中国保险业现状与发展前景的分析中国保险业现状与发展前景的分析本文已作为国际经济学作业上交至导师处作者地址：河南工业大学经济贸易学院2004级经济学类邮编：450001摘要纵观我国保险业20多年的发展，中国保险市场虽然取得了很大成就，但是与发达国家相比仍然有很大差距。加入WTO后，中国保险业面临着难得的机遇和前所未有的挑战。本文就中国保险业的现状、发展趋势和前景作出分析，同时提出加入WTO后应采取的对策。关键词：保险业现状发展趋势挑战潜力对策一、中国保险业的发展状况及发展趋势改革开放以来，中国保险业的发展取得了一系列成果。一个以国有保险公司为主体，中外保险公司并存，外资保险公司争相入市，多家保险公司竟争发展的保险市场新格局已初步形成。但是与发达国家相比，中国的保险业与之存在着巨大的差距。（一）中国保险业在开放中不断发展壮大，取得了一系列成果1、业务快速发展。自1980年恢复国内保险业务以来，中国的保险业保持了持续快速、健康发展的良好势头。2003年保费总收入达到亿元，比上年增长，相当于1999年的倍；保险业总资产达到亿元，比上年增长；保险资金运用余额达到8739亿元，比上年增长。2003年保险密度为元（即每个公民的平均保费），保险深度为，中国保险业呈现出蓬勃发展的良好局面。2、市场体系逐步健全。截至2003年底，全国共有保险公司61家，其中中资保险公司24家，外资保险公司37家。按业务性质分，财产保险公司25家，人身保险公司30家，再保险公司5家，政策性保险公司1家。此外还有6家保险集团(控股)公司，2家保险资产管理公司。专业保险中介机构705家，其中保险代理公司507家，保险经纪公司115家，保险公估公司83家，保险从业人员达到150万人。3、体制改革进展顺利。中国人民保险公司、中国人寿保险公司、中国再保险公司等国有保险公司股份制改革取得了重大进展。部分股份制保险公司通过吸收外资和民营资本参股，股权结构得到优化，治理结构逐步完善，经营管理水平进一步提高。保险资金运用管理体制改革取得突破。经国务院批准，中国人保控股公司和中国人寿保险集团公司分别设立了保险资产管理公司，把保险资金实行了专业化管理和集中统一运用。在探索保险资金管理改革方面迈出了重要步伐。4、法律法规初步完善。1995年《中华人民共和国保险法》颁布实施，标志着中国保险业进入了有法可依、依法管理阶段。为适应中国加入世贸组织的需要，2001年国务院颁布了《外资保险公司管理条例》，中国保监会积极清理了与世贸组织规则不符的法律法规和规章。2002年颁布实施了新的保险法，与此同时中国保监会依据新保险法的有关规定，先后制定、修改了保险公司管理规定等一系列配套的规章和制度。一个适合中国保险市场发展的法律法规体系已经逐步形成。5、保险监管逐步与国际接轨。偿付能力监管迈出了实质性的步伐，颁布了《保险公司偿付能力额度及监管指标管理规定》，建立了偿付能力预警指标体系，符合中国国情的偿付能力监督制度框架初步建立。与此同时，实施了《财产保险公司分支机构监管指标》、《财产保险公司分险种监管报表》以及《人身保险新型产品精算规定》等一系列监管规章。加强了保险业监管的制度建设。（二）与发达国家相比，我国的保险业就以下几个方面与之存在着巨大的差距1、从保险业发展的规模上看，我国保险公司的数量、保费总收入和资产总量都相对很少。规模是行业和企业发展水平的基本标志，从各方面的统计数据应该看到，我国保险业还处在起步阶段。2、从保险深度和保险密度上看，我国在这两方面都处于相当低的水平，与发达国家相距甚远。保险深度是一个国家和地区年保费收入与同期国内生产总值之比。目前，发达国家保险市场的保险深度已达10%左右。而我国2000年的保险深度为。保险密度指标是指人均保费。发达国家已达2000---3000美元，日本高达4600美元。而我国人均保费只有元，约15美元，美国1600美元，人均保费是中国的107倍，日本是中国的307倍。保险深度和保险密度是衡量保险业发展水平的重要指标。3、从我国民众对保险业认识的程度上看，保险观念还较差。人们对保险在稳定社会经济，维护个人切身利益上的作用认识不够。主动买保险的个人寥寥无几，整个保险业，特别是人身保险是个买方市场，迫使百万保险推销大军四处奔波，推销保险产品。保险作为市场经济的产物，作为社会的稳定器，必须让人们从切身利益上认识其作用。（三）根据市场经济发展的一般规律和20多年来我国保险业发展的实际状况，预计在未来一个较长时期内，我国保险业将出现以下发展趋势1.保险市场体系化。从1995年《保险法》颁布实施特别是1998年11月中国保监会成立以来的情况来看，建设和完善中国保险市场体系的步伐正在加快，一个体系完整、门类齐全、法规健全的中国保险市场体系正在建立。2.经营业务专业化。随着我国保险体制改革的深化，出口信用保险和农业保险等政策性保险业务将从商业保险公司中分离出来，由国家成立专门的政策性保险公司。与此同时，在未来几年也会成立专营诸如火险或机动车险业务的专营保险公司。3.市场竞争有序化。从1997年开始，人民银行从整顿代理人入手调整了航意险、机动车险的退费、手续费，大力整顿保险市场，许多违规行为被制止，中国保监会成立后，进一步强调要逐渐规范市场秩序，加大对违规机构和违规行为的打击处罚力度，取得显著成效。4.保险产品品格化。在逐渐成熟的市场里，产品要占领市场只能靠品牌＋价格＋服务，这就是品格化。就保险产品的品格化而言，它所包含的不仅是利益保障功能或投资功能、储蓄功能或产品的组合功能，更主要的是它的价格水平与服务水平。5.保险制度创新化。根据我国的具体情况，我国的保险创新内容主要包括产品开发、营销方式、业务管理、组织机构、电子技术、服务内容以及用工制度、分配制度、激励机制等方面的创新。通过上述内容的创新，促进我国民族保险业的发展，使国内保险公司在与国外保险公司的竞争中立于不败之地。6.经营管理集约化。在市场竞争日益激烈的背景下，国内各保险公司都已意识到原来只注重扩大规模、抢占市场的弊端，而纷纷寻求走效益型道路，向内涵式集约化发展，追求经济效益最大化。7.行业发展国际化。在全球经济一体化的大趋势下，我国保险业与国际接轨是必由之路。中资保险公司也会到国外设立分支机构，加强与国际保险（再保险）市场的技术合作和业务合作，积极开展国际保险业务。8.从业人员专业化。在国内外同行竞争的背景下，客观上对保险从业人员提出了更高的要求，各商业保险公司将更加重视人才的培养，既要培养适应国内保险业务发展需要的核保师、核赔师、精算师、专业人才，更要培养精通国际保险惯例、参与国际保险市场竞争的外向型的人才。二、中国保险业的发展面临着前所未有的挑战，同时自身又存在巨大的潜力加入WTO后，中国保险业面临着前所未有的挑战，同时中国保险业自身又存在巨大的潜力。（一）中国保险业的发展面临着前所未有的挑战1、外资保险公司的进入，加强了保险市场竞争程度，导致保险企业保费利润率的迅速下滑。2、造成一部分保费外流。尽管1995年实施的《保险法》第102条规定了“保险公司需要办理再保险分出业务的，应当优先向中国境地内的保险公司办理”，但实际操作时，难度比较大。目前保险监管部门要求外资保险公司自留保费不低于30%，加上法定分保20%部分，仍有50%的保费可以由外资历保险公司安排再保险。3、与国内保险公司争夺一定的市场份额。外资保险公司客观上有着资金实力雄厚，管理先进，技术服务水平较高的优势，目前尽管在业务经营范围上还受到一定的限制，但发展势头还是比较好的。从全国的市场结构看，外资保险公司所占比重年还不到百分之一，但在开放区域内的外资保险公司的市场份额已接近10%，并有继续扩大的趋势。4、外资保险公司由于在待遇方面有着比国内保险公司优厚的条件，会造成国内保险企业一部分优秀人才流失。（二）从影响保险业的发展的诸因素看，中国保险业的发展存在巨大的潜力1、随着我国城乡居民收入的增加，恩格尔系数的不断降低，保险品作为一种特殊的金融消费品必然会逐步伴随收入的增加而日益提高。2、随着我国经济结构的不断调整，保险业必将随着金融业在国民经济中的比重提高不断增加。在当代世界经济活动中，保险业越来越具有举足轻重的作用，保险业在经济结构中所占的比重将日益增加。保险机构应充分认识到我国保险业存在的巨大市场潜力和生存空间，实现保险业从买方市场向卖方市场的转化。3、在我国社会经济发生重大变革转型时期，投保人和被保险人的范围呈日趋增长和扩大的趋势。各种意外事故屡屡发生，天灾人祸不期而至，这就为拓展保险业的发展提供了充分的依据，为保险人员推销保险，开拓业务活动创造了有利的客观条件，为保险业进一步的发展提供了更广阔的空间。三、中国加入WTO后保险业的对策面对中国保险业与发达国家的巨大差距及加入WTO后面临的挑战，我们应考虑以下对策：（一）加快对内开放保险市场的步伐，提高民族保险业的竞争力现阶段我国保险市场有两大特征，一是封闭，二是垄断。针对我国保险市场的发展状况，加快对国内保险市场开放的步伐，尽快建立一套适应市场经济的保险机制，打破封闭垄断的市场格局，放开内资保险市场，大胆的让现有保险公司都加入竞争行列，实现保险市场的充分有序竞争，并充分发展。（二）国家对保险业应实行低税政策，进一步壮大民族保险业实力。我国现行的保险公司税收标准是按照保费收入每年上缴8％的营业税、33％的所得税和15％的调节税。我国财政对保险公司实行揽底课税，一定程度上影响保险公司责任准备金的积累，从而影响保险偿付能力的提高。此外，政策给予外资保险公司超过国民待遇的某些政策，也会使中外保险公司处于不平等的竞争地位。以上都需要国家从政策上予以探讨研究。（三）改革我国国内资保险公司的保险经营体制和管理体制，尽快实现与国际惯例接轨。我国保险业产生于计划经济时代，现在内资保险公司在人事、财务等的管理上基本是旧的管理体制。由于体制僵化、待遇低，人才的使用，员工的工资收入和福利待遇还不能与外资公司相比。因此要通过改革，克服内资保险体制上的种种弊端，引进先进的管理体制和经营体制，使内资公司尽快提高企业活力，增强市场竞争力。与此同时，要尽快健全和发展有利于内资保险公司资金运用的资本市场和证券市场，拓宽国内保险业经营渠道，壮大内资公司资本实力，在积极稳妥地推进内资保险公司改革的同时，使之在公司结构和保险业务运作上尽快的与国际接轨，积极参与竞争。（四）在竞争日益国际化的保险市场上，我国保险业要想立于不败之地，必须建立全新的保险经营理念。要真正培育出具有雄厚实力和国家知名度的民族保险公司，内资保险公司必须转变经营观念，树立效益成本的经营思想，建立适应未来保险市场的内控机制，特别对承保质量、管理效率、防范风险能力、规范操作的程序等，都要实行严格管理。变粗放经营为集约经营，苦练内功，提高风险管理及技术水平。要转变单一的经营模式为多种形式的营销模式，以勇于开拓，敢于创新的精神，创造性地探索多种形式的营销手段。要学习和借鉴国外保险公司的办惯例，侧重培育中介机构和利用中介机构展业。以提高保险服务质量为手段，使自身立于不败之地。此外，国家应从政策上对民族保险公司进行扶持，在来源配置上实行倾斜政策，增强其综合实力。（五）积极开展保险科技创新活动，全面快速提升经营管理水平。保险技术创新是就保险业的业务经营上，所进行的种种富于开拓性、创造性的变革。主要包括险种创新、营销方式创新、服务项目创新等多方面。保险技术创新有利于缩小民族保险业与国际保险市场的差距，带动保险业迅速发展，最大限度地满足社会日益增长的多层次、多样化的保险需求，使我们在未来的保险市场中居于相对有利的地位。目前，就险种创新而言，我们要大力发展责任保险、医疗保险等险种，全力开拓新险种。如分红保险、变额保险、单一疾病和特定疾病保险。其次，就营销方式而言，可以学习借鉴外国保险业的经营经验，结合我们自身情况，大力发展新的营销手段和方式，尽早为开展网络保险做好铺垫。将发展网上保险作为21世纪的战略举措，为占领网上市场做好积极铺垫。（六）加快培育高素质的人才未来的竞争，归根到底是人才的竞争。民族保险业除了要注意筑巢引凤，通过尊重、优待政策来吸引人才外，更需要全方位加快现有人才的教育和培养。与此同时，要注意培育企业文化的氛围，创造和谐宽松、团结向上的环境，以增强企业的凝聚力，防止人才流失。（七）完善保险法规，强化市场监督保证保险市场健康持续发展，做到监督的全程化、动态化、持续化。同时，要加快制定入前后的相关法律法规，包括修改和完善《保险法》，对内外保险公司应实行统一监督，在监督目标、指标、手段上应避免双重标准，切实有发挥国家保险监督的职能作用。参考文献：1.乔桂明：《中国保险业发展战略研究》复旦大学出版社.魏华林、俞自由、郭杨:中国保险市场的开放及其监管。《保险研究》,1998(7)、(8)、(9)作者地址：河南工业大学经济贸易学院2004级经济学类邮编：450001
扩展阅读：【保险】怎么买，哪个好，手把手教你避开保险的这些"坑"
