅将翻译问题作为语言结构分析的个例或个别途径，其有关翻译的论述与其说是翻译研究，不如说是借助翻译来探索语言研究的方法论；而后者在前者范式的指导下，对翻译过程、翻译方法等范畴进行描述，以期得出具有普适性的翻译模式——语言学模式。布拉格学派的创始人雅可布逊（Roman Jakobson）较早注意到翻译问题与普通语言学理论的关系。他认为，语言符号的意义在于将一种符号翻译为另一种的符号，翻译实际上就是语符和信息的诠释，因此翻译是语言学方法不可分割的组成部分。雅可布逊在其著名论文《翻译的语言观》中列举了诠释语符的三种方式：语内翻译、语际翻译和符际翻译。其中，语际翻译涉及到一般意义上的翻译概念。在此雅可布逊意在强调在诠释语言现象时语言学对翻译行为的依赖性。同样，英国语言学家弗斯（J. R. Firth）在《语言分析和翻译》一文中详尽地阐述了结合翻译进行语言分析的观点。弗斯肯定了翻译理论本身在语言学中的地位。他认为，把翻译作为语言分析的一种形式，用来阐明语义，这具有一定的可行性。弗斯指出，在英国语言学史上马林诺夫斯基首次系统地把翻译用于阐明某些民族话语的意义，并把这种方法称之为“语言分析”。弗斯提出了“全面翻译（total translation）”的概念，既要全面运用一切可能的手段传达意义，在语法、词汇、词的搭配和语境等四个层次上进行语言分析。弗斯将翻译的意义归纳为：其存在这一事实的本身就是对语言理论和语言哲学的挑战；语言分析与翻译结合可以为语言学家和社会学家提供广阔的研究空间。在语言学派翻译研究的第一类文献中，韩礼德（M. A. Halliday）的观点较为著名。他指出句子是翻译的基本单位，翻译过程包括三个阶段：寻找等值物、检验等值物以及调整译语结构。然而，韩礼德对翻译的论述，其出发点是外语教学。他认为利用母语进行语言对比可以使学生注意到两种语言的异同，因为他认为翻译是一种特殊的语言对比形式，它包括两个方面：语际等值和语法结构的全面对比。因此，他得出结论：翻译理论是普通语言学的重要组成部分。通过上述研究我们可以发现，语言学家在讨论翻译问题时，首先将翻译研究纳入语言学理论研究的框架，以结构主义语言学的理论与方法来描述翻译现象。他们研究翻译的根本目的在于将翻译研究作为语言研究的重要途径。因此，将翻译研究作为个例以补证语言学理论、突出翻译研究的工具性功能是第一类翻译研究的共同特征。这类翻译研究由于其语言研究功利的前设性，直接导致其研究的理论偏向——研究的工具性目的，因而影响了其分析结论的普适性，给翻译研究带来了一定的局限。海德格尔认为，前设和前有、前见一样，是任何解释的基础，它们一起构成了理解的前结构，事物的作为结构出自理解的前结构。前设即运用一个观念来弄清作为结构。当我们面对研究对象时，总是对它预先做出假设，然后才能把它解释成“作为”某物（刘放桐等，1990：759—760）。前设就是研究翻译前我们预先已有的假设。任何解释都包含了某种假设，问题在于这种前设的客观性。上述语言学家从普通语言学出发，以结构主义范式观照翻译问题，其理论视角本身无可厚非。然而，这种研究具有明确的功利性：将翻译研究视为对结构主义语言学结论的补证，将翻译理论视为语言学研究的途径或手段。这种以工具性为目的的翻译研究必然导致研究结论的理论偏向，从而从根本上否定了翻译理论作为学科的建构。或许法国语言学翻译理论的代表人物穆南（G. Mounin）从另一侧面揭示出语言学翻译研究第一类文献的特性：他主张研究翻译问题的语言学家至少在最初阶段不要将翻译作为弄清某些普通语言学问题的手段，而应该运用语言学，特别是现代语言学的理论和方法，为译者解决翻译问题提出可能性（许钧、袁筱一，2001）。如果说语言学翻译研究的第一类文献是基于语言学自身研究的需要，即功利性目的而对翻译现象进行分析，其结论给翻译研究带来极大的局限，从而从根本上否定了翻译理论作为学科的地位；那么，语言学翻译研究的第二类文献则是基于又一功利性：为实现译文“等值”或“等效”的实用性目标的观照下，同样得出具有理论偏向的模式。语言学翻译理论的第二类文献，其理论基础是普通语言学理论或结构主义语言学理论。该理论基础的选定是根据这样一个常识：翻译是特定形式的言语行为，而语言学则是研究语言的科学，它能够提供关于语言研究的基本概念、理论模式和方法，因此翻译理论无法回避语言学。对翻译性质、过程和方法的分析和描述必然要用语言学的基本概念、范畴和方法。从广义上看，索绪尔是结构主义语言学的创始人。他认为，语言是一个体系（或系统），即一种结构。语言的特点并非由语音和意义本身所构成，而是由语音和意义之间的关系构成的一个网络，即成为一个体系，也就是语言的结构。这种语言体系被视为一个符号体系。索绪尔认为，一切符号都可以分为能指和所指，语言的研究可分为共时性研究和历时性研究。共时性研究是对特定时期语言横断面的研究。索绪尔十分重视语言的共时性研究。他还指出，由词结合成一个结构有两种关系：组合关系和聚合关系。总之，索绪尔的语言学模式是以共时性研究为基础的、将语言与言语加以区别的语言体系，这个体系由组合关系和聚合关系构成语言中的差别体系（索绪尔，高名凯译，1982：100—176）。继索绪尔之后，美国语言学家乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）则强调语言学研究对象为语言能力而非语言现象。它将语言分为深层结构和表层结构。乔姆斯基提出的短句结构规则和推导模式说明了他的结构与转换的方法。短语结构规则是形成句子的一整套规则。这个规则先有一整套短语结构改写规则。在实践上，语言学翻译研究的第二类文献均以结构主义语言学理论的某种语言模式作为其理论基础的，如奈达（E. A. Nida）就以乔姆斯基转换生成语法为基础，提出由原语结构转换成译语结构的核心句模式，而卡特福德（J. C. Catford）则以韩礼德的系统语法理论为其翻译研究的基础的。奈达认为，一般意义上翻译过程包括以下几个阶段：分析、转移和重组（analysis, transfer, and reconstruct），即首先分析原作语言的信息，将其剖析成结构上最简单明了的形式，在此基础上转移，然后再重新组织成正常的译作语言。分析阶段包括三个方面，即各成分之间的语法关系，语义单位的外延意义以及语法结构和语义单位的内涵值。转移阶段：将事件名词从一种语言转移成另一种语言时，一般先将它转换成动词形式；同理，通常先将抽象名词转换成形容词和副词。奈达认为，在将表层结构的各种表达形式转换成核心结构时，产生了四种基本的结构单位，即事物单位（thing）、事件单位（event）、抽象单位（abstract）和表示关系的单位（relation）。另外，奈达提出了限制和确立词汇单位在特定上下文含义的方法，即通过句法结构限定词义，以及通过语义结构辨别含义。词义相近的的关系有三种，即邻近关系、内涵关系和重迭关系。奈达强调，对原语语言进行分析时，不能局限于研究语言单位间的句法关系和这些语言单位的外延意义，文体风格在传达信息中具有更为重要的意义，在转移阶段，奈达就语言的意义非对应现象——喻体差异、喻体缺省、语义缺省等现象提出了翻译对策。翻译时应注意内涵结构和外延结构，为此奈达提出了转移外延内容的三种方法：全新组合、分解组合和综合组合。奈达认为，重组过程涉及到两个主要范畴：形式范畴和功能范畴。前者要求根据文体风格和文学体裁进行重组，后者则要求译者关注读者的接受效果。由此可见，奈达所谓的翻译时对原、译语两种语言的语法结构、语义单位、文体风格进行分析，在传达风格、功能的基础上为处理语义非对应现象设定语义层面上的对策，其核心在于语言对比分析和寻找语义对应（谭载喜，2002）。卡特福德关于翻译理论的论述同样遵循与奈达相同的研究模式。他在其《翻译的语言学理论》一书中开宗明义地指出：“翻译是用语言进行操作的工作：即把一种语言文本转换成另一种语言的文本。因此，任何翻译理论都必然利用语言理论普通语言学理论。”他还认为，翻译的中心问题是在译语中寻找等值物，而翻译理论的中心任务则是描述翻译等值的本质以及达到翻译等值的条件。卡特福德的理论核心在于它提出实现等值关系的途径：等值关系可以由“层面”（语法形式和词汇形式、语音实体和字形实体、语境）到“等级”（句子、子句、词组、单词、词素）在任何一个交叉点上建立。如果在较低的某一等级上不能确立等值关系，可以在较高等级上求得。与奈达相同，卡特福德翻译研究的中心仍然立足于语言分析，即界定等值成分的本质和条件（Catford，1965）。语言学翻译研究的第二类文献表明，这种研究一般始于语言（双语）的结构分析，诸如语言各层次的划分、话语实用关系类别以及话语功能类别的确定，经由翻译单位的选定，最终规定翻译具体操作方法。这种方法在语言学翻译研究中通常表述为模式、方法和步骤等。