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英文文章素材5000字

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英文文章素材5000字

书香怡神 Companionship of books A man may usually be known by the books he reads as well as the company he keeps; for there is a companionship of books as well as of men; and one should always live in the best company, whether it be of books or of men. A good book may be among the best of friends. It is the same today that it always was, and it will never change. It is the most patient and cheerful of companions. It does not turn its back upon us in times of adversity or distress. It always receives us with the same kindness, amusing and instructing us in youth, and comforting and consoling us in age. Men often discover their affinity to each other by the love they each have for a book. The book is a truer and higher bond of union. Men can think, feel, and sympathize with each other through their favorite author. They live in him together, and he, in them. A good book is often the best urn of a life enshrining the best that life could think out, for the world of a man’s life is, for the most part, but the world of his thoughts. Thus the best books are treasuries of good words, the golden thoughts, which, remembered and cherished, become our constant companions and comforters. Books possess an essence of immortality. They are by far the most lasting products of human effort. Temples and statues decay, but books survive. Time is of no account with great thoughts, which are as fresh today as when they first passed through their authors’ minds ages ago. What was then said and thought still speaks to us as vividly as ever from the printed page. Books introduce us into the best society; they bring us into the presence of the greatest minds that have ever lived. We hear what they said and did; we see them as if they were really alive; we sympathize with them, grieve with them; their experience becomes ours, and we feel as if we were in a measure actors with them in the scenes which they describe.另一篇Today there are many ways to decorate a home with exotic furniture for a unique design. Whether you prefer Asian or Western décor, you may be interested in using bamboo or rattan furniture or flooring to give your home a unique look and feel. A member of the grass family, bamboo is a slender hollow stock that has been used by Easterners for their home furnishings for centuries. Rattan, on the other hand, is more of a vine-like structure, although quite sturdy. It has an outer skin, unlike bamboo, which makes it more suitable for welding or screwing furniture and flooring pieces together. This is why many customers nowadays ask for rattan rather than bamboo furnishings. Bamboo grows in Asia, parts of Africa and North America, and northern Australia. However, neither bamboo nor rattan has been significantly developed for commercial purposes. Still relatively new and cost-effective, both bamboo and rattan add gracious touches of Eastern culture to a carefully cultivated home. You can start with a little to see how you like it, and later add more to round out the comfort and beauty of your home’s design and decorating scheme. Bamboo rugs, mats, and flooring provide an essential foundation that is less costly than traditional woven carpet. However, some people don’t care for the look or texture of these materials. However, in the hands of a careful decorator and in a home where modernity is not the be-all of existence, one might do a lot with either product to create a comfortable, attractive environment that savors oriental themes. Since largely young women and children harvest bamboo, using these products helps to provide regular work and income for individuals involved in the industry. For light, elegant touches throughout your home or in selected key areas, you may wish to shop for bamboo settees, tables, or even baskets to create a faint but discernible Eastern presence in the bathroom, den, sun room, or other area. Decorator wall fans of oriental design, an Eastern sari draped over a sea chest, and a framed art piece of shells or pearls can give the impression of a faraway fantasy world as well as a home that is simply furnished in high style. A room that contains large rattan furniture conveys the impression of comfort and style with simplicity in design and modesty in cost. Silk draperies, linen throws, and a host of other added accents help to finish the display of Eastern art and ingenuity. Shop the latest catalogues from website sales firms that offer a wide selection in bamboo and rattan products at competitive pricing. Be careful that your rattan furniture purchase does not clash with the other items in a given area, or indeed, the rest of the house. Everything should coordinate not only in size, style, and color, but in décor, theme, and taste. Rather than use bamboo for the sake of using bamboo, look for ways to make it fit with your furnishings rather than forcing a look that your home is not ready to accommodate.