1）论我国人身保险发展的市场前景2）商业保险与社会保险的比较3）商业保险在我国的发展趋势4）中国加入WTO后保险业的发展前景5）如何改善我国保险监管的不足、6）论中外保险竞争与合作7）交强险的运用与改革8）论述我国创新型保险产品的发展现状及发展前景9）年金保险在我国的发展前景10）比较责任保险与一般财产保险11）比较信用保险和保证保险的异同12）农业保险在我国今后的发展趋势13）我国保险代理人体制的改革14）保险理赔应遵守的基本原则与特殊原则15）分析影响保险公司偿付能力的主要因素16）我国再保险业的发展趋势17）重庆保险市场分析18）保险企业提高经营效益的根本途径19）分析几种典型的保险公司组织形式20）理解偿付能力监管是保险监管的核心21）保险业在混业经营中的意义22）保险营销环境对保险营销策略的影响23）理解保险经营资产具有负债性的意义24）为什么保险人在经营中要遵守风险大量原则25）论述人身保险的特殊性26）农业保险经营中的主要问题27）论保险人公估人在我国保险市场的作用28）论《保险法》修改的要点29）保险学大学生在中国保险市场的作为30）保险的“助动器”与“稳定器”作用31）论保险条款“通俗化”的必要32）分析目前国家允许保险资金海外投资和保险外汇资金境外运用33）分析我国保险经纪人市场的发展前景34）分析我国保险业的人才需求状况35）浅谈保险代理人36）分析保险营销新渠道的拓展37）保险市场与资本市场的互动38）分析我国目前投资型保险39）论我国保险资金的投资渠道40）分析我国企业年金保险市场41）论中国保险市场全面开放所带来的影响42）浅谈保险合同的订立与生效43）保险资金的有效管理运用44）如何改善我国保险监管的不足45）论我国保险营销策略与发展46）浅谈保险客户服务中心管理47）如何改善我国保险监管的不足48）浅谈我国补充养老保险发展现状极其发展意义49）论意外伤害保险的可保危险50）如何发展我国农村医疗健康保险市场51）我国财产保险发展趋势52）论述财产保险的主要特征53）订立财产保险合同应遵守的原则54）简述我国财产保险市场的恶性竞争55）再保险对财产保险公司的意义56）家庭财产保险在中国的发展前景57）分析目前机动车辆保险市场现状
扩展阅读：【保险】怎么买，哪个好，手把手教你避开保险的这些"坑"
1/100【题 名】管理农业自然灾害风险 政策性农业保险先行【作 者】陈梦婷 潘飞【刊 名】中国高新技术企业.2007(7).-19-212/100【题 名】对中国农业保险发展的思考【作 者】张裕东【刊 名】集团经济研究.2007(08S).-61-613/100【题 名】我国农业保险制度变迁与制度创新框架【作 者】温涛 谢家智【刊 名】改革.2007(8).-65-704/100【题 名】中国农业保险对国际运行绩效的沿袭与创新【作 者】程惠霞【刊 名】改革.2007(8).-76-815/100【题 名】政策性农业保险共保体：实践经验及发展趋势【作 者】蒋丽君【刊 名】浙江经济.2007(14).-44-456/100【题 名】烟台栖霞政策性农业保险试点启示【作 者】李坤 鞠鸿英【刊 名】中国保险.2007(6).-49-507/100【题 名】平泉县财政贴补设施农业保险【作 者】卢丙文【刊 名】公共支出与采购.2007(7).-16-168/100【题 名】淮阴市实施政策性农业保险为农民撑起“一片蓝天”【作 者】马冬梅【刊 名】农村财政与财务.2007(8).-46-469/100【题 名】商业运营与政策支持：农业保险的发展路径探索——以南雄市烟叶种植保险和连平县农房保险为例的分析【作 者】贺巧知【刊 名】中国财经信息资料.2007(20).-22-2610/100【题 名】农业保险受政策激励上半年实现像费10．82亿元【作 者】无【刊 名】广西经济.2007(7).-6-611/100【题 名】对创建我国农业保险外部发展环境的几点思考【作 者】郭昱【刊 名】金融理论与实践.2007(8).-77-7912/100【题 名】广东农业保险发展的机遇与对策【作 者】黄友爱【刊 名】商场现代化.2007(08Z).-242-24313/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展模式选择【作 者】徐斌 苏克莉【刊 名】山东省农业管理干部学院学报.2007,23(4).-49-5014/100【题 名】《政策性农业保险条例》有望出台【作 者】无【刊 名】农家女.2007(8).-46-4615/100【题 名】农业保险购买意愿影响因素的实证研究【作 者】陈妍 凌远云 陈泽育 郑亚丽【刊 名】农业经济导刊.2007(7).-159-15916/100【题 名】积极发展我国农业保险的总体思路（上）【作 者】高伟【刊 名】上海保险.2007(7).-5-717/100【题 名】加快农业保险发展 支持新农村建设【作 者】宋洪江【刊 名】吉林金融研究.2007(8).-41-4218/100【题 名】政策性农业保险发展：实践及启示【作 者】张艳花【刊 名】中国金融.2007(15).-76-8219/100【题 名】农业保险制度建设的有益尝试【作 者】庹国柱【刊 名】中国金融.2007(15).-78-7920/100【题 名】中国农业保险的发展任重而道远【作 者】郭左践【刊 名】中国金融.2007(15).-82-8221/100【题 名】政策性农业保险的一个成功经验——福建省的农房统保实践【作 者】朱增镳【刊 名】中国金融.2007(15).-83-8322/100【题 名】推动我国农业保险发展的建议【作 者】高伟【刊 名】武汉金融.2007(7).-20-2223/100【题 名】积极开展农业保险的思路与对策研究【作 者】肖端云【刊 名】云南农村经济.2007(4).-45-4724/100【题 名】我国农业保险的政策性分析与路径选择：一个新构想【作 者】王敏俊【刊 名】农业经济问题.2007(7).-64-6825/100【题 名】农业保险属性、税赋差异及供给的非均衡【作 者】黄英君【刊 名】改革.2007(7).-54-6026/100【题 名】印度农业保险发展状况简析【作 者】金永丽【刊 名】南亚研究季刊.2007(2).-79-8127/100【题 名】北京市启动政策性农业保险【作 者】董少东【刊 名】农村财政与财务.2007(7).-13-1328/100【题 名】宿迁市启动政策性农业保险试点工作【作 者】陈军【刊 名】农村财政与财务.2007(7).-42-4229/100【题 名】上海提高农业保险政府补贴比例【作 者】金实【刊 名】农村实用技术.2007(8).-26-2630/100【题 名】湖南省农业保险在摸索中试点【作 者】湘文【刊 名】农村实用技术.2007(8).-27-2731/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展的窘境与政府在农业保险发展中的作用【作 者】文小才【刊 名】金融理论与实践.2007(7).-73-7532/100【题 名】我国政策性农业保险的困境及出路——以眉山市奶牛保险试点为例【作 者】谢蕊莲 刘攀【刊 名】企业研究.2007(6).-45-4733/100【题 名】我国农业保险及其风险分散机制研究——基于风险管理的角度【作 者】李琴英【刊 名】经济与管理研究.2007(7).-48-5234/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展现状及模式选择【作 者】詹花秀【刊 名】湖南行政学院学报.2007(1).-43-44,8235/100【题 名】日本农业保险发展的成功经验与启示【作 者】高伟【刊 名】WTO经济导刊.2007(3).-28-3036/100【题 名】财政补贴农业保险真的是个“无底洞”吗【作 者】高伟【刊 名】西部论丛.2007(7).-25-2737/100【题 名】关于我国农业保险经营模式的探讨【作 者】才凤玲[1] 张志刚[2]【刊 名】金融理论与教学.2007(3).-10-1238/100【题 名】农业保险体系的建立及财政政策取向【作 者】李泽【刊 名】地方财政研究.2007(7).-52-5439/100【题 名】我国发达地区政策性农业保险试验的比较制度分析【作 者】朱俊生[1] 庹国柱[2]【刊 名】保险研究.2007(7).-52-5840/100【题 名】我国农业保险中介业探析【作 者】孙伟 安增龙【刊 名】保险研究.2007(7).-59-6041/100【题 名】发展政策性农业保险的思考——以吉林省为例【作 者】宗国富[1] 金兆怀[2]【刊 名】经济纵横.2007(6).-58-6042/100【题 名】农业保险：为农民增收保驾护航【作 者】马波【刊 名】农家致富.2007(13).-4-543/100【题 名】垦区阳光农业保险的实践与思考【作 者】陈桂红【刊 名】科技咨询导报.2007(20).-152-15244/100【题 名】农业保险合作制模式的博弈分析【作 者】谷政 褚保金 应瑞瑶【刊 名】农村经济.2007(6).-70-7345/100【题 名】发展边远山区农业保险业务研究：以河池为例【作 者】唐罄蕖【刊 名】南方金融.2007(6).-55-5646/100【题 名】论我国农业保险的出路【作 者】谭琳琳【刊 名】当代经济.2007(05X).-71-7247/100【题 名】国外农业保险的经验及其对我国的启示【作 者】马燕玲【刊 名】金融与经济.2007(6).-42-4448/100【题 名】我国欠发达地区农业保险问题探究【作 者】杜霞【刊 名】湖南农机.2007(5).-42-4349/100【题 名】农业保险产品的现状和创新【作 者】邢鹂[1] 于丹[2] 刘丽娜[1]【刊 名】农业展望.2007,3(6).-28-3050/100【题 名】农业保险新模式：保险公司＋龙头企业＋农户【作 者】卢生华【刊 名】上海保险.2007(6).-42-4451/100【题 名】经济发达地区农业保险如何办——烟台栖霞“政策性农业保险”试点的启示【作 者】李坤[1] 鞠鸿英[2]【刊 名】上海保险.2007(6).-45-4752/100【题 名】江苏加快推进农业保险试点【作 者】沈建华[1] 申浓霖[2]【刊 名】江苏农村经济.2007(6).-28-2853/100【题 名】10亿农业保险补贴面临多头监管【作 者】无【刊 名】中国禽业导刊.2007,24(10).-47-4754/100【题 名】完善公共财政 推进农业保险【作 者】梁光【刊 名】中国农业会计.2007(6).-14-1555/100【题 名】农业保险：政府与市场的保险成本分配博弈分析【作 者】曹前进【刊 名】北方经贸.2007(6).-94-9656/100【题 名】市场失灵、政策性农业保险与本土化模式——基于浙江、上海、苏州农业保险试点的比较研究【作 者】张跃华 何文炯 施红【刊 名】农业经济问题.2007(6).-49-5557/100【题 名】农业保险市场失灵及其克服途径的理论分析【作 者】熊伟【刊 名】世界经济情况.2007(6).-25-3058/100【题 名】农业保险参与行为的博弈分析——来自新疆生产建设兵团的实证分析【作 者】时秀霞【刊 名】农村经济与科技.2007,18(6).-63-6459/100【题 名】我国农业保险经营中存在的问题及对策【作 者】许泽勇【刊 名】科技信息：学术版.2007(14).-132-132,16460/100【题 名】政策性农业保险将有法可依【作 者】无【刊 名】广东农村实用技术.2007(5).-4-461/100【题 名】农业保险条例拟年底出台【作 者】无【刊 名】北方牧业.2007(11).-11-1162/100【题 名】浅析农业保险的困境与出路【作 者】程光伟 张睿【刊 名】技术与市场.2007(5).-102-10363/100【题 名】台湾地区农业保险的发展与启示【作 者】吴小芳[1] 张文棋[1,2]【刊 名】福建农林大学学报：哲学社会科学版.2007,10(3).-17-2064/100【题 名】国内农业保险发展模式的经验与启示【作 者】张小芹【刊 名】福建农林大学学报：哲学社会科学版.2007,10(3).-29-3265/100【题 名】公共财政支持农业保险发展的途径、标准与规模【作 者】陈昌盛【刊 名】保险研究.2007(6).-43-46,7766/100【题 名】WTO框架下我国的农业保险补贴探析【作 者】张玉军【刊 名】现代农业.2007(6).-21-2267/100【题 名】论农业保险经营中的技术障碍与技术选择【作 者】张祖荣【刊 名】经济问题.2007(6).-108-11068/100【题 名】建立农业保险需要研究解决的若干问题【作 者】陈剑波【刊 名】调查研究报告.2007(72).-1-1869/100【题 名】我国农业保险持续发展的对策研究【作 者】呼应 方兴 刘钟钦【刊 名】农业经济.2007(6).-70-7170/100【题 名】政策性农业保险推行举措【作 者】陆贾贤 毛永祥【刊 名】中国牧业通讯.2007(11).-17-1871/100【题 名】农业保险：家禽养殖业防范风险的重要保障——访上海申浦家禽育种有限公司总经理陈印权【作 者】吴长波【刊 名】中国供销商情：村官.2007(6).-37-3772/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展模式探析【作 者】张友祥【刊 名】理论视野.2007(6).-47-4973/100【题 名】政策性农业保险相关问题研究【作 者】李景彬【刊 名】保险研究.2007(5).