然而，我们应当指出，首先，翻译作为特定形式的文化活动，是以双语（原语和译语）的互动性转换为其表征的，但这并不意味着翻译仅仅局限于某种语言操作或语言活动。这种以语言为中介的双语互动或文化互动现象，以及由此导致的语音、语词、语法、文体等变异现象，决非语言学理论所能涵盖的。所以，现代语言学理论必然为翻译研究带来空白，从而造成语言学翻译研究的理论偏向。翻译研究的基点应为语言的差异性，亦即双语的非等值性。结构主义语言学对翻译中原语和译语之间并合现象（不同语言的共同之处）的认同表明，该研究偏离了翻译研究的本质问题；同时，它对原、译语这一现象及其对策的解释和选定则又使该理论由于强烈的功利性而成为教学研究或应用研究。对一个学科而言，舍弃基础理论研究而进行应用研究，其结论的偏向性是不言而喻的。包括语言学翻译研究在内，世界范围内多数学派对翻译研究的核心是如何实现等值或等效。这表明，翻译研究始终停留在对翻译方法（翻译模式）的探索和选定上。语言学翻译研究以其对翻译过程的描述而获得了科学性或客观性，因为“过程”与“现象”总是联系在一起的。应当指出，这种对“过程”的考察，其实质是对方法以及模式的操作程序的设定，和所有规范选择一样，它的研究结论带有浓重的经验色彩。其次，语言学翻译研究的第二类文献认为，在具体翻译过程中，翻译家对原语本文接受的结果——深层结构的表述最初是由核心结构（核心句）来实现的。而所谓核心结构则指对特定深层结构最基本、最具代表性的表述形式。这类研究忽略了一个基本事实，即核心结构在其完形的初始，已经导致意义的缺省。事实上，在具体的翻译过程中，翻译家对深层结构的把握是通过“统觉”来实现的。然后，翻译家直接在译语中找寻与这种“非语言”或“超语言”的结构相对应的译语表层结构。再后，根据原文的深层结构对译语表层结构进行语义修正，以完成译语本文的建构。所谓的语体风格在此应列为语义构成。而“非语言”或“超语言”的结构通常表现为意义指向（在应用性文本中）和心理意象（在艺术性文本中）。总之，翻译家的基本任务是通过译语语言对意义指向和心理意象进行表述和修正。因此，对于奈达所谓的深层结构和表层结构之说，尽管他在分析阶段和转移阶段表现出结构特性——层级性或步骤性，然而，这并未使翻译过程得到客观的、经验性的描述，同时也使得这种翻译模式即使作为教学型模式也失去了可操作性。同样，卡特福德的理论也缺乏得以实现翻译等值的可操作性。他的翻译模式的核心在于界定等值成分的本质和条件，认为，等值关系可以在由“层面”到“等级”的任何交叉点上建立。这表明：他的论述与其说是对翻译模式的设定，不如说是在比较语言学范式中探求原、译语双语对应的可能性，只是卡特福德在此将双语对应表述为等值而已。换句话说，卡特福德虽然在主观上力求以结构主义语言学为基础对翻译问题进行详尽的探讨，但是，实际上在探讨翻译的过程中，他不自觉地偏离了翻译研究，而展开了原、译语双语的静态分析与比较。所以，卡特福德的翻译模式又可以界定为以翻译的语言学研究的第二类文献为表征的第一类文献。翻译的语言学研究的第一类文献以及建立在这种范式基础上的第二类文献，他们或以翻译研究作为结构主义语言学理论研究自身的途径和手段，或在结构主义语言学观照下对翻译过程作语言学的静态分析。特别是由后者设定的翻译模式，他们或由于其层级性或步骤性使得自身失去了应用价值（可操作性），或以对双语言静态比较分析为转移，最终偏离了翻译研究而归于对比语言学范畴。综上所述，17世纪以来，随着当时社会的文化转型，在逻辑实证主义和唯理论的刺激和推动之下，新兴的语言理论受到青睐，西方译学的语言学范式亦随之渐露雏形。语言学家、翻译理论家们开始对语言分析、语篇分析产生浓厚兴趣，对从前一些零散的争论也开始了系统的整体性思考，既关注文本的结构层次，又重视形式本身，从而破除了语文学式的“得意忘言”的陈规。语言学范式强调意义的构成特征和语言结构,努力制定对等转换的规则，以语言分析代替直觉感受，克服了语文学派的主观主义，使翻译活动具有一定的科学性和客观性。因此，根茨勒把翻译的语言学派也称之为翻译的“科学派”。布龙菲尔德的结构语言学、乔姆斯基的转换生成语法、韩礼德的系统功能语法等为翻译语言学派提供了理论基础。以雅可布逊、奈达、卡特福德、威尔斯、纽马克、斯坦纳、弗斯、弗米尔、费道罗夫和巴尔胡达罗夫等为代表的翻译语言学派筚路蓝缕，为现代翻译研究奠定了学科和学理基础，翻译理论也开始走上了系统化、科学化、客观化的研究道路。然而，翻译研究的语言学派认为翻译只能是一门语言学学科，翻译活动就其实质来说是语言学的任务，重要的是对比原作和译作语言单位意义上的相同，以达到内容上的等值；认为语言是透明的，翻译是一种纯语言的转换过程，所涉及的只是两种不同语符中的两个对等信息；把翻译视为一门精确的科学，集中研究语言系统的差异和语言形式的转换，注意寻找语言转换规律以及语义的对等模式，迷信语言的共性；译者的任务只是按照语言规律去解码与编码。这样一来，整个翻译过程被简单化、机械化、程式化了，而起作用的只是语言的工具理性及其规律性。翻译理论由于长期受语言学的影响，形成了一种思维定势，认为语言是一个规范的、同一的和稳定的符号系统，是人们认识世界和把握世界的工具，因此，语言被类比为数学符号系统，成了理性和规律性的象征。翻译的语言学研究范式给人们带来了理性思维，破除了原来语文学研究范式的神秘性和主观直觉的研究方式，从主观性走向客观性使翻译研究取得了很大进展。但由于语言学范式使译者过多依赖于语言的规律性，忽视主体的主观能动性，排除言语活动的社会制约性和规定性，从而突出了原文文本的中心性，追求同一性和一致性，最终堕入语言逻各斯中心。由此可见，语言学范式的翻译研究太拘泥于原文的信息层，不甚注意作品的美学功能，忽视文艺作品的艺术再现，忽视文本主题结构以及文本的话语和语篇结构，忽视更大范围的文化与这些因素对译文的生成和接受所产生的影响；没有考虑语用维度、语用意义和文本的社会与文化语境，对这些方面的理论描述比较薄弱。其范式是封闭、静止的和自足的。随着语言学的发展，人们对语言的研究也由语言本身扩大到语言与社会、语言与心理、语言与生理等方面，后期的语言学翻译思想把原作、原作者、原文读者等因素都考虑了进去，所以也就更科学、更完整地描述了翻译过程，突破了微观语言学的文本模式，开始关注两种文化之间的交流。上述封闭的、静止的和自足的翻译研究范式被20世纪90年代中期兴起的翻译理论研究的文化转向所打破。参考文献：Newmark, Peter. 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功能对等理论视角下的科技英语翻译研究论文
一、引言
随着全球经济信息一体化进程的不断加快，中国与世界其他国家的技术交流日益密切。企业的发展也在不断地引进国外的先进技术和文献。作为一种非文学翻译，科技翻译逐渐成为很多翻译工作者的主要任务。科学家钱三强先生也曾提出:“科技英语在许多国家已经成为现代英语的一个专门的新领域。”随着时代的进步，在一些合资或外资公司甚至专门设有技术翻译(Technical Translation)的职位，可见科技翻译正在逐步占据着翻译市场。
二、功能对等理论与科技翻译的特点
从1953年里乌(. Rieu) 首次提出“对等”概念。到1965年，卡特福德(Catford)提出 “篇章对等”概念。即翻译的目的就在于在所有潜在的对等译语中寻找与原语最匹配的对等语。原语和译语只要在所涉情景中可以互换,就可以视为翻译对等。“对等”一直都作为一种重要理念存在于西方现代翻译界。对于翻译对等概念做出较为全面论述的是奈达(Eugene Nida)，他认为所谓译文与原文的对等，主要指的是语义上的对等,其次才是是修辞和语言风格上的对等。
无论是汽车英语还是机械英语，都具备着科技英语的普遍特点，即选词和翻译都需要极其准确和严密。科技英语的语言特点非常明显，英语科技文献中多充斥着大量的术语。句式多为长句，无主句或被动语态
因而，科技翻译的难点在于原文巨大的信息量，译者专业知识的限制以及一些专有名词的处理。“英汉两种语言的行文结构、行文习惯完全+—样。英文是形合结构(hypotaxis),汉语则是意合结构(parataxis),两者在句法层面上往往很难兼容。”(何刚强)要实现译文与原文的对等，不仅要在句式和词汇上做必要的调整，一些必要的增删也是在所难免的。这些都是在科技翻译中必须要面对的问题。
三、增词与减词
中西方文化的差异往往会反映在语言上。例如,有很多概念或事物在中国人看来是理所当然的，无需解释，但对外国人来讲就有必要加以说明。更重要的原因是，如同傅雷先生曾经说过，汉民族与西方民族的"mentality"相差太远。“外文都是分析的，散文的;中文却是综合的，诗的。科技翻译中，运用增词和减词可以在一定程度上改善两种语言的差异。由于英文是形合结构，而汉语则是意合结构，翻译时需要补足一些词,或是删去一些词，才能更好的理解原文的意思。在增删的过程中，我们必须遵循的原则即是对等。例如，