About Temperature This document was prepared for the middle school math teachers who are taking part in Project Skymath. It is also hoped that the general public will find it interesting. Disponible en espanol, toque aqui. Contents (click on star) What is Temperature The Development of Thermometers and Temperature Scales Heat and Thermodynamics The Kinetic Theory Thermal Radiation 3 K - The Temperature of the Universe Summary Acknowledgments References What is Temperature? In a qualitative manner, we can describe the temperature of an object as that which determines the sensation of warmth or coldness felt from contact with it. It is easy to demonstrate that when two objectsof the same material are placed together (physicists say when they are put in thermal contact), the object with the higher temperature cools while the cooler object becomes warmer until a point is reached after which no more change occurs, and to our senses, they feel the same. When the thermal changes have stopped, we say that the two objects (physicists define them more rigorously as systems) are in thermal equilibrium . We can then define the temperature of the system by saying that the temperature is that quantity which is the same for both systems when they are in thermal equilibrium. If we experiment further with more than two systems, we find that many systems can be brought into thermal equilibrium with each other; thermal equilibrium does not depend on the kind of object used. Put more precisely, if two systems are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they must also be in thermal equilibrium with each other, and they all have the same temperature regardless of the kind of systems they are. The statement in italics, called the zeroth law of thermodynamics may be restated as follows: If three or more systems are in thermal contact with each other and all in equilibrium together, then any two taken separately are in equilibrium with one another. (quote from T. J. Quinn's monograph Temperature) Now one of the three systems could be an instrument calibrated to measure the temperature - . a thermometer. When a calibrated thermometer is put in thermal contact with a system and reaches thermal equilibrium, we then have a quantitative measure of the temperature of the system. For example, a mercury-in-glass clinical thermometer is put under the tongue of a patient and allowed to reach thermal equilibrium in the patient's mouth - we then see by how much the silvery mercury has expanded in the stem and read the scale of the thermometer to find the patient's temperature. What is a Thermometer? A thermometer is an instrument that measures the temperature of a system in a quantitative way. The easiest way to do this is to find a substance having a property that changes in a regular way with its temperature. The most direct 'regular' way is a linear one: t(x) = ax + b, where t is the temperature of the substance and changes as the property x of the substance changes. The constants a and b depend on the substance used and may be evaluated by specifying two temperature points on the scale, such as 32° for the freezing point of water and 212° for its boiling point. For example, the element mercury is liquid in the temperature range of ° C to ° C (we'll discuss the Celsius ° C scale later). As a liquid, mercury expands as it gets warmer, its expansion rate is linear and can be accurately calibrated. The mercury-in-glass thermometer illustrated in the above figure contains a bulb filled with mercury that is allowed to expand into a capillary. Its rate of expansion is calibrated on the glass scale. The Development of Thermometers and Temperature Scales The historical highlights in the development of thermometers and their scales given here are based on "Temperature" by T. J. Quinn and "Heat" by James M. Cork. One of the first attempts to make a standard temperature scale occurred about AD 170, when Galen, in his medical writings, proposed a standard "neutral" temperature made up of equal quantities of boiling water and ice; on either side of this temperature were four degrees of heat and four degrees of cold, respectively. The earliest devices used to measure the temperature were called thermoscopes. They consisted of a glass bulb having a long tube extending downward into a container of colored water, although