-56-5874/100【题 名】我国农业保险需要国家政策扶持【作 者】常兴华【刊 名】中央财经大学学报.2007(5).-86-88,9275/100【题 名】农业保险期待制度创新【作 者】魏羽弘【刊 名】中国保险.2007(4).-8-1276/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展的制度探讨【作 者】罗军 郑栋 俞炜【刊 名】中国保险.2007(4).-12-1577/100【题 名】构建多层次农业保险及其风险分散机制【作 者】李琴英【刊 名】中国保险.2007(4).-16-1878/100【题 名】农村保险、农业保险与农民需求意愿 山西省、江西省、上海市706户农户问卷调查【作 者】张跃华 何文炯【刊 名】中国保险.2007(4).-19-2279/100【题 名】一部理论联系实际的研究我国农业保险力作--读《中国种植业生产风险和政策性农业保险研究》有感【作 者】李军【刊 名】中国保险.2007(4).-26-2780/100【题 名】吉林农险试点曙光初现安华农业保险试点情况报告【作 者】朱健民 吴凤隆【刊 名】中国保险.2007(3).-41-4481/100【题 名】韩国的农业保险【作 者】李向敏 龙文军【刊 名】中国保险.2007(3).-60-6382/100【题 名】《政策性农业保险条例》可望年底出台【作 者】无【刊 名】农村养殖技术：新兽医.2007(5).-51-5183/100【题 名】国际农业保险模式：对中国农业保险制度的启示【作 者】肖玉红【刊 名】湖北行政学院学报.2007(3).-37-4084/100【题 名】我国农业保险经营组织形式的比较与选择【作 者】张祖荣【刊 名】浙江金融.2007(5).-36-3785/100【题 名】农业保险功效研究【作 者】冯文丽[1] 董经纬[2]【刊 名】浙江金融.2007(5).-38-38,3386/100【题 名】政策性农业保险保费补贴对政府财政支出和农民收入的模拟分析【作 者】邢鹂[1] 黄昆[2]【刊 名】农业技术经济.2007(3).-4-987/100【题 名】农业保险制度的环境经济效应——一个基于农户生产行为的分析框架【作 者】宁满秀【刊 名】农业技术经济.2007(3).-28-3288/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展之路的探索【作 者】宋平【刊 名】安徽农业科学.2007,35(14).-4288-428989/100【题 名】农业保险的外部性特点及对策【作 者】张权辉【刊 名】辽宁经济职业技术学院学报.2007(1).-84-8590/100【题 名】黑龙江省农业保险现状及对策研究【作 者】杨秀丽【刊 名】东北农业大学学报：社会科学版.2007,5(1).-17-1991/100【题 名】论我国农业保险立法的必要性及立法原则【作 者】郭丽丽【刊 名】太原师范学院学报：社会科学版.2007,6(3).-56-5992/100【题 名】对广东农业保险的现状与发展对策的思考【作 者】刘斌【刊 名】南方农村.2007(2).-40-4393/100【题 名】对健全我国农业保险制度的思考【作 者】王静娅【刊 名】金融理论与实践.2007(5).-67-6994/100【题 名】从税收政策看我国农业保险的发展及对策【作 者】李争辉【刊 名】集团经济研究.2007(04X).-230-23195/100【题 名】海外农业保险模式【作 者】杨巧巧【刊 名】农村工作通讯.2007(5).-58-5896/100【题 名】我国农业保险发展滞后的原因探析【作 者】张祖荣【刊 名】经济经纬.2007(3).-144-14697/100【题 名】试论政策性农业保险的财政税收政【作 者】庹国柱[1] 朱俊生[2]【刊 名】经济与管理研究.2007(5).-47-5098/100【题 名】农业保险“五立”模型的博弈分析【作 者】刘伟华 郭庆玲 亓彬【刊 名】北方经济：学术版.2007(4).-140-14199/100【题 名】慈溪市 政策性农业保险 有序运行【作 者】无【刊 名】宁波通讯.2007(4).-48-49100/100【题 名】论政策性农业保险的税收优惠问题【作 者】张长利【刊 名】江南大学学报：人文社会科学版.2007,6(2).-23-27
farm families through an experiential learning model, by John Smith, Journal of Agricultural Education, 2010 farm principles for sustainable agriculture in developing countries, by Donald Brown and William McBride, World Development, 2011 family farms: Supporting the global food system, by Ernesto Pollitt and Elizabeth G. Pringle, Annual Review of Environmental Resources, 2012 farmers in a global economy: The need to invest in small-scale agriculture, by William C. McKillop and Cheikhou Bop, International Journal of Sustainable Development, 2013 capital and family farm sustainability: An empirical analysis of New Zealand farms, by Richard B. Howitt and Stuart Locke, Rural Sociology, 2014 farms and regional development: Evidence from smallholder agriculture in the Andean Highlands, by Gonzalo Alfonzo, Ecological Economics, 2015 family farming: Enhancing agricultural productivity and environmental protection, by Frank J. Convery and Jonathan R. Gillard, Journal of Organic Systems, 2016 approaches to family farming: A case study from Mexico, by Joanne E. Taylor, International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 2017 role of family dynamics in the success of small-scale farms, by Carolina L. T. dos Santos, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 2018 from family farmers: Best practices for agri-food system resilience in times of global change, by María del Pilar Olmedo and Stephen G. Sherwood, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 2019.
你如果想做保险代理营销人员，首先是要对你代理保险全部清楚。其次是要知道怎么样理陪程序和客户需要准备的资料。
可以尝试去看看促销策划方面的书，以及那个市场营销关于保险方面的书，因为我学的是保险，专业又是营销与策划，所以对这方面的有一点了解，助理营销师有两本书，都或多或少和保险挂钩了。
可以尝试去百度文库搜索关键字是保险的文档，也可以找一些具体的关键字。
“成功保险网”有免费的培训基地，解决保险新手在营销过程中遇到的各种问题，希望能帮到您！
(美)康斯坦斯·M.卢瑟亚特()等著,英勇,于小东总译校.财产与责任保险原理[M]. 北京大学出版社, 2003 (美)小哈罗德·斯凯博()等编著,荆涛等译.国际风险与保险[M]. 机械工业出版社, 1999 (美)所罗门·许布纳()等著,陈欣等译.财产和责任保险[M]. 中国人民大学出版社, 2002 【英】Malcolm A. Clarke 著、 何美欢、吴志攀等译：《保险合同法》，北京大学出版社 2002 年版。 Mckendrick :“Contract Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2003 年版。 H. Whincup：“Contract Law and Practice—the EnglishSystem and Continental Comparisons” 中信出版社,2003 年版。 F. Dobbyn : “Insurance Law”（影印本）,法律出版社 2001年版。 Lowry , Philip Rawlings : “Insurance Law :Doctrines andPrinciples” , Hart Publishing Ltd. (1999). Hodgin :“Insurance Law :Text and Materials” (SecondEdition) Cavendish Publishing Limited (2002) . L. Emanuel：“Contracts”，中信出版社 2003 年版。 A. Eisenberg:“Disclosure in Contract Law”，91 CaliforniaLaw Review （2003）. T. Kronman :“Mistake, Disclosure, Information, and theLaw of Contracts”,7(1) Journal of Legal Studies (1978). J :“Insurer’s breach of good faith——a newtort?”,(1992) 108 LQR 35.这些都是比较好的
Insurance, in law and economics, is a form of risk management primarily used to hedge against the risk of potential financial loss. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care. there are a few principles of insurance, which are considered as the uncertain losses, the predictable rate and distribution of losses,the sinificant of loss and the loss must be catastrophic. A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "unilateral contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency. Further: An Insurance Contract is one of Uberrima fides. This is a Latin phrase meaning "utmost good faith" (or translated literally, "most abundant faith"). It is the name of a legal doctrine which governs insurance contracts. This means that all parties to an insurance contract must deal in good faith, making a full declaration of all material facts in the insurance proposal. This contrasts with the legal doctrine of caveat emptor (let the buyer beware). An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a contract, defined as an insurance 