⑴ 原文: For successful customer negotiations
译文: 与客户进行价格谈判
⑵ 原文: Independent
译文: 独立性
例一中的 for successful 是修饰性词语，这在汉语的技术文献中是不必要的，所以译文中删减掉了这一意思而添加了“价格”一词，以实现译文的完整。例二的译文在独立后面加了“性”，用以使译文更符合汉语的表达习惯，实现表意上的对等。
四、专业术语的处理
专业术语是科技英语翻译中的另一个难点。专业术语指的是某一学科领域内的一些惯例性统一固定的词汇。有一些专业术语在国际上是通用的，即其译文是固定统一的，在实际翻译过程中不能任意翻译。如：在科技领域中的“panel”通常表示“仪表板”的意思，而该词在法律领域则表示“陪审员”。又如同为机械领域， “Plant”在某些公司指下设工厂，而在另一些公司却指车间，所指范畴有大小的差异。要清楚文中专业词汇所属的学科领域以及在特定语境下的特殊含义，才能实现译文与原文在表意功能上的对等。
小型术语库的建立和平行文本的`使用，是实现专业术语翻译功能对等的一个比较有效的方法。根据原语言文本的来源，在同一领域搜集相关或相似的平行文本，建立小型术语库或进行平行文本的比对，可以在最大程度上避免原文与译文的偏差，从而实现真正意义上的对等。
五、结语
中国与西方国家有着不同的历史文化和风土人情。这样的文化差异也同样反映在科技英语的翻译中。在严谨的科技文献中，如何在不影响原文的严谨性的前提下消除文化差异带来的影响，实现译文与原文的功能对等，对于译者是一个需要认真对待的课题。译者应遵循奈达与纽马克所提出的翻译理论，了解隐藏在科技文本中的文化差异，并设法在翻译过程中通过使译入语与原语的主要信息和功能对等，消除文化差异，从而在最大程度上实现译文的优化。
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[3]韩子满.应用翻译-实践与理论研究[
功能对等理论在教育类文本中的应用如下：1、目前，功能对等理论广泛应用于文学和非文学翻译研究。在非文学翻译领域，主要应用于经贸、法律、科技、政治和教育类文本翻译。2、在教育类文本类翻译中，功能对等理论的应用主要集中在教材翻译和学术文献翻译，但还未被用于指导学生手册翻译，所以本选题具有一定新颖性。例如：张晶明（2018）从功能对等理论角度研究了计算机科学英语教材的翻译；吴继红（2018）研究了学术论文的翻译。3、此外，功能对等理论强调“翻译是用最恰当、自然和对等的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息”。（郭建忠，2000）学生手册又属于信息类文本，强调信息的传达，所以根据源文本的类型，用功能对等理论指导学生手册汉译具有可行性。功能对等理论由美国语言学家尤金·A·奈达（EugeneNida）于1969年提出，奈达是一位著名的结构主义语言大师，本身也是有重要地位的语言学家，曾任美国语言学会主席。
最佳答案翻译思想史表明，随着现代语言学的形成与日臻完善，20世纪中叶以来，建立在语言... 而起作用的只是语言的工具理性及其规律性。翻译理论由于长期受语言学的影响，形...
“功能对等”，就是说翻译时不求文字表面的死板对应，而要在两种语言间达成功能上对等。功能对等理论由美国语言学家尤金·A·奈达（Eugene Nida）于1969年提出，奈达是一位著名的结构主义语言大师，本身也是有重要地位的语言学家，曾任美国语言学会主席。
但这位在学术界赫赫有名的人物，偏偏远离学术重镇，默默地在美国圣经协会供职半个多世纪。他一生的主要学术活动都围绕《圣经》翻译展开。在《圣经》翻译的过程中，奈达从实际出发，发展出了一套自己的翻译理论，最终成为翻译研究的经典之一。
功能对等特点
如按照英汉两种语言字面上的对等来翻译，原句译为“他靠传染来思维，像感冒一样获得思想”，这样，原文的真正意义就无法清楚地表达。事实上，在汉语中很难找到一个完全与英文对等的句型来表达同样的内涵。
于是，译者将源语的深层结构转换成目的语的表层结构，即用目的语中相应的词汇直接说明、解释原文的内涵，以使译文读者更易接受译作。
根据奈达的翻译理论，文化差异的处理是与从语义到文体将源语再现于目的语紧密相联的。只有当译文从语言形式到文化内涵都再现了源语的风格和精神时，译作才能被称作是优秀的作品。
中医语言隐喻特征及翻译策略论文
摘要 :为更好地传播和推广中医及中国文化，译者需在正确理论指导之下进行中医英译。隐喻是中医语言的一大特色，也是中医英译的一大难点，关联理论和功能对等理论能有效解决这一难题，追求“最佳关联”和“最佳对等”的翻译效果不仅能忠实阐述中医学概念，更能传达隐含的中国文化。通过分析中医语言隐喻特征，剖析关联理论和功能对等理论对中医隐喻翻译的指导作用，旨在探讨这两种理论指导下更高效、更科学和更准确的翻译策略。
关键词 :语言哲学论文
中图分类号: 文献标志码:A 文章编号:1673-7717(2016)03-0551-03
中医语言作为人类抽象思维产物之一具有普遍的隐喻特征。隐喻为中医概念提供了语言形式和帮助认知中医研究对象，关于中医语言隐喻性及其翻译的研究却不多。在众多的理论中，笔者认为源于认知语言学的关联理论和奈达的功能对等理论能很好地指导中医隐喻翻译。鉴于中医语言的隐喻特征和研究现状，为了开辟中医英译方法策略新的研究方向，找出能高效传达中医医学信息和文化信息的译法，本文试从关联理论和功能对等理论视角来研究中医语言隐喻翻译策略。
1.隐喻概念
“隐喻”一词来自希腊语“metaphora”，其字源meta意思是“超越”，而“pherein”的意思则是“传送”，隐喻是指将两种不同概念的事物通过含蓄、婉转地表达或映射的方式达到形象比喻的语言行为［1］。隐喻是人类主要认知工具和思维方式，广泛存在于语言之中，同时也存在于人们的思想、行动以及生活的每一个方面。它不仅是一种修辞格式，更是语言中最重要的表达方式之一。概括起来即:隐喻是在一类事物的暗示下感知、体验、想象、理解、谈论另一类事物的心理行为、语言行为和文化行为［2］。隐喻的要件有三:“彼事物”、“此事物”、两者的关联。其结果为:由关联而生发出来的喻义。
2.中医语言隐喻特征
隐喻本体特征
中医语言隐喻本体是指中医医学方面的内容和概念。人们觉察的身体异样或症状被称为病象。中医理论常运用类比推理的方式，借助于其它事物的内部变化或性质特征对病症加以解释和分析，形成的规律性认识［5］。例如:运用自然界中湿气的隐喻，可以对人体内的一些疾病做出解释。中医术语有“湿胜则濡泻”，语出《素问阴阳应象大论》，指“人体内湿气偏胜，出现大便泄泻的病理情况”［6］。
隐喻喻体特征
中医语言隐喻的喻体可分成物象、气象、地象和人象，分别指具体的有形物象、天气现象、地理状象和人的社会生活现象［6］。人们在长期的生活中从各种动物的外形，动作和习性上找到丰富的喻体。各种生活工具也可以被作为喻体来表达医学概念。用自然现象来解释人体的运行机制，认为人的病痛与这些要素有关。在病症描述和诊断上也常用地理名词，如位置和地貌来表述病症位置及其相应的特点，人对社会关系的认识和理解可隐喻为人体部位的关系和相关功能［5］。
隐喻喻底特征
本体与喻体之间的联系要通过一定的喻底才能建立。喻底作为本、喻体之间的相似性是隐喻建构的基础。中医语言中隐喻通过各种相似性构建联系即表明喻体特征又说明本体功能，中医语言常将各种相似性联系起来构造隐喻［6］。
3.关联理论与功能对等理论
关联理论属于认知语用学理论范畴，但其作用不只局限于语用学领域。许多翻译理论和模式受其影响而发展，在西方翻译界日益受到重视。翻译研究中引入关联理论已经给翻译研究带来了新的生命并打开了一个新的研究视角。关联理论的核心内容为:运用推理，通过语境来寻找关联才能正确理解自然语言。正确认知和理解自然语言是在翻译中达到语用等效的重要前提。翻译是一种特殊的语言交际活动，可以理解为“一个对原语进行阐释的明示—推理过程”，理解和表达的有机统一贯穿于翻译的整个过程［4］。关联理论对翻译理论和实践有很强的解释力，能对其进行解释和指导，而翻译活动可以加深对关联翻译理论的认识。Nida提倡的“动态对等”和Newmark倡导的“交际翻译”都表示语用翻译实质上是一种功能对等翻译。功能对等理论强调译文接受者对译文的反应要等同于原文的接受者对原文的反应。正确认知和理解源语语是功能对等翻译中的等效前提，这与关联理论的关联和推理是一致的`［2］。功能对等理论中的“最佳对等”和关联理论中的“最佳关联”概念是一脉相承的，关联理论与功能对等理论的结合，可以整合翻译的双重含义———翻译过程和翻译结果为系统、科学、有效的中医语言隐喻翻译提供强坚实理论保障［3］。