Galileo in 1610 is supposed to have used wine. Some of the air in the bulb was expelled before placing it in the liquid, causing the liquid to rise into the tube. As the remaining air in the bulb was heated or cooled, the level of the liquid in the tube would vary reflecting the change in the air temperature. An engraved scale on the tube allowed for a quantitative measure of the fluctuations. The air in the bulb is referred to as the thermometric medium, . the medium whose property changes with temperature. In 1641, the first sealed thermometer that used liquid rather than air as the thermometric medium was developed for Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany. His thermometer used a sealed alcohol-in-glass device, with 50 "degree" marks on its stem but no "fixed point" was used to zero the scale. These were referred to as "spirit" thermometers. Robert Hook, Curator of the Royal Society, in 1664 used a red dye in the alcohol . His scale, for which every degree represented an equal increment of volume equivalent to about 1/500 part of the volume of the thermometer liquid, needed only one fixed point. He selected the freezing point of water. By scaling it in this way, Hook showed that a standard scale could be established for thermometers of a variety of sizes. Hook's original thermometer became known as the standard of Gresham College and was used by the Royal Society until 1709. (The first intelligible meteorological records used this scale). In 1702, the astronomer Ole Roemer of Copenhagen based his scale upon two fixed points: snow (or crushed ice) and the boiling point of water, and he recorded the daily temperatures at Copenhagen in 1708- 1709 with this thermometer. It was in 1724 that Gabriel Fahrenheit, an instrument maker of Däanzig and Amsterdam, used mercury as the thermometric liquid. Mercury's thermal expansion is large and fairly uniform, it does not adhere to the glass, and it remains a liquid over a wide range of temperatures. Its silvery appearance makes it easy to read. Fahrenheit described how he calibrated the scale of his mercury thermometer: "placing the thermometer in a mixture of sal ammoniac or sea salt, ice, and water a point on the scale will be found which is denoted as zero. A second point is obtained if the same mixture is used without salt. Denote this position as 30. A third point, designated as 96, is obtained if the thermometer is placed in the mouth so as to acquire the heat of a healthy man." (D. G. Fahrenheit,Phil. Trans. (London) 33, 78, 1724) On this scale, Fahrenheit measured the boiling point of water to be 212. Later he adjusted the freezing point of water to 32 so that the interval between the boiling and freezing points of water could be represented by the more rational number 180. Temperatures measured on this scale are designated as degrees Fahrenheit (° F). In 1745, Carolus Linnaeus of Upsula, Sweden, described a scale in which the freezing point of water was zero, and the boiling point 100, making it a centigrade (one hundred steps) scale. Anders Celsius (1701-1744) used the reverse scale in which 100 represented the freezing point and zero the boiling point of water, still, of course, with 100 degrees between the two defining points. In 1948 use of the Centigrade scale was dropped in favor of a new scale using degrees Celsius (° C). The Celsius scale is defined by the following two items that will be discussed later in this essay: (i) The triple point of water is defined to be ° C. (ii) A degree Celsius equals the same temperature change as a degree on the ideal-gas scale. On the Celsius scale the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure is C in contrast to the 100 degrees defined by the Centigrade scale. To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: multiply by and add 32. ° F = ° C + 32 ° K = ° C + 273. (Or, you can get someone else to do it for you!) In 1780, J. A. C. Charles, a French physician, showed that for the same increase in temperature, all gases exhibited the same increase in volume. Because the expansion coefficient of gases is so very nearly the same, it is possible to establish a temperature scale based on a single fixed point rather than the two fixed- point scales, such as the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. This brings us back to a thermometer