'policy'. This legal contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against (indemnified), for the term of the contract. When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The fee paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims—in theory for a relatively few claimants—and for overhead costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their profit. Insurers make money in two ways. Through underwriting, the process through which insurers select what risks to insure and decide how much premium to charge for accepting those risks and by investing the premiums they have collected from insureds Some people consider insurance a type of wager (particularly as associated with moral hazard) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an accident happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a racehorse (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of religious groups, including the Amish and some Muslim groups, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their communities when disasters strike. This can be thought of as "social insurance," as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work. Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are: Automobile insurance, also known as auto insurance, car insurance and in the UK as motor insurance, is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal liability claims against the driver and loss of or damage to the vehicle itself. Over most of the United States purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books. In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to No Fault systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits. Boiler insurance (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance) Casualty insurance insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property. Credit insurance pays some or all of a loan back when certain things happen to the borrower such as unemployment, disability, or death. Financial loss insurance protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a business might purchase cover to protect it from loss of sales if a fire in a factory prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a creditor to pay money it owes to the insured. Fidelity bonds and surety bonds are included in this category. Health insurance covers medical bills incurred because of sickness or accidents. Liability insurance covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a doctor may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm. The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict. Life insurance provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for burial, funeral and other final expenses. Annuities provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and pensions that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a retiree will outlive his or her financial resources. In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance. Total permanent disability insurance insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. Locked Funds Insurance is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required. Marine Insurance covers the loss or damage of goods at sea. Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier. Nuclear incident insurance — damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level. (For the United States, see Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act.) Environmental Liability Insurance protects the insured from bodily injury, property damage and cleanup costs as a result of the dispersal, release or escape of a pollutant. Political risk insurance can be taken out by businesses with operations in countries in which there is a risk that revolution or other political conditions will result in a loss. Professional Indemnity Insurance is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims. Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services. For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services. Property insurance provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, theft or weather damage. This includes specialized forms of insurance such as fire insurance, flood insurance, earthquake insurance, home insurance, inland marine insurance or boiler insurance. Terrorism insurance Title insurance provides a guarantee that title to real property is vested in the purchaser and/or mortgagee, free and clear of liens or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a real estate transaction. Travel insurance is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc. Workers' compensation insurance replaces all or part of a worker's wages lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories. For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident). A homeowner's insurance policy in the . typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property. Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as "perils". Examples of perils might be fire, theft, earthquake, hurricane and many other potential risks. An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not. Insurance companies may be classified as Life insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products. Non-life or general insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance. In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, tax and accounting rules. The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature — coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many decades. By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.