4.中医隐喻翻译
对隐喻的认知及翻译决定了中医知识和文化传达的效果。笔者认为关联理论能帮助译者推断出源语中的隐含，对读者认知能力提出语境假设，选择正确语境信息，将隐含明示给读者，让其从中推导。等效翻译理论要求用最贴切、自然的译文对等再现源语信息，解决中医翻译中语言处理等方面问题［8］。等效翻译不仅将中医医学信息最大量地传递给西方读者，而且将中医中包含的文学、哲学、文化等方面因素尽可能地呈现出来。
关联翻译理论视角下的中医隐喻翻译
关联理论与中医翻译关联理论把言语交际定义为是一种有目的、有意图的认知活动。认知语境是不可缺少的要素，交际双方必须互明彼此的认知语境来正确理解交际的意图，接受逻辑信息、词汇信息和文化信息。简单的字面翻译并不能有效传达中医语言中暗含的中医特有文化信息，译者必须准确把握中医语言中蕴含的文化图式，选择适合目标语读者的表达方式，帮助其找到与中医译文语境之间的最佳关联性，达到最佳语境效果。中医英译追求的不仅是中医语言的文学翻译，更是传达其文化信息的科技翻译。翻译的成功在很大程度上取决于译文为读者提供的最佳语境效果、译文与读者之间的最佳关联。中医隐喻翻译策略隐喻翻译要实现语言形式转换，更要正确映射和整合语言形式背后隐藏的不同思维方式和文化因素。中医语言具有辨证论治的科学性和文学欣赏的古雅性。中医要始终保持其科学性，中医英译也不可忽视其中博大文化内涵。人们用生活劳动中观察到的现象和感悟的道理阐释陌生、深奥的中医医学理论，造就了中医学隐喻性语言［7］。因此，译者需采用灵活的翻译策略来实现中医英译中内容与形式、语言与文化的高度一致性和统一性。(1)描述喻体、简单直译:人类相同生理构造和对自然界变化的经历和体验决定了人们对事物的表达有相同或相似的认知模式，人类具有“共有的非文化知识”，不同民族对自然相似的认知并不是相互学习所获得的［13］。鉴于此，笔者认为应按照源语篇章中源域和目标域的位置顺序来翻译译语篇章中的源域和目标域，实现位置完全对应的关联映射。因此，精确描述原隐喻形象和文化特色以丰富和完善译语表达。例如:“雀啄脉”译为“sparrow－peckingpulse”。西方读者了解麻雀进食的动作，他们看到这个译名时，可以将麻雀进食的动作这一信息关联映射到一种脉搏跳动的外在特征上，很容易理解中医隐喻认知和概念，达到最好的语用效果。类似的例子还有:“蜘蛛胀”译为“spider－likedisten-tion”;“弹石脉”译为“stone－flickingpulse”;“五更泄”(鸡鸣泄)译为“morningdiarrhea(cock－crowingdiarrhea)”。(2)注重文化、合理意译:文化的空缺和错位是语言之间存在的普遍现象，翻译中往往注重保留文化意象的深层含义而丢失其表层含义［7］。中医隐喻翻译要求在目标语中找到与源语信息的最佳关联。如果一味强调保留原文的语言特征，读者却无法找到交际线索，故不能达到最佳关联性。笔者认为可以使用意译，对读者的认知语境做出正确假设，将源语语言形式适当修改，力求把词汇隐含传达给读者，达到对隐喻更好的认知和理解。例如:“提壶揭盖”若翻译为“liftingthejarandtakinga-waythelid”，虽忠于原文语言特征，但西方读者却不能理解其含义，更无法掌握其中蕴含的中医思想。故要将此观点映射到西方文化和认知的同等层面上。可以译为“openingthelungqitotreatconstipationordysuria”，这样西方读者可以领悟出它是指“用宣肺或升提的方法通利小便”的一种隐喻。第一种译法违背了关联理论中话段必须产生足够的语境效果让读者自然做出最佳关联的原则，而第二个译法揭示了隐喻内涵，让读者接收到源语的意义隐含，达到意义所指的最佳关联，保留了原文认知效果的相似性(3)类比推理、增译补偿:中医语言有大量病理治则类隐喻，大部分是由中国古代哲学等理论类比推理得来，因此本体认知都具有间接性、抽象性及明显的心理相似性［11］。单纯直译这类隐喻使西方读者很难在他们已有的认知世界里找到相关信息进行关联和推理，笔者认为可以考虑使用文内补偿来増译，更明确地表达内容和阐释隐喻。例如:“青蛇头”(肿胀如青蛇头状的痈疽)如译为“bluesnakehead”，读者无法理解源语文本内涵;如只译为“ulcer”又丢失源语隐喻特征。最佳译文应为“snake－head－likeulcer”，其中，“snake－head－like”是直接翻译喻体，但又增加“ulcer”一词可以指明实际的病症是“痈疽”。同样地，“龟背”(脊高如龟的佝偻病)应译为“turtle－back－likerickets”;“白虎历节”(游走性关节痛)应译为“acutear-thritis，，“蛇身”(生于皮肤之上状如蛇皮的癣疾)应译为“snake－skin－liketinea”。
功能对等理论视角下的中医隐喻翻译
功能对等理论与中医翻译中医语言医哲交汇，言简意赅，善用修辞，文化浓厚，中医英译常会出现文化负载词、文化休克及文化缺省等问题，增加了翻译难度，使译者无法将中医名词术语忠实、客观、简洁地呈现给读者［9］。功能对等理论强调功能对等，意指任何翻译语言因素，化解译文应侧重于源语还是目标语的长期分歧，强调以读者为中心，注重读者的理解和感受，区别于以文本为中心的翻译理论。中医隐喻翻译策略翻译旨在完整、准确、充分、通顺地传达原文的思想内容，读者能利用自己的语言和文化背景来理解原文所传达的信息和含义，包括思想内容、感情、风格等。在功能对等翻译理论指导下，灵活多样的翻译方法可以解决中医隐喻翻译中许多难题，准确再现中医语言信息及文化内涵。(1)术语西化、概念对等:中医隐喻英译可以对照西医概念，转述术语、行话，通俗、形象地表述中医概念，使用西医中对等概念的通俗表述。如果生硬地移用术语，往往会弄巧成拙。例如:表病症的词“虚亏”、“阴阳失衡”、“不足”若译为“unbalanced”或“deficiency”，西方读者无法明白这一病症的实质含义，可译为“abnormal/morbidcondition”或“abnor-mality/dysfunction”(失调状态);含义浅白、指称直截了当。关于治则、治法的术语“平衡阴阳”、“固本培元”不能译为“balanceYinandYang”，可译为“helprecover”或“restorenormalcondition”或“strengthenresistance”。这种译法既简单明了，又通俗易懂。(2)词汇转化、意义对等:中医语言简意赅，通常用几个字就能清楚表达一种病症或治疗方法，甚至一种理论，但英译后的表述却难觅这种特征，若直接按中文字面意思翻译会让西方读者难以理解其确切含义。例如:“黄疸”若译为“yellowinface”，这只是突出这种病症在人体的外在表象，不妨可借用西医术语译为“juan-dice”。因此，“白喉”译为“diphtheria”而非“whitethroat”;“大汗”和“眼花”分别译为“profusesweating”和“blurredvi-sion”这样就极大提高了译语的规范化程度。不能将中医用语机械性的逐字翻译，需找出西医术语中概念对等的词汇和表述。(3)概念转化、文化对等:中医是中国文化的典型代表，反映中国文化的精髓，和西方文化有很大差异。在英译时要深刻体会、理解其中文化内涵，准确选择译文词语，力求传达文化隐含，让读者能从其本土文化中找到对等概念。例如:《素问上古天真论》中，“上古圣人之教下也，皆谓之虚邪贼风”［14］，此处的“贼风”若译为“thiefwind”，西方读者会理解为“风”自然现象，忽略了文化和语言差异，应该通过具体语境，领会原语中的意义，将其译为“pathogenicfactors”(致病因素)。
5.结语
中医英译要特别注意对中医语言隐喻特征的把握和翻译，而运用正确的理论指导翻译显得尤为关键。在对中医隐喻进行翻译时，译者要深入了解源语和译语之间在文化背景、历史传统等因素上的差异，找出喻本、喻体之间的相关性，同时还要对读者的心理期盼与认知环境做出正确判断，在关联原则的指导下，将原文的信息准确无误地传递给读者，使译文与读者的期盼相吻合，达到最佳关联。功能对等理论能让译者从整体把握、感悟原作，发挥想象去感受意境，借助主体的直接经验去发掘原作内在、隐蔽的因素，从而找出与原文最接近、最自然的对等语和表达方式让译文语义更明朗，表述更精确，从而真正实现“动态对等”的翻译原则。
功能对等理论视角下的科技英语翻译研究论文