that uses a gas as the thermometric medium. In a constant volume gas thermometer a large bulb B of gas, hydrogen for example, under a set pressure connects with a mercury-filled "manometer" by means of a tube of very small volume. (The Bulb B is the temperature-sensing portion and should contain almost all of the hydrogen). The level of mercury at C may be adjusted by raising or lowering the mercury reservoir R. The pressure of the hydrogen gas, which is the "x" variable in the linear relation with temperature, is the difference between the levels D and C plus the pressure above D. P. Chappuis in 1887 conducted extensive studies of gas thermometers with constant pressure or with constant volume using hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide as the thermometric medium. Based on his results, the Comité International des Poids et Mesures adopted the constant-volume hydrogen scale based on fixed points at the ice point (0° C) and the steam point (100° C) as the practical scale for international meteorology. Experiments with gas thermometers have shown that there is very little difference in the temperature scale for different gases. Thus, it is possible to set up a temperature scale that is independent of the thermometric medium if it is a gas at low pressure. In this case, all gases behave like an "Ideal Gas" and have a very simple relation between their pressure, volume, and temperature: pV= (constant)T. This temperature is called the thermodynamic temperature and is now accepted as the fundamental measure of temperature. Note that there is a naturally-defined zero on this scale - it is the point at which the pressure of an ideal gas is zero, making the temperature also zero. We will continue a discussion of "absolute zero" in a later section. With this as one point on the scale, only one other fixed point need be defined. In 1933, the International Committee of Weights and Measures adopted this fixed point as the triple point of water , the temperature at which water, ice, and water vapor coexist in equilibrium); its value is set as . The unit of temperature on this scale is called the kelvin, after Lord Kelvin (William Thompson), 1824-1907, and its symbol is K (no degree symbol used). To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273. K = ° C + 273. Thermodynamic temperature is the fundamental temperature; its unit is the kelvin which is defined as the fraction 1/ of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. Sir William Siemens, in 1871, proposed a thermometer whose thermometric medium is a metallic conductor whose resistance changes with temperature. The element platinum does not oxidize at high temperatures and has a relatively uniform change in resistance with temperature over a large range. The Platinum Resistance Thermometer is now widely used as a thermoelectric thermometer and covers the temperature range from about -260° C to 1235° C. Several temperatures were adopted as Primary reference points so as to define the International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968. The International Temperature Scale of 1990 was adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures at its meeting in 1989. Between and , the temperature is defined in terms of the vapor pressure - temperature relations of the isotopes of helium. Between and the triple point of neon () the temperature is defined by means of a helium gas thermometer. Between the triple point of hydrogen () and the freezing point of silver (°K) the temperature is defined by means of platinum resistance thermometers. Above the freezing point of silver the temperature is defined in terms of the Planck radiation law. T. J. Seebeck, in 1826, discovered that when wires of different metals are fused at one end and heated, a current flows from one to the other. The electromotive force generated can be quantitatively related to the temperature and hence, the system can be used as a thermometer - known as a thermocouple. The thermocouple is used in industry and many different metals are used - platinum and platinum/rhodium, nickel-chromium and nickel-aluminum, for example. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) maintains databases for standardizing thermometers. For the measurement of very low temperatures, the magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is used as the thermometric physical quantity. For some substances, the magnetic susceptibility varies inversely as the temperature. Crystals such as cerrous magnesium nitrate and chromic potassium alum have been used to measure temperatures down to K; these crystals are calibrated in the liquid helium range. This diagram and the last illustration in this text were taken from the Low Temperature Laboratory, Helsinki University of Technology's picture archive. For these very low, and even lower, temperatures, the thermometer is also the mechanism for cooling. Several low-temperature laboratories conduct interesting applied and theoretical research on how to reach the lowest possible temperatures and how work at these temperatures may find application. Heat and Thermodynamics Prior to the 19th century, it was believed that the sense of how hot or cold an object felt was determined by how much "heat" it contained. Heat was envisioned as a liquid that flowed from a hotter to a colder object; this weightless fluid was called "caloric", and until the writings of Joseph Black (1728-1799), no distinction was made between heat and temperature. Black distinguished between the quantity (caloric) and the intensity (temperature) of heat. Benjamin Thomson, Count Rumford, published a paper in 1798 entitled "an Inquiry Concerning the Source of Heat which is Excited by Friction". Rumford had noticed the large amount of heat generated when a cannon was drilled. He doubted that a material substance was flowing into the cannon and concluded "it appears to me to be extremely difficult if not impossible to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the manner the heat was excited and communicated in these experiments except motion." But it was not until J. P. Joule published a definitive paper in 1847 that the the caloric idea was abandoned. Joule conclusively showed that heat was a form of energy. As a result of the experiments of Rumford, Joule, and others, it was demonstrated (explicitly stated by Helmholtz in 1847), that the various forms of energy can be transformed one into another. When heat is transformed into any other form of energy, or when other forms of energy are transformed into heat, the total amount of energy (heat plus other forms) in the system is constant. This is the first law of thermodynamics, the conservation of energy. To express it another way: it is in no way possible either by mechanical, thermal, chemical, or other means, to obtain a perpetual motion machine; ., one that creates its own energy (except in the fantasy world of Maurits Escher's "Waterfall"!) A second statement may also be made about how machines operate. A steam engine uses a source of heat to produce work. Is it possible to completely convert the heat energy into work, making it a 100% efficient machine? The answer is to be found in the second law of thermodynamics: No cyclic machine can convert heat energy wholly into other forms of energy. It is not possible to construct a cyclic machine that does nothing but withdraw heat energy and convert it into mechanical energy. The second law of thermodynamics implies the irreversibility of certain processes - that of converting all heat into mechanical energy, although it is possible to have a cyclic machine that does nothing but convert mechanical energy into heat! Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) conducted theoretical studies of the efficiencies of heat engines (a machine which converts some of its heat into useful work). He was trying to model the most efficient heat engine possible. His theoretical work provided the basis for practical improvements in the steam engine and also laid the foundations of thermodynamics. He described an ideal engine, called the Carnot engine, that is the most efficient way an engine can be constructed. He showed that the efficiency of such an engine is given by efficiency = 1 - T"/T', where the temperatures, T' and T" , are the hot and cold "reservoirs" , respectively, between which the machine operates. On this temperature scale, a heat engine whose coldest reservoir is zero degrees would operate with 100% efficiency. This is one definition of absolute zero, and it can be shown to be identical to the absolute zero we discussed previously. The temperature scale is called the absolute, the thermodynamic , or the kelvin scale. The way that the gas temperature scale and the thermodynamic temperature scale are shown to be identical is based on the microscopic interpretation of temperature, which postulates that the macroscopic measurable quantity called temperature is a result of the random motions of the microscopic particles that make up a system. The Kinetic Theory This brief summary is abridged from a more detailed discussion to be found in Quinn's "Temperature" About the same time that thermodynamics was evolving, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) developed a theory describing the way molecules moved - molecular dynamics. The molecules that make up a perfect gas move about, colliding with each other like billiard balls and bouncing off the surface of the container holding the gas. The energy associated with motion is called Kinetic Energy and this kinetic approach to the behavior of ideal gases led to an interpretation of the concept of temperature on a microscopic scale. 温度 -------------------------------------------------- ----------- ------------------- 什么是温度 发展的温度计和温度秤 热和热力学 动力学理论 热辐射 3 K -温度的宇宙 摘要 致谢 参考资料 什么是温度? 在定性的方式,我们可以描述一个物体的温度所决定的感觉温暖 或冷漠感到从联系。 很容易证明,当两个相同的材料放在一起(物理学家说,当他们 把在接触) ,对象与较高的温度变冷,而凉爽的对象变得温暖, 直到点后达成的,没有更多的变化发生时,和我们的理智,他们 同样的感觉。当热的变化已经停止,我们说,这两个物体(物理 学家更严格地界定他们的系统)的热平衡。然后,我们便可确定 该系统的温度说,温度是数量是相同的系统时,在热平衡。 如果我们的实验进一步有两个以上的系统,我们发现,许多系统 可以使热平衡彼此;热平衡并不取决于种对象使用。提出更确切地 说, 如果两个系统分别在热平衡的三分之一,那么他们也必须在热平 衡彼此,他们都具有相同的温度,无论什么样的制度中都。 声明楷体字,称为零定律热力学可重如下: 如果三个或更多的系统,热相互联系和共同所有的平衡,那么任何两个单独的平衡彼此。 (引自苏灿奎因的专着,温度) 现在是三个系统可以是一个工具校准测量温度-即温度计。当校...文字超过了10000字,发不了了,不好意思

我从这个网站找的,,有好多,,,下面是我自己选的,,觉得比较好珍惜每一天(Everyday is A Gift) My brother-in-law opened the bottom drawer of my sister's bureau and lifted out a tissue-wrapped package. "This", he said, "is not a slip. This is lingerie." He discarded the tissue and handed me the slip.妹夫打开了妹妹衣柜最底层抽屉,拿出一个用纸包装的包裹。“这个,”他说,“不是件普通内衣,而是一件豪华内衣。”他把薄纸撕开,递给了我那件内衣。It was exquisite, silk, handmade and trimmed with a cobweb of lace. The price tag with an astronomical figure on it was still attached. 它的确精致无比,丝质、全手工缝制,周围还有一圈网状蕾丝花边。价签都尚未拆去,上面的数字高得惊人。"Jan bought this the first time we went to New York, at least 8 or 9 years ago. She never wore it. She was saving it for a special occasion.“这是我们第一次去纽约时简买的,至少已是八、九年前的事了。她从没有穿过它。她想等一个特殊的日子再穿它。”Well, I guess this is the occasion.唉,我想现在便是那特殊的日子了。He took the slip from me and put it on the bed, with the other clothes we were taking to the mortician. His hands lingered on the soft material for a moment, then he slammed the drawer shut and turned to me, "Don't ever save anything for a special occasion. Every day you' re alive is a special occasion."妹夫从我手中拿过内衣放在床上,和其他我们要带给殡仪服务人员的衣服放在一起。他的手在那柔软织物上徘徊了一会儿,随即砰然关上抽屉,转身对我说:“永远不要把任何东西留给什么特殊日子。你活着的每一天就是一个特殊的日子。”I remembered those words through the funeral and the days that followed when I helped him and my niece attend to all the sad chores that follow an unexpected death. I thought about them on the plane returning to California from the midwestern town where my sister's family lives. I thought about all the things that she hadn't seen or heard or done. I thought about the things that she had done without realizing that they were special.这两句话久久在我耳边回响着,伴我度过了葬礼和帮妹夫、侄女处理妹妹意外死亡后的伤心后事的那几天。我从位处中西部的妹妹家返回加州时,在飞机上还是在想这两句话。我想到妹妹未曾有机会看到、听到或去做的事。我想到她淡然做过,但却没有意识到其特殊性的事。I'm still thinking about his words, and they've changed the weeds in the garden. I'm spending more time with my family and friends and less time in committee meetings. Whenever possible, life should be a pattern of experience to savour, not endure. I'm trying to recognize these moment now and cherish them.我至今还在想着妹夫说的话,正是它们改变了我的心境。我花了更多的时间与家人朋友在一起,而少花些时间在那些工作会议上。无论何时,生活应当是一种“品味”而非一种“忍受”。我在学习欣赏每一刻,并珍惜每一刻。I'm not "saving" anything; we use our good china and crystal for every special. Event such as losing a pound, getting the sink unstopped, the first camellia blossom… I wear my good blazer to the market if I feel like it. My theory is if I look prosperous, I can shell out $28. 49 for one small bag of groceries without wincing. I'm not saving my good perfume for special parties; clerks in hardware stores and tellers in banks have noses that function as well as my party going friends.我不再去“珍藏”任何东西;只要有一点好事,我们就不吝啬使用精美的瓷器和水晶制品,比如说当体重减了一磅时,当厨房水槽堵塞通了时,当第一朵山茶花绽放时……如果我想穿,我就穿上我名牌衣服去市场购物。我的理论是:如果我看上去还富足的话,我可以毫不心疼地为一小袋杂货付出美元。