根据学术堂的了解，参考文献是英语论文的重要组成部分，也是编辑加工和重要内容。接下来就为大家介绍英语论文参考文献格式要求，欢迎阅读。I.文内引用(一)直接引用1.引用中的省略原始资料的引用：在正文中直接引用时，应给出作者、年份，并用带括号的数字标出页码。若有任何资料省略，使用英文时，应用3个省略号在句中标出(…)，中文用6个(……);若两句间的资料省略，英文应用4个省略号标出(‥‥)，中文用6个(……)。若要在直接引用插入自己的解释，应使用方括号[ ]。若在资料中有什么错误拼写、错误语法或标点错误会使读者糊涂，应在引用后立即插入[sic]，中文用[原文如此]。下面是一些示例：例一：The DSM IV defines the disorder [dysthymic] as being in a chronically depressed mood that occurs for "most of the day more days than not for at least two years (Criterion A) .... In children, the mood may be irritable rather than depressed, and the required minimum duration is only one year" (APA, 1994, p. 345).例二：Issac (1995) states that bipolar disorder "is not only uncommon but may be the most diagnostic entity in children and adolescents in similar settings .... and may be the most common diagnosis in adolescents who are court-remanded to such settings" ().2.大段落引用当中文引用超过160字时，不使用引号，而使用“块”的形式(引用起于新的一行，首行缩进4个空格，两端对齐，之后每行都缩进)。当英文引用超过40字时，不使用引号，而使用“块”的形式(引用起于新的一行，首行缩进5个空格，左对齐，之后每行都缩进)。Elkind (1978) states:In general, our findings support Piaget's view that perceptionsas well as intelligence are neither entirely inborn nor entirely innate but are rather progressively constructed through the gradual development of perceptual regulations. The chapter has also attempted to demonstrate the applicability of Piaget's theory to practical issues by summarizing some research growing out of an analysis of beginning reading. ()(二)间接引用1.基本格式同作者在同一段中重复被引用时，第一次必须写出日期，第二次以后则日期可省略。a.英文文献：In a recent study of reaction times, Walker (2000) described the method…Walker also found…。b.中文文献：李福印(2004)提出概念隐喻的重要性，…;李福印同时建议…。2. 单一作者a. 英文文献：姓氏(出版或发表年代)或(姓氏，出版或发表年代)。例如：Porter (2001)…或…(Porter, 2001)。b. 中文文献：姓名(出版或发表年代)或(姓名，出版或发表年代)。例如：杨惠中(2011)…或…(杨惠中，2011)。3.两个作者英文引用时，在圆括号内使用两名作者的姓氏，并使用“&”来连接，在正文中，使用“and”连接两名作者。中文引用时，在圆括号内使用两名作者的姓名，并用顿号“、”来连接，在正文中，使用 “和”、“与”、“及”等字连接两名作者。例如：(Smith & Jones, 1994), or Smith and Jones (1994) found....In 1994 Smith and Jones researched.... Always cite both names in text.陈国华和田兵(2008)认为…或…(陈国华、田兵，2008)4.三至五个作者英文第一次引用参考资料时，列出所有的作者的姓氏，除最后一名作者之前在正文中使用逗号加“and”、在圆括号内使用逗号加“&”连接外，之前的其他作者之间使用逗号“，”;之后引用时，英文用第一个作者的姓随之以“et al.”。中文第一次引用参考资料时，列出所有作者的姓名，除最后两名作者之间用“和”连接外，之前的其他作者之间使用顿号“、”;之后引用时，用第一名作者加“等”字。例如：Strasburger, Jorgensen, and Randles (1996) found differences.... (第一次使用).Strasburger et al. (1996) also created tests.... (在段落中第二次使用).Starsburger et al. found discrepancies.... (在同一段落中再次使用，此时省略年份).卫乃兴、李文中与濮建忠(2005)指出…或…(卫乃兴、李文中、濮建忠，2005)。(第一次使用)卫乃兴等(2005)指出…或…(卫乃兴等，2005)。(第二次使用)5.六个作者及以上使用英文时，只用第一个人的姓氏加“et al.”;使用中文时，只列出第一名作者的姓名，再加上“等”。例如：Pouliquen et al. (2003)……或……(Pouliquen et al., 2003)王洪俊等(2007)…或…(王洪俊等,2007)6.团体作者使用中文时，第一次用全称，比如，(首都师范大学教育科学学院[首师大教科院]，2001);之后可以用简称，比如，首师大教科院(2001)的调查表明……。使用英文时，第一次引用时，拼出团体，比如, (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1996);以后用团体缩写加年份表示，比如，The NIMH (1996) examined....。7.没有作者的文献当一部作品没有作者时，在文中引用参考文献目录单中的前几个字(通常是标题)和年份。比如，一项关于成年人抑郁症的调查(“Study Finds”, 1997)报告……。当某作品的作者列为“Anonymous”、中文使用“匿名”或“无名氏”时，英文引用时用“Anonymous”加逗号及年份，即(Anonymous, 1997)，中文用“匿名”加逗号及年份，即(匿名，1997)。8.英文文献作者姓氏相同英文文献作者姓氏相同时，相同姓氏之作者于论文中引用时均引用全名，以避免混淆。例如：R. D. Luce (1995) and G. E. Luce (1988)…。9.多篇文献a. 多篇文献，同一作者若一作者有多篇你想引用的文献，只需用逗号“，”来区隔作品的发表年份(最早到最晚依序排列)。若多篇文献在同一年内发表，请在年份后面加上a、b、c……等标注。(按：abc的使用需与参考文献部分有所对应，而这些文献的编排以标题名称的字母来决定。)例如：1)A recent study found a possible genetic cause of alcoholism (Pauling, 2004, 2005a, 2005b).2)Pauling (2004, 2005a, 2005b) conducted a study that discovered a possible genetic cause of alcoholismb.多篇文献，多位作者文献依姓氏字母(笔画)、出版年代等顺序排列，不同作者之间用分号“;”分开，相同作者不同年代之文献用逗号“，” 分开。例如：…(Pautler, 1992; Razik & Swanson, 1993a, 1993b)。例如：…(董伟，2010;周音，2011a，2011b)。
英文论文写作参考文献
参考文献是文章或著作等写作过程中参考过的文献，文后参考文献是指为撰写或编辑论文和著作而引用的有关文献信息资源。