一、引言
随着全球经济信息一体化进程的不断加快，中国与世界其他国家的技术交流日益密切。企业的发展也在不断地引进国外的先进技术和文献。作为一种非文学翻译，科技翻译逐渐成为很多翻译工作者的主要任务。科学家钱三强先生也曾提出:“科技英语在许多国家已经成为现代英语的一个专门的新领域。”随着时代的进步，在一些合资或外资公司甚至专门设有技术翻译(Technical Translation)的职位，可见科技翻译正在逐步占据着翻译市场。
二、功能对等理论与科技翻译的特点
从1953年里乌(. Rieu) 首次提出“对等”概念。到1965年，卡特福德(Catford)提出 “篇章对等”概念。即翻译的目的就在于在所有潜在的对等译语中寻找与原语最匹配的对等语。原语和译语只要在所涉情景中可以互换,就可以视为翻译对等。“对等”一直都作为一种重要理念存在于西方现代翻译界。对于翻译对等概念做出较为全面论述的是奈达(Eugene Nida)，他认为所谓译文与原文的对等，主要指的是语义上的对等,其次才是是修辞和语言风格上的对等。
无论是汽车英语还是机械英语，都具备着科技英语的普遍特点，即选词和翻译都需要极其准确和严密。科技英语的语言特点非常明显，英语科技文献中多充斥着大量的术语。句式多为长句，无主句或被动语态
因而，科技翻译的难点在于原文巨大的信息量，译者专业知识的限制以及一些专有名词的处理。“英汉两种语言的行文结构、行文习惯完全+—样。英文是形合结构(hypotaxis),汉语则是意合结构(parataxis),两者在句法层面上往往很难兼容。”(何刚强)要实现译文与原文的对等，不仅要在句式和词汇上做必要的调整，一些必要的增删也是在所难免的。这些都是在科技翻译中必须要面对的问题。
三、增词与减词
中西方文化的差异往往会反映在语言上。例如,有很多概念或事物在中国人看来是理所当然的，无需解释，但对外国人来讲就有必要加以说明。更重要的原因是，如同傅雷先生曾经说过，汉民族与西方民族的"mentality"相差太远。“外文都是分析的，散文的;中文却是综合的，诗的。科技翻译中，运用增词和减词可以在一定程度上改善两种语言的差异。由于英文是形合结构，而汉语则是意合结构，翻译时需要补足一些词,或是删去一些词，才能更好的理解原文的意思。在增删的过程中，我们必须遵循的原则即是对等。例如，
⑴ 原文: For successful customer negotiations
译文: 与客户进行价格谈判
⑵ 原文: Independent
译文: 独立性
例一中的 for successful 是修饰性词语，这在汉语的技术文献中是不必要的，所以译文中删减掉了这一意思而添加了“价格”一词，以实现译文的完整。例二的译文在独立后面加了“性”，用以使译文更符合汉语的表达习惯，实现表意上的对等。
四、专业术语的处理
专业术语是科技英语翻译中的另一个难点。专业术语指的是某一学科领域内的一些惯例性统一固定的词汇。有一些专业术语在国际上是通用的，即其译文是固定统一的，在实际翻译过程中不能任意翻译。如：在科技领域中的“panel”通常表示“仪表板”的意思，而该词在法律领域则表示“陪审员”。又如同为机械领域， “Plant”在某些公司指下设工厂，而在另一些公司却指车间，所指范畴有大小的差异。要清楚文中专业词汇所属的学科领域以及在特定语境下的特殊含义，才能实现译文与原文在表意功能上的对等。
小型术语库的建立和平行文本的`使用，是实现专业术语翻译功能对等的一个比较有效的方法。根据原语言文本的来源，在同一领域搜集相关或相似的平行文本，建立小型术语库或进行平行文本的比对，可以在最大程度上避免原文与译文的偏差，从而实现真正意义上的对等。
五、结语
中国与西方国家有着不同的历史文化和风土人情。这样的文化差异也同样反映在科技英语的翻译中。在严谨的科技文献中，如何在不影响原文的严谨性的前提下消除文化差异带来的影响，实现译文与原文的功能对等，对于译者是一个需要认真对待的课题。译者应遵循奈达与纽马克所提出的翻译理论，了解隐藏在科技文本中的文化差异，并设法在翻译过程中通过使译入语与原语的主要信息和功能对等，消除文化差异，从而在最大程度上实现译文的优化。
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[3]韩子满.应用翻译-实践与理论研究[
挺早的了吧，不好找了楼上给的是翻译理论吧？
英语毕业论文答辩稿范文（精选8篇）
一段忙碌又充实的大学生活要即将结束，我们毕业前都要通过最后的`毕业论文，毕业论文是一种比较重要的检验学生学习成果的形式，快来参考毕业论文是怎么写的吧！下面是我帮大家整理的英语毕业论文答辩稿范文，希望对大家有所帮助。
Good morning, all appraises committee members. I am XXX and my supervisor is XXX.
With his constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper.
Now it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is Comparative Study between English and Chinese idioms.
With the developing globalization, communication demand precise language.
Idioms are not a separate part of the language, we cannot omit. Studying the similarities and differences between English and Chinese idioms would be helpful to cross-cultural understanding and it’s also a good advance to our future if we can learn well.
For the above facts, I select the subject of “comparative study between English and Chinese idioms” as the title of my paper.
In the main part of this paper, I divide it four parts.
Part one presents general introduction to the basic concept and the studying purpose.
Part two presents overview of the Chinese and English idioms; it concludes similar origins and similar functions. Part three emphasize differences between English and Chinese idioms.
Through contrast analysis of well-known Chinese and English language, found the differences cultural discrepancy and the translation of animal words. Part four draws some conclusions that characteristics of English and Chinese idioms. And it is helpful to cross-culture .It’s necessary for a better understanding of international promotional communication. OK, that’s all. Thank you.
Good morning,Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense.
I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points（Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van ）The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.