我不再为特殊的派对而珍藏我上好的香水;五金店售货员和银行出纳员们的嗅觉,不会比派对上朋友们来得差。"Someday" and "one of these days" are losing their grip on my vocabulary. If it's worth seeing or hearing or doing, I want to see and hear and do it now. I' m not sure what my sister would've done had she know that she wouldn't be here for the tomorrow we all take for granted.“有朝一日”和“终有一天”这样的词正从我的常用词汇中淡出。如果值得去看、去听或去做,我当即就要去看、去听或去做。人们总是理所当然的以为自己必然有明天,不知假如妹妹知道她将没有明日,她会做些什么。I think she would have called family members and a few close friends. She might have called a few former friends to apologize, and mend fences for past squabbles. I like to think she would have gone out for a Chinese dinner, her favorite food. I'm guessing. I'll never know.我想她会给家人和几位密友打电话。她可能还会给几位昔日朋友打电话主动道歉,摒弃前嫌。我想她可能会外出吃顿她喜欢的中餐。我只是猜想而已。我永远也不会知道。It's those little things left undone that would make me angry if I knew that my hours were limited. Angry because I put off seeing good friends whom I was going to get in touch with someday. Angry because I hadn't written certain letters that I intended to write one of these days. Angry and sorry that I didn't tell my husband and daughter often enough how much I truly love them.假如我知道我的时间不多了,那些没来得及做的小事会让我恼火。恼火是因为我一拖再拖没能去看看“有朝一日”会去看的好友们。恼火是因为我还没有写出我“终有一天”要写的信。恼火与内疚是因为我没能更经常地告诉我的丈夫和女儿:我是多么真切地爱他们。I'm trying very hard not to put off, hold back, or save anything that would add laughter and luster to our lives. And every morning when I open my eyes, I tell myself that every day, every minute, every breath truly, is... a gift from God.我正努力不再拖延、保留或珍藏那些能给我们生活带来欢笑和光彩的东西。每天清晨当我睁开双眼,我便告诉自己每一天、每一分钟、每一瞬间都真是……上帝赐予的礼物。

What is a Computer?A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).Modern Computers DefinedModern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are called general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:memory: enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and storage device: allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape device: usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a device: a display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has processing unit (CPU): the heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to Classification, By Size and PowerComputers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:personal computer: a small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving : a powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality : a multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users : a powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users : an extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per Related Questions1. What is computer history?2. What is computer hardware?3. What is computer software?4. What is computer science?5. What is computer interface?1. What is computer history?The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each of the five generations of computers is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each of the five generations of computers is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable computing this Webopedia reference article you'll learn about each of the five generations of computers and the technology developments that have led to the current devices that we use today. Our journey starts in 1940 with vacuum tube circuitry and goes to the present day -- and beyond -- with artificial Webopedia Definitions: computer, magnetic drums, binary, integrated circuit, semiconductor, nanotechnologyFirst Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum TubesThe first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the . Census Bureau in UNIVAC computer at the Census BureauA UNIVAC computer at the Census Source: United States Census BureauSecond Generation (1956-1963) TransistorsTransistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy Generation (1964-1971) Integrated CircuitsThe development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their Generation (1971-Present) MicroprocessorsThe microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial IntelligenceFifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and . What is computer hardware?Hardware refers to objects that you can actually touch, like disks, disk drives, display screens, keyboards, printers, boards, and chips. In contrast, software is untouchable. Software