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养老保险基金现存问题与解决对策摘要：养老保险是保障的重要组成部分，养老基金又是养老保险中必不可缺少的条件，在当前，做好养老保险基金的管理与征收是迫切需要解决的问题，文章对养老保险基金现存的一些问题进行了深入的讨论，针对这些问题提出了一些解决的对策。关键词：养老保险基金；问题；对策在社会老龄化不断加剧的今天，养老成为整个国家、社会不可避免要面对的问题。为保证人们退休后的生活，养老保险应运而生。所谓养老保险，是指国家和社会以一定的法律和法规为依据，为解决劳动者在达到法定的解除劳动义务的年龄后，或因年老丧失劳动能力退出劳动岗位后的基本生活而建立的一种社会保险制度。养老保险对于保障人民生活和社会稳定起着不可低估的作用。但由于我国社会养老保险体制尚不发达，所以不免存在着一些问题。一、现阶段中国养老保险中存在的问题（一）养老保险基金的筹集我国现行社会养老保险基金坚持国家、企业、个人三方共同负担，按照“以支定收、略有结余、留有部分积累”的原则筹集。但是，养老保险基金的筹集覆盖范围狭窄，大多由拥有实力的企、事业单位缴纳，一些民营单位、私人企业受利益的驱使，拖欠甚至脱逃缴纳的范围，许多亏损企业也无力按时缴纳，农村养老保险尚处于起步阶段，问题重重。通过筹集原则可以看出，社会养老保险基金由三方共同负担，但是从中受益的却是个人，这样就降低了企业缴纳基金的积极性，目前尚没有一部明确的法律规定企业必须缴纳基金，再加上一些新建立的企业游离在社会保障之外，使得养老保险基金的筹集难上加难。而在养老保险基金的筹集方面，表现出的“工作的一代”供养“退休的一代”的代际赡养原则，又加重了个人与企业的缴费负担。（二）养老保险基金的管理体制养老保险基金与财政有着密不可分的联系，所以养老保险容易被挪用和拖欠。由于各地区在经济发展、人口结构、收入待遇等方面存在一定差异，为了防止外地人员的流入，各地普遍严格限制跨地区的参保人员个人账户基金转移。这种长期以来形成的管理格局，使得各统筹地区的社保经办机构，只能管理本地区参保人员的有关情况，而对参保人员在异地是否曾参保则无过问。再加上冒领保险和提前退休现象的与日剧增，更为养老保险基金的管理蒙上了层层迷雾。（三）养老保险基金的发放在退休金的发放方面，受职务高低和退休时间的影响。职务高的缴费数量大，享受的退休金也多，职位低的则反之。退休早的职工缴费少，享受的退休金也少。而退休晚的则反之。正是这种原因造成了养老金发放中的一些不平等与失衡现象。（四）养老保险基金的保值与增值在养老保险保值方面，虽然我国规定在实行社会统筹与个人账户相结合，但现阶段我国养老保险费大都被用于支付现期的退休金，对于剩余资金，政府规定除保留两个月支付款外，其余金额的80%必须购买政府债券或存入银行，利息用于未来养老金的支付。受通货膨胀影响，这些收入极少，因而出现养老保险金结余不断贬值，个人账户空账的现象，这必然会对未来养老保险带来沉重负担。二、我国养老金体制改革的建议（一）养老保险基金的筹集对现行养老基金筹集方式的改革，建立具有中国特色的养老保险基金征集制度。改革的目标是：建立与社会主义市场经济发展要求相适应、体现基金征集同待遇支付相配套、社会统筹与个人账户相结合、权利与义务相对应、公平与效率相联系的基本原则，资金来源多渠道，实现城镇劳动者全覆盖的养老保险基金征集制度。（二）养老保险基金管理应该尽快在全国范围内建立养老金发放的体系。这样可以避免参保人员退休时只能在某一地区享受养老待遇而不能跨地区享受。对于无法转移或不愿转移到其他统筹地区的养老保险，在当事人达到法定退休年龄或户口迁移出本地区时，也应允许其领取个人账户储存金。同时还要健全各级政府的劳动保障的有关机构体系，采取奖惩措施，这样可以有效避免养老基金的挪用与拖欠。（三）养老保险基金发放首先，对正常缴纳养老保险金的企业，应按时足额发放退休金，不允许采取差额拨付的办法。对有能力而不按时缴纳的企业要积极进行催缴，除追究有关人员责任外，还要按规定加收滞纳金。对确无能力缴纳的困难企业，各级劳动部门和社会保险部门要及时办理缓缴手续，以保证按时足额发放退休人员的退休金，不得以任何理由减发、停发或缓发。其次，应以当地社会平均水平为准。加大基金的调剂力度，使收入相差不太悬殊，充分地体现保障制度带给人们的优越性。（四）养老保险基金的保值与增值首先应加大各级政府对养老保险基金的投入力度，解决资金不足问题。其次建立一种能对风险与投资实施有效控制的养老资金投资体制，投资于那些风险相对小，收益相对较高的投资领域，增加资金来源。国务院体改办宏观经济体制司司长宋晓梧建议，成立专门的、相互竞争经营的基金管理公司管理营运个人账户，以达到个人账户基金的保值增值。（五）农村养老保险基金问题自1999年起，农村社会养老保险进入整顿规范阶段，但是大多数地方并没有做出适当的回应，在基金筹集、管理与发放上均不规范。首先，在基金的筹集方面，农村养老保险基金多没有企业的缴纳，只有本人自愿缴纳，这就违背了社会养老保险的基本性质，而这种单方的缴纳方式更偏向于商业保险。而农民由于资金方面的限制拖欠，逃避缴纳养老保险基金的问题严重，这样不但加重了农民的负担，还造成养老保险体系的不完善。即使农民按时按量缴纳了保险，但是地方政府的挪用情况又十分猖獗。所以，首先要减轻农村老年人的贫困问题；其次要健全基金管理制度，实现基金保值增值；再次养老基金要一直保持在最初规定的利率下，防止因利率下调带来的损失，只要这样才能鼓励更多的农民缴纳养老基金。同时还要通过宣传教育，让农民自愿缴纳养老保险基金。
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论文摘要]随着城市化的快速发展，我国失地农民日益增多。目前，建立失地农民社会养老保险制度的条件已基本具备，各地也对一些失地农民杜会养老保险问题进行了探索，为制度建设提供了有益的借鉴。构建失地农民社会养老保险制度，要与城镇社会养老保险制度具有可街接性。政府要承担制度建设的责任，给予必要的资金支持。改革开放以来，我国城市化和工业化步伐明显加快，大量土地被征用，产生了大量的失地农民。在2006年4月10日(国务院办公厅转发劳动保障部关于做好被征地农民就业培训和社会保障工作指导意见的通知》及2007年4月28日(关于切实做好被征地农民社会保障工作有关问题的通知》的指导下，全国许多地方已经建立了被征地农民社会养老保障制度，但是，制度在实施过程当中不断显露弊端。如何解决好被征地农民的社会养老保障问题，使其今后的生活无后顾之忧，并顺利地被城市化，分享城市发展带来的利益，是农村社会稳定的关键，也是确保城市化得以顺利进行的关键。1失地农民社会养老保障状况及存在的问题失地农民社会养老保险状况20世纪80年代、1992年前后和2003年前后，中国先后兴起了三次轰轰烈烈的圈地浪潮，全国各地数以千计的开发区、工业园侵蚀了大量的耕地。据资料显示，1987年至2001年，全国非农建设占用耕地万亩，2002年中国耕地面积净减少2529万亩，2003年中国耕地面积再次净减少3806万亩。截至2004年底，全国开发区占地万平方公里以上，已经超过现有城市建设用地总量。这场运动正在制造着大批“种田无地，上班无岗，低保无份”的失地农民。目前，全国失地农民总数估计在4000万人左右，每年还要新增200多万人。izl按照《全国土地利用总体规划纲要》,2000年至2030年的30年间占用耕地将超过5450万亩。一般每征用一亩耕地，就伴随着个农民失业，这意味着我国“失地农民群体”将从目前约4000万人剧增至2030年的亿人，失地农民的规模将进一步扩大。在对他们的土地征用过程当中，各级政府和部门主要采用的是一次性货币补偿和实物补偿的办法，试图在短期内解决征地所带来的问题。由于该办法简单易行并给有关部门带来较大收益，所以被许多地方普遍采用。但最近两年这种办法的弊端不断显露，在国务院及劳动和社会保障部的指导下，一些地区出台了各种各样的针对失地农民的社会养老保障制度。这些制度的出发点都是为了解决失地农民的可持续生计问题。由于各地的经济发展水平的差异，在具体的做法上有鲜明的地方特色。一般来看，经济发达地区，可以为失地农民建立起政府全面负责的社会养老制度;中等发达水平地区，可以为失地农民建立起政府、集体和个人三方或者其中两方缴费的社会保障制度;经济不发达地区，则可利用失地补偿金为失地农民建立最低生活保障或者与商业保险相结合的社会保障模式。例如:(1)大连模式。大连经济技术开发区将失地农民全部转为城市居民，凡是享有土地承包经营权的原农村集体经济组织成员全部被纳入到社会养老保障范畴，完全由政府或集体出资，个人不必交纳任何费用，达到法定退休年龄的失地人员，按月领取养老金。(2)青岛模式。青岛市唠山区实行“以个人交纳为主，集体补助为辅，区政府给予适当补贴，充分体现三方共担的原则”的新型农村社会养老保险。养老保险费的筹集，以青岛市上年度职工平均工资的60%作为缴费基数，按照缴费基数的20%缴纳基本养老保险费。其中，区政府按照缴费基数的6%给予基本养老保险费补贴，个人和集体按照缴费基数的14%缴纳基本养老保险费。达到法定退休年龄的失地人员，按月领取养老金。(3)重庆模式。政府依托商业保险公司推出失地农民商业保险的社会养老保障。重庆市探索出“政府+保险公司+农民”的补偿金发放新模式。政府把原打算直接补偿给农民的钱交给保险公司，由保险公司进行资本管理及运作，每月固定发给失地农民180多元钱。(4)四川模式。政府为失地农民提供基本生活社会养老保障。2004年初，四川省出台的省委一号文件规定，从政府土地收益中划出一定比例的资金，用于解决失地农民的社会保障问题。从2004年起，对因国家征地转为城镇居民的农民，全部实行城镇居民最低生活保障和失业保险制度。这些制度的建立在不同程度上解决了失地农民的后顾之忧，探索出了失地农民社会养老保障的新途径。然而，由于目前地区经济发展的不平衡，使得这些制度只能是在一些地区推行，并不具有广泛性，还有绝大多数的失地农民无所依靠。目前失地农民社会养老保障存在的问题针对失地农民建立的社会养老保障制度在我国是一项崭新的尝试，所以这些新生的制度难免存在各种各样的问题，只有进一步认清问题，找出解决问题的方法，才能使我国失地农民的权益得到真正的保护。缺乏权威有效的法律法规依据。各地失地农民的社会养老保障制度的建立主要是各级主管部门下发的业务性指导文件，对全体失地农民而言，缺乏国家法律规定和政府权威文件的支持。失地农民的社会养老保瘴工作的开展，完全依靠各级政府领导自身的认识，“肯定”则全面推动，“否定”则否定一切。阻碍失地农民的正常流动。失去土地的农民，没有了赖以生存的土地，必然要走出农村，到城市中寻找工作机会，但是由于各地对失地农民的社会养老政策不统一，一旦发生社会养老保障的纠纷，就会由于缺乏通畅、公正的解决纠纷的机制，而导致失地农民流动困难，限制了他们的自由流动。制度缺乏前瞻性。各地失地农民社会养老保障运行了一段时间以来，已经逐渐表现出了某些落后性。制度设计没有从长远的角度考虑失地农民的养老保障与城镇职工养老保险的对接。各地政府大都从目前的经济状况出发，为了解决问题而解决问题，采取政府保障、商业保险及最低生活保障等模式，而没有考虑到失地农民失去土地后，早晚要被城镇化，其社会养老保障也势必要与城镇居民的社会养老保险相对接。社会养老保险政策缺乏强制性。调查显示，在目前各地实行的各种社会养老保障中，政府强制要求失地农民参与社会养老保险的仅占参保人数过少，不能充分发挥社会保障的作用。大部分失地农民都存在着短视行为，他们更注重即时消费，而忽视未来消费。