Good afternoon, all appraiser committee members. I’m Zhang Da and my supervisor is Professor Zhang Jingcai. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is On the Significance of Drama Method in the Improvement of English Learning in Chinese Rural Junior High School. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. First of all, I really want to be a teacher, so during the four years, I have read many books about how to become a good teacher. Secondly, when I was a freshman in the summer of 2008, I was chosen as a teaching assistant of the summer camp which was organized by the New Oriental English School in Shijiazhuang. In the summer camp, I rewrote a script of an English drama to be one of the programs of the open ceremony. It was very popular among those students. They thought it was very interesting. In 2010, I was practiced as an English teacher at Chenguantun Middle School in Qinhuangdao, I found that the students have little interest towards English learning, so I hoped I could help them. So I use the Drama Method as my teaching method. Almost all of the students were highly motivated by the interesting teaching method and they have made great progress in the exam one month later. So the research proved that the Drama Method can be used as an effective teaching method. For the above facts, I select the subject of On the Significance of Drama Method in the Improvement of English Learning in Chinese Rural Junior High School as the title of my paper. I hope by studying this topic we can find an effective teaching method to help all the students’ English learning in junior high school.
Next, it is an outline of my paper. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into five parts.
Part one presents an introduction to identify the major problem of junior high school students’ English learning problems
Part two overviews all relevant researches in drama application in teaching oral English.
Part three is the research design, the research hypothesis, the subjects of the research, the research methods and the research procedures are conducted.
Part four is the findings from research data. After analyzing the data with Excel 2007, pedagogical findings and implications are delivered before the conclusion of the thesis.
Part five draws some conclusions about the research. As what has been shown in the research, there are a lot of benefits from drama performance; the Drama Method can be used as an effective teaching method. In addition, there are some suggestions for forthcoming researches.
OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.
Good evening, all the appraiser committee members. I come from HUST, majoring in foreign linguistics and applied linguistics. With her sincere and intellectual guidance, for nearly one whole year's hard work, I have finished my paper. Finally, it is the show time. This evening I will present my efforts to you all and I gratefully welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style
in from a Feminist Perspective. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this short story as this is one of the texts in our intensive teaching course and I have taught this text for more than 3 times . Last but not the least ,as a female , I am keen on the study of feminism. For the above facts, I select the subject of as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this short story we can know more about American southern women in certain history and culture and more importantly help women in modern society get a deeper understanding about ourselves ,help us raise our independence and confidence and show more concern for our mental health.
Next , I will present it to you. Here is an outline of my presentation. They are literature review, gothic tradition , the gothic style in the story and the causes of the gothic style .
This paper consists of six parts. Part one presents an introduction to the author William Faulkner and by pointing out the purpose and significance of this study. Part two is literature review which introduces the relevant research about this novel at home and abroad and then points out the theoretical basis and methods. Part three gives a timeline of the gothic tradition in literature and explains the main characteristics of gothic works. Part four explains the three aspects of the gothic style in the novel，that is, the death theme, grotesque characters and mystic atmosphere. Part five then explains in detail the causes of the gothic style in this novel: patriarchal oppression, the myth of southern ladyhood and Emily’s attitude towards love. Finally, in the conclusion, the author summarizes the previous parts and emphasizes the significance of the argument of the thesis again.
Ok, that's all. Now you may raise your questions ! I am ready! Thank you !!!
I will present my efforts to you and welcome any title of my paper is on transformation of parts of speech in translation. i choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. each language has its own special structure. and there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. in order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. so the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in english to chinese based on different characteristics of english and chinese. for the above facts, i select the subject of“on transformation of parts of speech”as the title of my hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in english to chinese translation. through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation way of thinking and expressing is quite different between chinese and english. english is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. while chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often when we make translation in english to chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of , it is an outline of my paper. in the main part of this paper, i divide it into five one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. there are transformed english words into chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. it is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. in addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation ! that is all. thank you!
Good morning,Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. （或Welcome to attend the oral defense.） :I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points（Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van ）The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.
stant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it's show time. You and I will work hard to welcome any topic of my thesis is 《Angela carter to mythology research - the female archetype in “new eve passion”, for example》。 I choose this as my topic due to the following Carter （1940-1992） is an outstanding feminist writer whose influence on Britishwomen's writing was “pivotal in this opening and transformation” [“23]. The year 2014 represents the 22”^ anniversary of Angela Carter's death. In those twenty-two years, her works have been widely taught internationally and brought about much critical debate. In a survey conducted by Cristina Bacchilega and Danielle M. Roemer [2],Carter is one of the most commonly taught women writers on North American programs. She has endowed us with an amazingly large number of legacies in her comparatively limited life, setting foot in various fields such as novels,short stories,children stories, dramas, non-fictions and so on. The acute observations with great insights,as well as the devastating wit and poignant mockery in Carter's works have made her stand out as an iconic figure in English literature. Many scholars and critics have devoted themselves to the research on Angela Carter from many perspectives,including gothic, magic realism, feminism,post-modernism and so on. As a prolific writer who is always ready to blur the boundaries between different genres, Carter has left us a wonderful world to delve the emergence of western women's movement as well as the development of feminist criticism in the 1960s,the feminist approach has become a potent weapon for those who are concerned with the emancipation and legal rights of women. Though women's social status has considerably improved due to the contribution made by countless predecessors,the fundamental problem still lingers on. Carter, with her versatile and avant-garde reputation, is best known as a feminist writer. Concerning the dilemmas and predicaments faced by women nowadays,it is very necessary for us to probe into her insightful and penetrating reflections on femininity as well as the relationship between two genders. The Passion of New Eve, as one of Carter's most representative works, is of great value in the research of her feminist thoughts and , is my paper outline. In the main part of this article, I put it into five one is an introduction to the thesis, covering the research background, theobjective and significance as well as the organization of the two presents a broad picture of Angela Carter's life and her works, as well as the background information about The Passion of New Eve. It also reviews previous studies on Angela Carter and her works at home and abroad, summarizing achievements in the past and pointing out new directions in the three conducts a retrospective study on feminism and archetypal criticism. The author attempts to work out the origin and development of feminism, demonstrating the important role feminism plays in Carter's life. Then is the history of archetypal criticism,as well as those classic female archetypes in mythology. Regarding those fossilized and monotonous images as impediments to women's freedom and liberation,Carter endeavors to shatter them in her demythologizing strategy and appeals for a rational attitude toward heterosexual four is the main body of the thesis. Through an in-depth analysis on The Passion of New Eve,it demonstrates Carter's demythologizing of “The Temptress,,,”Mother Goddess“and ”Eve“ respectively in the text. Leilah,the embodiment of Delilah,the famous temptress in the Bible,cannot escape the fate of being objectified by men and herself. By exposing”temptresses“ as mere victims rather than symbols of viciousness. Carter condemns the oppression and exploitation of women in a patriarchal society. ”Mother“ in Beulah serves as a severe satire on those mother goddesses in mythology. Carter smashes the legend by revealing the surgically-made essence of mother and the patriarchal values lurking behind her alleged matriarchal kingdom, warning against the peril and impracticality of extremist her most convincing example goes to Eve, the most important female character in the Bible, Her transformative journey from a chauvinist to a real woman in the story illustrates that gender, rather than a hereditary feature, is the result of social influence and unremitting imitations. Carter concludes the story with proposing ”androgyny“ as a solution to the current problems,implying that mutual respect and understanding is the only way to achieve the harmony between the two five comes to a general conclusion, summarizing the limitations of the theses as well as some suggestions for further ! That is all. Thank you!
Good morning, distinguished professors and teachers, thank you for attending the oral defense. I’m *** and come from class *. My supervisor is professor Li. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof. his consistent guidance and valuable suggestions, I have finished my paper. Now I will present my efforts to you and gratefully welcome any suggestion.
Firstly, I am very interested in the study of ambiguity. Ambiguity is a common phenomenon in all natural languages. As is known to all, in our daily conversations, ambiguity is often employed to achieve the effect of humor, thus creating a relaxing atmosphere and letting people feel at ease. Some jokes caused by ambiguity is very interesting.
Secondly, I have read several articles about ambiguity written by linguistics and scholars. I found my knowledge of ambiguity is very limited, superficial and nonsystematic. What I knew is just the tip of the iceberg. So I plan to learn more about ambiguity by this research.
Thirdly, I found many scholars have carried out numerous studies of ambiguity, but a majority of these studies are focused on single language separately. Articles about comparison between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity are not sufficient. So it is necessary to make further study.
For the above facts, I select this title.
Next, I will present the outline of my thesis. It consists of 7 parts.
The first part gives a brief introduction to the ambiguity and structure of the thesis.
The second part is literature review, briefly introducing the development of study of ambiguity and some scholars’s main views.
The third to fifth parts focus on three types of ambiguity in English and Chinese: phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity, syntactic ambiguity. In every broad type, I respectively list some detailed branches and cite some vivid English and Chinese examples to explain these ambiguity phenomena. But I put more focus on the third part and point out two differences of ambiguity between English ambiguity and Chinese ambiguity.
The part six will point out positive results by using ambiguity deliberately in daily conversations, advertisements and literary works.
The last part is the conclusion.
I hope by this contrastive research, we will have a better understanding of ambiguity in English and Chinese and apply it to our life and study.
When reading the final draft, I still find my argument is not so comprehensive and improvements are needed. So welcome your precious suggestion.
That’s all. Thank you.
这个回答可以啊
英语毕业论文答辩（通用6篇）
英语的论文答辩要点是格式最好少些瑕疵，提前将abstract和conclusion背一背。有利于答辩的顺利进行。下面是我为大家整理的.关于英语毕业论文的答辩。欢迎大家阅读。
Good morning, all appraiser committee members. I am **** and my supervisor is ***. With her constant encouragement and guidance, I have finished my paper. Now, it is the show time. I will present my efforts to you and welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is On Transformation of Parts of Speech in Translation. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Different languages have different standards to distinguish parts of speech. Each language has its own special structure. And there are no equivalent parts of speech between different languages. In order to make the target version more idiomatic and standard, the transformation of parts of speech is always used by translators. So the transformation of parts of speech is playing a more important role in English to Chinese based on different characteristics of English and Chinese. For the above facts, I select the subject of On Transformation of parts of speech as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this topic we can know the importance of the transformation of parts of speech in English to Chinese translation. Through transformation, we can get the better version and improve the translation skills.
The way of thinking and expressing is quite different between Chinese and English. English is a kind of static languages which tends to use more nouns. While Chinese is a dynamic one in which verbs are often used.
So when we make translation in English to Chinese, we should know this point and shift the parts of speech.
Part one presents an introduction to the basic concepts of parts of speech and two discusses the definition of translation and emphasizes the importance of transformation of parts of speech in the course of three gives four basic ways of transformation of parts of speech through illustrative examples. There are transformed English words into Chinese verbs, nouns, adjectives and four presents some problems about transformation and gives some advise to solve the problems.
Part five draws some conclusions that transformation between parts of speech is necessary for us to achieve good translation. It is demonstrated that we can have a good master of transformation and improve the translation. In addition, we must continuously study and explore in all kinds of translation practices.
OK! That is all. Thank you! Please ask questions.
Good morning,
Distinguished professors and teachers, ladies and gentlemen, thank you for attending the oral defense. (或Welcome to attend the oral defense.) ：
I am XX. First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, professorXX, for his intellectual guidance, invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis.
My topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points(Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van )The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative, evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic s significance in the real society. And the second part is going to analyze the figures background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part, the tragic heroes failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society. Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part, and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part.
Thank you!
Good evening, all the appraiser committee members. I come from HUST, majoring in foreign linguistics and applied linguistics. I am xxx and my supervisor is her sincere and intellectual guidance, for nearly one whole year's hard work, I have finished my paper. Finally, it is the show time. This evening I will present my efforts to you all and I gratefully welcome any correction.
The title of my paper is A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style in A Rose for Emily from a Feminist Perspective. I choose this as my topic due to the following reasons. Firstly, I am fond of literature works , especially gothic literature works. Secondly, I am quite familiar with this short story as this is one of the texts in our intensive teaching course and I have taught this text for more than 3 times . Last but not the least ,as a female , I am keen on the study of feminism. For the above facts, I select the subject of A Study of the Causes of the Gothic Style in A Rose for Emily from a Feminist Perspective as the title of my paper.
I hope by studying this short story we can know more about American southern women in certain history and culture and more importantly help women in modern society get a deeper understanding about ourselves ,help us raise our independence and confidence and show more concern for our mental health.
Next , I will present it to you. Here is an outline of my presentation. They are literature review, gothic tradition , the gothic style in the story and the causes of the gothic style .
This paper consists of six parts. Part one presents an introduction to the author William Faulkner and A Rose for Emily by pointing out the purpose and significance of this study. Part two is literature review which introduces the relevant research about this novel at home and abroad and then points out the theoretical basis and methods. Part three gives a timeline of the gothic tradition in literature and explains the main characteristics of gothic works. Part four explains the three aspects of the gothic style in the novel，that is, the death theme, grotesque characters and mystic atmosphere. Part five then explains in detail the causes of the gothic style in this novel: patriarchal oppression, the myth of southern ladyhood and Emily’s attitude towards love. Finally, in the conclusion, the author summarizes the previous parts and emphasizes the significance of the argument of the thesis again.
Ok, that's all. Now you may raise your questions ! I am ready! Thank you !
Good morning, appraises committee members and schoolmates. I come from class 08951, and I am Yu Lianfei.
Today, the title of my paper is On the Network Novels. In recent years, the network literature is developing rapidly. Network novel is one of the fast of them. In the middle schools, high schools and even universities, there is no lack of network novels' addicts. For the above facts,I select the subject of “on the network novels” as the title of my paper. Then, I will show it to you. In the main part of this paper, I divide it into four parts, as the concept of network novels, the classification of their authors, the development of network novels and the prospects of that.
The first part, the definition. Its concept can be divided into the generalized and the narrow. And it can also be divided into boys’ and girls’ in another way.
The second part, the classification of their authors. Generally speaking, there are four kinds of authors. The first kind is some people who have favor of literature, they are writing but not for fame. Then, there is some one has favor for literature and also be for fame. The third kind is some people who have explicit goals at the beginning of his writing. And the last kind are some people who just want to express their view, their viewpoint and their feeling with no desire of being published. They take up the most of the authors.
The third part, the development. The network novels’ development can not separate form the development of the net and the literature websites. Its developing process may be divided into three stages approximately. The first stage is from 1996 to 2000. This time's literary work often did not strive for (were also not aware of) the fame and fortune, and moreover received the control of tradition. The second stage is beginning of 21st century, mainly contains 2001 and 2002. In this period, the whole network presented the situation of “chaos”. The third stage is from May, 2003 and continues until now. In this period, many schools come into the world, and when a school became a hit there must be many people mimic it.
The last part, the forecast. Looking from the internal strength pattern, the outstanding writers in our country mainly hold one kind of critique and the pessimistic manner to the network novels at present. If each big literature website enlarges their own supervision, the vulgar works, the pornography and bad works like those things, meanwhile hanker for new person’s new article as well as depth ones, the network novels can be accepted by more people.
Not a low-level novel but a kind of enjoyment.
Teachers, good afternoon! My name is Chen Jing, the students of class xxx, my thesis topic is《 the power of the giver and the victim, foucault power interpretation theory perspective, the heroine in “the golden notebook, Anna》，thesis is completed under Wang Zhiqin teacher of meticulous guidance, here, I express my deep appreciation to my supervisor, to the teachers to take part in my thesis express our heartfelt thanks to you for, and for the past three years I have a chance to listen to the teachings, teachers say heartfelt I will this paper design the research background, significance and main content of the teacher made a report, please the teacher criticism guidance.
First of all, I want to talk about the research background and significance of the graduation thesis design.
Since the Golden Notebook involves comprehensive themes such as colonialism,feminism,racism,communism etc. and due to its severely fragmented writing forms,it has intrigued groups of both domestic and overseas critics. The research abroad could be roughly divided into three stages. The first comes about the biography of the author”],the general introduction and reading background of this novel,then a number of explorations over the themes of this book have been conducted, from the most popular one feminism,psychological featuresto the philosophical elements. Finally, critics shifted their concentration to the unique form or style applied by Lessing,for instance they analyzed the varied narrative techniques employed within ,the aesthetic value it displayed ,as well as its artistic nature generated by its messy it is worth mentioning that in 2006 Tapan has composed a specific collection of reviews on the Golden the study over this novel in foreign country has been quite fruitful and mature, the research in China is far lagging behind, most of them just emphasized the novel's multiplethemes such as feminism,eco-economic,psychology and modemism Thus more angels should be discovered by scholars at home, such as colonialism, religious and psychological exploration, and their research method should be more diversified,for instance,the potential inter-disciplinary study of this novel are waiting to be excavated, and seldomhave critics compared this masterpiece with other similar text.