另外，由于他们受到多种因素制约，如理财能力不足，养老观念相对滞后等影响，无法对自己的养老问题作出合理的安排。如果政府不强制他们现在就为其老年生活作出理性安排，那么他们进人老年，生活水平将无法保障。基金增值渠道不畅，运营风险较大。社会养老保障基金的持续保值、增值，直接关系到基金的壮大和失地农民社会养老保障事业的发展。根据现行的政策，失地农民的社会养老保险基金与农民的社会养老保险基金一样，其增值渠道被限制在存银行、买国债的范围内，基金增值在正常的情况下很难达到预定的增值标准。再者，我国目前市场经济体制还不完善，物价指数波动较大，银行利率的变化也较为频繁。在年利率较低、投资渠道单一的现实情况下，要想使失地农民社会养老保障基金有效增值很困难。2为失地农民建立与城镇职工相对接的社会养老保障我国城镇职工社会养老保障从上世纪70年代开始，进行了一系列的改革。从最初的国家保障到政府、企业、个人三方参与;从各地政策不统一，到全国政策统一等，这些使得我国城镇职工的社会保障制度日趋完善，建立起了具有中国特色的社会保障体系。失地农民作为一个特殊的群体，将随着城市化和工业化的发展，逐渐被纳人到城市人口中，那么在为他们建立社会养老保障的时候，就必然要借鉴城镇职工的社会养老保障政策，避免走弯路。我国应建立与城镇职工社会养老保险相对接的、水平略低的失地农民社会养老保障制度。建立与失地农民情况相适应的社会养老保障制度的核心问题是资金来源问题。我国人口众多，社会保障事业的发展也处于起步阶段，国家的负担很重，完全靠国家出资解决失地农民的社会保障问题，既不可能，也不现实。失地农民的社会养老保障资金势必要从土地收益中来考虑如何解决。有调查显示，目前农村土地流转中的收益分配结构中，地方政府和村级组织得到大部分，失地农民获得的是其中的一小部分。这就决定了失地农民的社会养老保障资金要由地方政府、集体及个人三方负担。有地方政府和集体参与的缴费，资金来源的稳定性就有了保障。建立全国统一的失地农民社会养老保障制度的可行性将更高，失地农民社会养老保障制度建设的前途将更加乐观，我国今后面临的主要问题是如何建立完善制度，加大推进力度。社会养老保障对象的选择社会养老保障的保障对象，应针对不同年龄段的失地农民来区别对待。年龄在15周岁以下的失地农民，他们达到就业年龄以后，按照城市新生劳动力，进人城市社会养老保险体系。年龄在巧周岁以上的失地农民没有就业的，参加失地农民社会养老保险，已经就业的强制参加城镇职工社会养老保险。年龄在劳动年龄(男60周岁，女55周岁)以上的，一次性交足养老保险费用，从交足费用的次月起领取社会养老金。社会养老金的水平不能低于农村最低生活保障水平。社会养老保险资金的筹集社会养老保险资金的筹集是整个制度的一个重要部分。失地农民本身并没有多余的资金参加社会养老保险，其可支配的资金主要来源于土地的补偿费。如果把土地的补偿费一次性发放给农民，那么有的农民可能会在短时间内把它用光。另外，集体和地方政府部分的补偿费和收益，如果不采取相应的措施，也有可能被挪作他用。为了保证征地补偿款不被挪用，实现专款专用的目的，资金应直接从国土资源部门划拨。资金的筹集模式应借鉴城镇职工基本社会养老保险制度的模式，选择“三位一体”的部分积累制，即由三方缴费“统账结合”的资金筹集模式，政府出一点、集体补一点、个人缴一点。政府出资部分不低于保障费总额的30%，从土地出让金中列支，这部分资金全部进人统筹账户;集体承担部分不低于保障费总额的40%，从土地补偿费中列支;个人承担部分从征地安置补助费中抵缴。集体和个人的缴费以个人的名义存人个人账户。考虑到失地农民收人不稳定的特殊性，缴费时间应具有一定的弹性，他们可以按月缴纳、按季度缴纳、按年缴纳，或者是根据自己的收人情况，决定缴纳时间。参加失地农民社会养老保险的农民，必须在个人账户中交费，够巧年以上的才能享受社会养老保险待遇。社会养老保险墓金的管理失地农民的社会养老保险基金是对失地农民的负债基金，是参保农民日后养老的“活命钱”，是失地农民社会养老保险事业运行的基石，其管理和运营的质量直接关系到这项事业的成败。在管理上，政府要积极参与，社会养老保险资金首先必须由政府专职部门统一管理，建立财政专户，单独建账，确保专款专用，不得挤占、截留或挪用。其次，政府要建立相应的失地农民社会养老保障风险基金，用于应对紧急情况或根据物价涨幅适时调整保障水平，确保失地农民领取的社会养老金不“贬值”。同时，对基金的正常运行要执行严格的监管，采取“收支两条线”的方式进行管理。失地农民社会养老保障基金管理机构与经营机构分开设置，前者负责对后者的监管和对社会保障市场的调控，后者负责基金的筹集、投资运营等，而且必须保障监管机构的权威性、公开性、科学性和独立性。社会养老保津基金的运营基金的运营要设法把失地农民社会养老保险基金，通过投资经营的方式实现增值。鉴于我国金融市场的现状，我们未必要将全部社会养老基金交由私营机构经营管理，可以交由银行和非银行金融机构经营管理。在引进投资机构时，政府相关部门要对这些公司的资质、经营状况和信誉水平等各方面进行认真地考察，同时引进多家投资公司，并引人竟争机制，通过多元经营，分散经营风险。要保证失地农民社会养老保险基金的顺利保值、增值，不能仅限于存银行、买国债，必须实现投资方式多样化，应适当涉足实物投资、银行存款、国债及其他各种债券、股票、投资基金、抵押贷款、外汇、期货和国际投资等，但是这些投资领域的风险和收益具有很强的正相关关系，必须加强投资的监管。基金运营的监管要采取“社会监管”的形式，也就是要通过强化监管，最大可能地降低运营风险，实现养老保险基金的保值、增值。监管主体应包括两方面，一是政府要设置专门的社会养老保险基金监管机构，加强对经营机构的监督，重点应集中于金融、财务和业务方面，督促经营机构建立完善的管理规章。为了防止舞弊行为，要建立市场准人制度，规定基金经营管理机构的最低法定准备金和相应责任，建立财务公开、信用和绩效评级制度以及严格的经济处罚制度。二是设立由投保人代表、村组集体代表和代表村组与个人利益的管理专家组成的监管理事会，理事会既监管经营机构的运作，又对政府监管机构进行监督。这既有利于保证失地农民的知情权、参与权和监督权，又有利于防止政府监管机构的失职行为。社会养老保险金的支付由于社会养老保险基金采用了“统账结合”的模式。养老金的支付也应分为两个部分。养老金二社会统筹部分+个人账户部分。社会统筹部分按照城镇职工社会养老保险的计算公式计算，养老金的水平经常根据物价指数和工资指数定期调整，与当地的生活水平相适应。个人账户部分失地农民能够领取多少养老金完全取决于个人账户基金的缴纳水平和增值状况。缴费达到15年以上，年龄达到退休年龄(男60周岁、女55周岁)的失地农民可以领取养老金。养老金的发放，由社会保障部门委托指定商业银行按月将养老金直接存人受益人的银行账户，此账户的设立和更改完全与受益人的身份证信息挂钩。参加失地农民社会养老保险的老年人，只要达到法定领取基本养老金年龄，即有权通过当地社会保障机构登记开这一收益账户。同时，由于银行联网制度的存在，受益人不管在何处居住，都可通过居住地的银行取得这笔养老金。
中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 8 条[1]杨松. 新保险法修改的主要内容浅析[J]. 红河学院学报, 2004,(02) . [2]何杨彪. 试论新《保险法》对消费者权益的保护[J]. 湖南财经高等专科学校学报, 2009,(04) . [3]黄曼妮. 关于新《保险法》不可抗辩条款的思考[J]. 黑龙江金融, 2009,(09) . [4]方志平. 试论新《保险法》背景下寿险的合规营销[J]. 上海保险, 2009,(04) . [5]胡滨. 新《保险法》——彰显被保险人的利益保护[J]. 中国金融, 2009,(06) . [6]李斌. 新《保险法》更注重投保人权益[J]. 新财经, 2009,(05) . [7]袁建华. 2009新《保险法》的显著特点与实施效果预测[J]. 现代财经-天津财经大学学报, 2009,(09) . [8]夏益国. 中国保险业规范发展的新起点——写在新《中华人民共和国保险法》颁布实施之际[J]. 中国保险, 2009,(09) .中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 5 条[1]钟诚. 浅析新《保险法》的修订内容[J]. 北方经济, 2009,(14) . [2]熊悠云. 浅谈保险企业如何应对新《保险法》带来的巨大挑战——基于风险管理的角度[J]. 经营管理者, 2009,(16) . [3]李莎,符芸榕. 浅析法律对保险经营的影响[J]. 技术与市场, 2009,(09) . [4]胡滨. 《保险法》修订及其对中国保险业的影响[J]. 金融与经济, 2009,(08) . [5]李然. 从新保险法的几大变化谈保护保险消费者利益[J]. 金卡工程(经济与法), 2010,(03) . 中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库 共找到 2 条[1]徐敏峰. 开放背景下我国保险资金运用研究[D]. 河海大学, 2005 . [2]唐余. 我国保险合同纠纷解决机制探索[D]. 西南财经大学, 2007 . 中国期刊全文数据库 共找到 6 条[1]张响贤,宣鸣,王勉. 论汽车保险费率市场化的趋势——从日本汽车保险费率的变迁谈起[J]. 保险研究, 2002,(01) . [2]雷定安,刘学宁. 对人身保险不可抗辩条款的深层思考[J]. 东方论坛.青岛大学学报, 2002,(01) . [3]侯刚. 对中国人寿保险中“不可抗辩条款”的思考[J]. 经营管理者, 2008,(16) . [4]李莎,张建刚. 不可抗辩条款在我国的应用前景展望[J]. 当代经济, 2009,(07) . [5]何惠珍. 保险投资:发展障碍与发展路径[J]. 广东金融学院学报, 2005,(04) . [6]魏薇. 金融监管立法日趋成熟——解读新《保险法修订草案》[J]. 中国金融家, 2008,(09) .