Based on Foucault's power theory, this thesis is going to explore how the female protagonist Anna in Doris Lessing's the Golden Notebook, the producer and victim of power,fought against her catastrophic life. Through a close reading of the text, this thesis aims at making a Foucanldian interpretation on Lessing's motivation behind portraying such a schizophrenic female personality, convincing the reader that power permeates every capillary of the society mainly by exerting influence on power relations between individual. Sinceeverything concerns with the functioning of power, be it tragedy or comedy, Anna's destiny cannot be an exception, instead of restraining from the one-way suppress from men,Foucault's power theory enables us to put the heroine into a larger, more diverse cultural or social background where individual's identity could be perceived with much more plurality or heterogeneity. Ultimately, given Anna's gender attributes, the application of Foucault's power theory to the analysis of heroine can shed light on how women could wittedly deal with their counterpart, strike a balance between freedom and restriction, and thus heading feminism into a more reasonable and rational direction.
Secondly, I want to talk about the structure and main contents of this paper.
The author is going to divide this thesis into five chapters. The first chapter is a briefing about the research background of the Golden Notebook, which provides an overview on the fragmented content and complicated structure of this masterpiece. The second chapter is an introduction of the research status of this novel at home and abroad, at the same time,Foucault's power theory will be elaborated here as the theoretical framework. Chapter three concentrates on the text analysis of the female protagonist Anna's pursuit of the free woman identity, which will be conducted mainly from three perspectives, namely her political faith,marriage and love, as well we psychological status. Through asserting Foucault's power theory into the text analysis, we could get a clear view on how the heroine became the victim of the omnipresent power in contemporary social organizations, and also how individual resisted power via making explorations on the genealogy of the self. Chapter four gives two different interpretations of Anna's destiny, with each representing the common feminists'view and Foucault's version respectively. Via such comparison, the author attempts to find a correlation between Foucault's power theory and feminism, to tell in what ways Foucault'spower theory have modified parts of problems in current feminism, and how the formal convergent with the latter. The last chapter serves as a concluding part in which a summary of this thesis will be reached, and limitations as well as further implications will be point out.
Finally, I want to talk about the deficiency existing in this paper.
The limitations of this thesis cannot be regarded as the challenge to the relevance of Foucaxxlt's theory to feminism; on the contrary, it tells that the value of applying Foucault'spower theory lies precisely in his invitation to feminists to remain highly critical about their previous prejudices as well as their future trends. In order to make full use of Foucault's power theory in modifying feminism, we have to dig out more convergences they share with each other. With the idea that knowledge and truth are partial ones serving as a start,Genealogy is then an excellent perspective for farther explorations on the Foucauldian and feminist projects.
Thank you very much!
Good morning， Distinguished professors and teachers， ladies and gentlemen， thank you for attending the oral defense. I am XX. First and foremost， I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor， professorXX， for his intellectual guidance， invaluable instructions and comments on my thesis. It is with his valuable assistance that I have finally accomplished this thesis. My topic is On the tragedy figures at historical turning points(Comparison of KongYiji and Rip Van )The whole thesis consists of 6 parts. The first part will give a brief introduction of the negative， evasive and conservative attitudes of Kong and Rip as well as the topic’s significance in the real society.
And the second part is going to analyze the figures’ background to show the historical necessity of the tragedies. In the third part， the tragic heroes’ failing in the character according to their living environment will be further discussed and the fourth part is to talk about their different tendency of dispositions and behaviors in the society.
Then the author will dig into the root causes of the tragedies in the fifth part， and sum up the whole paper to reveal the ideological weak points of the two countries separately in the last part. Thank you!
挺早的了吧，不好找了楼上给的是翻译理论吧？
我的论文是教学法的和跨文化交际的。可以给你找找看看啊。
我觉得第2个比较好写吧,我也是英语系的,写论文的时候题目是"论语言学在第二语言学习中的运用"当时快死了要.翻译应该学了广告翻译,你可以分几个大部分,第一部分 先介绍一下翻译学,第2部分介绍一下广告翻译(商标代表的是商品,为了让消费者记住,这点翻译上和广告是一样的)的特别注意事项,第3举例你需要去查一些资料,可以运用的书有翻译学,广告翻译,以及一些杂志,没有你想的那么困难,加油.反正就是尽量往学的东西上扯就OK了
奈达的“功能对等”理论对翻译有很大的实用意义。但是和任何一门理论一样，它也存在着不足。研究了奈达的“功能对等”理论之后，笔者认为造成其不足之处原因和以下因素相关：1.语言学背景——乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论接受美学理论或读者反应的影响。乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论是解释奈达的功能对等理论忽略译者自主性的最重要原因。乔姆斯基在他著名的转换生成语法理论理论中谈到：“人类所有的语言都有一个共同的语法，这个语法的句子结构由深层结构，表层结构以及一些转换规则组成。深层结构是指一个结构体的句法属性构建的抽象表述，即不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。相反，表层结构是结构体句法派生过程的最后阶段，与人们实际发送，接收的结构组织是相符合的。”【1】因此，当人们要理一个句子意思时，他所要做的就是找出表达意思的深层结构以及表明结构的表层结构。奈达在他交际翻译研究及实践中借用了转换生成语法理论的适用成分。彼得?纽马克对此评论说：“在语言和经验上，奈达都具备翻译圣经的过人之处。他的翻译理论研究中采取了乔姆斯基转换生成语法的适用分，其中包括“核心句子”、“表层结构”、以及“深层结构等术语。”【2】在奈达关于翻译过程的表述中，我们不难发现另外一个证据。事实上，奈达提及的第一步“分析”就是指把原文的表层结构转化为深层结构；第二步“转换”意即在译文中找到和原文深层结构的相应对等物;第三步“重构”味着在译文中生成表层结构，亦即原文在译文中再创造的含义。结合奈达和乔姆斯基的理论，我们发现，奈达关于翻译过程的理论和乔姆斯基关于如何理解句子的理论几乎如出一辙。从转换生成语法对奈达翻译理论的深远影响，我们可以看出，奈达对乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论十分推崇。对此奈达曾经评论说：“转换生成语法理论是解决语法意思最有效的方法，译者运用这一语法能更好地掌握解析原文的过程以及在译文中描述相应生成的步骤。另外，此理论也为译者提供了如何分析及描述含糊句子的转化技巧。许多的中国翻译学者对造成奈达功能对等理论不足之处的第二个原因——接受美学理论，进行了深入的研究。比如（吕俊，1998；王文斌，1999，等）。接受美学对奈达的功能理论产生了极大的学术上的影响。接受美学理论是二十世纪六十年代中后期出现的一种文艺美学思潮，其认为，作者——作品——读者所形成的关系中，读者绝不是可有可无、无关紧要的因素。迄今为止的文学史仅仅是作家和作品的历史而读者的作用被文学史家和文艺理论家所遗忘。这是因为，大多数理论家们将艺术作品看作是超越时空的一个客观存在。事实上，文学作品是注定为读者而创造的，读者是文学活动的能动主体。作品渴望读者阅读，希望与接受者对话。接受美学对文学翻译特别是文学翻译创造性叛逆研究的启迪表现在两个方面:一是作品的意义不是文本中固有的,而是读者从阅读具体化过程中生成的;二是读者的接受反作用于文本创作.接受美学为文学翻译研究开辟了新的视野.此理论学说推翻了以往学术界对于读者消极被动地位的观念，认为，读者占据着参与到作者创造的主体地位。这个观点突出了读者的重要性，也同时开拓了文化艺术研究的领域，读者的地位也被提到前所未有的高度。实际上，奈达对于有效对等的理论来源于接受美学，部分的观点也是在此基础上建立形成。【3】奈达认为，只有在读者接受译文时，翻译的过程才算结束。只有读者对译文的反应才能算做是检验译文的唯一标准。很明显，正如接受美学观点一样，奈达也把读者反应放到很高的位置上。1969年，奈达修整了他的“功能对等”理论，而就在1967年，姚斯（jauss）的演说“文学历史研究的目的是什么?为什么是这个目的？”象征着接受美学理论的诞生。“奈达博士是一位身怀远见的学者，他是不会漠视这个新理论的。”(吕俊)奈达的翻译理论也只有通过不断吸收新理论的适用成分来获得充实和丰富，比如信息理论，语言学理论，社会语言学理论等。众所周知，翻译过程中最困难的就是如何平衡原文、译文和译者之间的关系，而要很好做到这点又似乎是不可能的。【4】奈达理论和接受美学的观点的相通之处不是巧合，这恰恰折射出奈达的翻译理论和实践中对接受美学的吸收。“功能对等”翻译理论是奈达翻译理论体系的核心，它既有深厚的理论基础，也有丰富的实践基础。它在中国的传播经历了由盛到衰的过程。我们应该辩证地看待“功能对等”理论，既要看到它的优点，也不能忽视其缺陷。研究“功能对等”理论，对构建适合中国文化传统的翻译理论体系有重大的意义。