If you'd like to get quick auto insurance quotes, or find a local car insurance agent, you're in the right place. But we offer much more than car insurance. Thousands of satisfied customers depend on us for insurance on their homes. Plus we are America's #1 RV insurance specialist. Health insuranceHealth insurance works by estimating the overall risk of healthcare expenses and developing a routine finance structure (such as a monthly premium or annual tax) that will ensure that money is available to pay for the healthcare benefits specified in the insurance agreement. The benefit is administered by a central organization, most often either a government agency or a private or not-for-profit entity operating a health it worksA Health insurance policy is a contract between an insurance company and an individual. The contract can be renewable annually or monthly. The type and amount of health care costs that will be covered by the health plan are specified in advance, in the member contract or Evidence of Coverage booklet. The individual policy-holder's payment obligations may take several forms[7]:Premium: The amount the policy-holder pays to the health plan each month to purchase health coverage. Deductible: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out-of-pocket before the health plan pays its share. For example, a policy-holder might have to pay a $500 deductible per year, before any of their health care is covered by the health plan. It may take several doctor's visits or prescription refills before the policy-holder reaches the deductible and the health plan starts to pay for care. Copayment: The amount that the policy-holder must pay out of pocket before the health plan pays for a particular visit or service. For example, a policy-holder might pay a $45 copayment for a doctor's visit, or to obtain a prescription. A copayment must be paid each time a particular service is obtained. Coinsurance: Instead of paying a fixed amount up front (a copayment), the policy-holder must pay a percentage of the total cost. For example, the member might have to pay 20% of the cost of a surgery, while the health plan pays the other 80%. Because there is no upper limit on coinsurance, the policy-holder can end up owing very little, or a significant amount, depending on the actual costs of the services they obtain. Exclusions: Not all services are covered. The policy-holder is generally expected to pay the full cost of non-covered services out of their own pocket. Coverage limits: Some health plans only pay for health care up to a certain dollar amount. The policy-holder may be expected to pay any charges in excess of the health plan's maximum payment for a specific service. In addition, some plans have annual or lifetime coverage maximums. In these cases, the health plan will stop payment when they reach the benefit maximum, and the policy-holder must pay all remaining costs. Out-of-pocket maximums: Similar to coverage limits, except that in this case, the member's payment obligation ends when they reach the out-of-pocket maximum, and the health plan pays all further covered costs. Out-of-pocket maximums can be limited to a specific benefit category (such as prescription drugs) or can apply to all coverage provided during a specific benefit year. Capitation: An amount paid by an insurer to a health care provider, for which the provider agrees to treat all members of the insurer. In-Network Provider: A health care provider on a list of providers preselected by the insurer. The insurer will offer discounted coinsurance or copayments, or additional benefits, to a plan member to see an in-network provider. Generally, providers in network are providers who have a contract with the insurer to accept rates further discounted from the "usual and customary" charges the insurer pays to out-of-network providers. Prescription drug plans are a form of insurance offered through some employer benefit plans in the US, where the patient pays a copayment and the prescription drug insurance part or all of the balance for drugs covered in the formulary of the , if not most, health care providers in the United States will agree to bill the insurance company if patients are willing to sign an agreement that they will be responsible for the amount that the insurance company doesn't pay. The insurance company pays out of network providers according to "reasonable and customary" charges, which may be less than the provider's usual fee. The provider may also have a separate contract with the insurer to accept what amounts to a discounted rate or capitation to the provider's standard charges. It generally costs the patient less to use an in-network plan vs. health insuranceHistorically, HMOs tended to use the term "health plan", while commercial insurance companies used the term "health insurance". A health plan can also refer to a subscription-based medical care arrangement offered through health maintenance organization, HMO, PPO, or POS plan. These plans are similar to pre-paid dental, pre-paid legal, and pre-paid vision plans. Pre-paid health plans typically pay for a fixed number of services (for instance, $300 in preventive care, a certain number of days of hospice care or care in a skilled nursing facility, a fixed number of home health visits, a fixed number of spinal manipulation charges, etc.) The services offered are usually at the discretion of a utilization review nurse who is often contracted through the managed care entity providing the subscription health plan. This determination may be made either prior to or after hospital admission (concurrent utilization review).[edit] Inherent problems with insuranceInsurance systems must typically deal with two inherent challenges: adverse selection, which affects any voluntary system, and ex-post moral hazard, which affects any insurance system in which a third party bears major responsibility for payment, whether that is an employer or the government. Some national systems with compulsory insurance utilize systems such as risk equalization and community rating to overcome these inherent problems.[edit] Adverse selectionInsurance companies use the term "adverse selection" to describe the tendency for only those who will benefit from insurance to buy it. Specifically when talking about health insurance, unhealthy people are more likely to purchase health insurance because they anticipate large medical bills. On the other side, people who consider themselves to be reasonably healthy may decide that medical insurance is an unnecessary expense; if they see the doctor once a year and it costs $250, that's much better than making monthly insurance payments of $40. (example figures).The fundamental concept of insurance is that it balances costs across a large, random sample of individuals (see risk pool). For instance, an insurance company has a pool of 1000 randomly selected subscribers, each paying $100 per month. One person becomes very ill while the others stay healthy, allowing the insurance company to use the money paid by the healthy people to pay for the treatment costs of the sick person. However, when the pool is self-selecting rather than random, as is the case with individuals seeking to purchase health insurance directly, adverse selection is a greater concern.[8] A disproportionate share of health care spending is attributable to individuals with high health care costs. In the US the 1% of the population with the highest spending accounted for 27% of aggregate health care spending in 1996. The highest-spending 5% of the population accounted for more than half of all spending. These patterns were stable through the 1970s and 1980s, and some data suggest that they may have been typical of the mid-to-early 20th century as well.[9][10] A few individuals have extremely high medical expenses, in extreme cases totaling a half million dollars or more.[11] Adverse selection could leave an insurance company with primarily sick subscribers and no way to balance out the cost of their medical expenses with a large number of healthy of adverse selection, insurance companies employ medical underwriting, using a patient's medical history to screen out those whose pre-existing medical conditions pose too great a risk for the risk pool. Before buying health insurance, a person typically fills out a comprehensive medical history form that asks whether the person smokes, how much the person weighs, whether the person has been treated for any of a long list of diseases and so on. In general, those who present large financial burdens are denied coverage or charged high premiums to compensate.[12] One large US industry survey found that roughly 13 percent of applicants for comprehensive, individually purchased health insurance who went through the medical underwriting in 2004 were denied coverage. Declination rates increased significantly with age, rising from 5 percent for individuals 18 and under to just under a third for individuals aged 60 to 64.[13] Among those who were offered coverage, the study found that 76% received offers at standard premium rates, and 22% were offered higher rates.[14] On the other side, applicants can get discounts if they do not smoke and are healthy.[15]Health insurance in CanadaMost health insurance in Canada is administered by each province, under the Canada Health Act, which requires all people to have free access to basic health services. Collectively, the public provincial health insurance systems in Canada are frequently referred to as Medicare. Private health insurance is allowed, but the provincial governments allow it only for services that the public health plans do not cover; for example, semi-private or private rooms in hospitals and prescription drug plans. Canadians are free to use private insurance for elective medical services such as laser vision correction surgery, cosmetic surgery, and other non-basic medical procedures. Some 65% of Canadians have some form of supplementary private health insurance; many of them receive it through their employers.[17] Private-sector services not paid for by the government account for nearly 30 percent of total health care spending.[18]In 2005, the Supreme Court of Quebec ruled, in Chaoulli v. Quebec, that the province's prohibition on private insurance for health care already insured by the provincial plan could constitute an infringement of the right to life and security if there were long wait times for treatment as happened in this case. Certain other provinces have legislation which financially discourages but does not forbid private health insurance in areas covered by the public plans. The ruling has not changed the overall pattern of health insurance across Canada but has spurred on attempts to tackle the core issues of supply and demand and the impact of wait times.[19]Health insurance in the NetherlandsIn the Netherlands in 2006, a new system of health insurance came into force. All insurance companies have to provide at least one policy which meets a government set minimum standard level of cover and all adult residents are obliged by law to purchase this cover from an insurance company of their new system avoids the two pitfalls of adverse selection and moral hazard associated with traditional forms of health the Dutch system, insurance companies are compensated for taking on high risk individuals because they receive extra funding for them. This funding comes from an insurance equalization pool run by a regulator which collects salary based contributions from employers (about 45% of all health care funding) and funding from the government for people whose means are such that they cannot afford health care (about 5% of all funding). Thus insurance companies find that insuring high risk individuals becomes an attractive proposition. All insurance companies receive from the pool, but those with more high risk individuals will receive more from the fund. The remaining 45% of health care funding comes from insurance premiums paid by the public. Insurance companies compete for this money on price alone. The insurance companies are not allowed to set down any co-payments or caps or deductibles. Neither are they allowed to deny coverage to any person applying for a policy or charge anything other than their nationally set and internet published standard policy premiums. Every person buying insurance from that company will pay the same price as everyone else buying that policy. And every person will get the minimum level of coverage. Children under 18 are insured for free (the funding coming from the equalization pool).In addition to this minimum level, companies are free to sell extra insurance for additional coverage over the national minimum, but extra risks for this are not covered from the insurance pool and must therefore be priced insurance in the United KingdomMain article: National Health ServiceGreat Britain's National Health Service (NHS) is a publicly funded healthcare system that provides coverage to everyone normally resident in the UK. The NHS provides the majority of health care in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term health care, ophthalmology and dentistry. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the British public opposing such involvement.[20]. According to the World Health Organization, government funding covered 86% of overall health care expenditures in the UK as of 2004, with private expenditures covering the remaining 14%.[21] The costs of running the NHS (est. £104 billion in 2007-8)[22] are met directly from general National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by a Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. The NHS is the world's largest health service, and the world's third largest employer[23] after the Chinese army and the Indian insurance in the United States 参考资料：
20000字左右？报酬也太低点了吧？建议你还是到专业汽车、保险等网站、论坛上去找吧！
我有很多，但是又舍不得给你，。。。。。