exists as ideas, concepts, and symbols, but it has no provide a useful analogy. The pages and the ink are the hardware, while the words, sentences, paragraphs, and the overall meaning are the software. A computer without software is like a book full of blank pages -- you need software to make the computer useful just as you need words to make a book . What is computer software?Software means computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software, in contrast to storage devices and display devices which are called terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem."The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is of SoftwareSoftware is often divided into two categories. Systems software includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. Applications software includes programs that do real work for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems fall under the category of applications . What is computer science?Computer science is the study of computers, including both hardware and software design. Computer science is composed of many broad disciplines, including artificial intelligence and software engineering. Most universities now offer bachelor, master, and doctorate degrees in computer . What is computer interface?Interface is a boundary across which two independent systems meet and act on or communicate with each other. In computer technology, there are several types of interface - the keyboard, mouse, menus of a computer system. The user interface allows the user to communicate with the operating system. Also see interface - the languages and codes that the applications use to communicate with each other and with the interface - the wires, plugs and sockets that hardware devices use to communicate with each other.

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京安速记(江苏徐州)亚伟速录培训中心的高级讲师告诉笔者好像电脑速记(速录)是速录师使用速录机专用录入键盘,采用多键并击的方法,以达到每分钟高于200—400字的录入速度,将人的说话同步记录在电脑里,做到了“言出字现、音落符出”的神奇效果,比起“现场录音、会后整理”的传统方式,工作效率大大提高,真正实现了“会议结束,录入完毕,当场打印”。各种论坛、研讨会、法院庭审记录、网络直播、影视节目字幕等都离不开电脑速录。可以说电脑速录已经成为了21世纪信息时代必不可少的重要角色了。尽管直至今天,速录还是鲜为人知,但是速录人员所做的工作却就在老百姓的身旁。如各种新闻发布会、听证会、研讨人才需求

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上市公司经济管理中现寸若干问题剖析与管理改革建议[摘 要] 盈余管理是近年来财务理论界的一个热点话题,本文从委托代理关系与盈余管理的形成、契约关系与盈余管理的形成、信息不对称与盈余管理的形成三个角度进行了盈余管理的经济学分析,以期通过探讨对管理当局的盈余管理予以认识和防范,进行必要的约束和监督。[关键词] 上市公司;盈余管理;经济学分析一、盈余管理的基本涵义盈余管理是近些年来伴随着资本市场的发展财务理论界一个热点问题。盈余管理是企业管理当局为了误导其他会计信息使用者对企业经营业绩的理解,在编报财务报告时通过选择会计政策寻求对自己有利的财务结果。雪普(KatherineSchipper,1989)认为,盈余管理实际上就是旨在有目的地干预对外财务报告过程,以获取某些私人利益的“披露管理”。在这一定义中(1)盈余管理限定在对外报告领域,而把管理会计报告以及那些意在影响或改变公认会计原则的活动等排除在外。(2)提出了盈余管理的主要目的是获取某些私人利益。(3)并没有依赖某一特定的盈利概念,而是基于会计数据作为信息的观点进行讨论的。这里的获取私人利益与对外财务报告的中立原则是对立的,盈余管理实际上背离了中立性原则,而中立性是会计信息质量特征之———可靠性的一部分。因此,盈余管理提供的信息是不可靠的,盈余管理并没有定期提供实际的会计信息。传统上,人们认为盈余管理是与经济收益(有时也叫真实收益)有关的一个概念。在经济收益观下,有一些数据(譬如经济收益)被盈余管理故意地歪曲了。经济收益之所以会被歪曲而成为会计的报告收益,除了盈余管理外,另一个影响因素是应计制会计和公认会计原则。应计制会计和公认会计原则也将导致会计数据与真实收益有偏差。当然,经济收益只有在一定的条件下才能有意义地加以定义,一般说来,在现实的报告系统中经济收益是看不见的。即使如此,在经济收益观下,人们还是要把看不见的真实收益作为衡量偏差的基准。在信息观下,盈利仅仅是许多用作决策和判断的信号中的一个。信息观意味着会计数据的重要属性是其“信息含量”这一统计特性。盈余管理的信息观假定公司经理拥有私人信息。在一套既定的委托代理契约下,公司经理不仅可以就会计程序做出选择,而且还可以据此程序做出不同的估计。二、盈余管理的经济学分析(一)委托代理关系与盈余管理的形成。委托———代理是建立在以下两个基本假设之上:(1)委托人对随机的产出没有直接的贡献;(2)代理人的行为不易直接被委托人观察到。委托代理关系实际上是指所有者将其拥有的资产根据预先达成的条件委托给经营者经营,所有权仍归出资者所有,出资人按出资额享有剩余索取权和最终控制权;经营者在委托人授权范围内,按企业法人制度的规则对企业财产行使占有、支配、使用和处置的权力。所有者是委托人,经营者是代理人,双方的责、权、利得到了明确界定,从而形成相互制约、相互激励的机制。按《公司法》规定,中国上市公司都必须是股份公司的形式。股份公司制度的最大特征就是实现了所有权和经营权的最终分离。股东作为企业所有者,拥有企业的剩余索取权和剩余控制权,同时也是企业风险的直接承担者,但却并不直接参与企业的经营决策;管理人员(包括董事会和经理层)则由股东聘任,对企业进行管理,同时获取一定的报酬,在这两者之间实际上就形成了标准的委托代理关系。根据经济学最基本的假设———“人都是理性的”,委托方———股东及代理方———管理层都具有追求自身效用最大化的动机。但是在股份公司制度下,管理层(尤其是经理层)对企业剩余没有或只有少量的索取权,他们的努力工作并不能实现自身效用的最大化,甚至需要承担较大的成本。基于自身利益的考虑,管理层在对企业信息披露尤其是关键的盈余信息披露时,将根据自身效用最大化的原则,提供信息披露的边际收益等于边际成本这一点的信息量,这里的边际收益和边际成本是指个别企业的私人边际收益和边际成本。但公司的会计信息实际上具有“公共产品”的性质,信息披露的边际社会收益会大于私人边际收益(主要是由于真实和相关的会计信息能优化社会经济资源配置,保护投资者利益,具有外部经济性所致),从而使社会边际收益等于边际成本这一点时信息披露量应当大于私人边际收益等于边际成本时的信息量。许多信息从股东利益最大化角度考虑应该披露,然而管理层从自身利益出发,只会选择少量披露甚至不披露,从而导致了股东与管理层目标的偏离。为促使代理人按照委托人的目标行事,委托人会通过各种契约对代理人进行激励和监督,这就不可避免地会产生代理成本,当代理成本超过了一定的限度时,委托人就会弱化监督,甚至放弃监督,从而导致“内部人控制”①。在对上市公司盈余管理的经济分析中,委托———代理问题的研究是一个重要的理论根源,根据“委托经济责任”理论,会计信息的一个重要作用就是衡量经营者的业绩,解除经营者的委托经济责任。在现代股份公司中,股东和管理人员之间构成了一种委托———代理关系,为了激励和督促管理人员更好地服务于企业价值最大化的目标,大部分上市公司都建立起了对管理人员的激励机制。这种激励和考核机制,也都是建立在利润目标的考核上。因此,企业管理人员必然会利用手中的权力以及信息上的优势,运用自身的职业判断,在不违反会计原则的范围内,选择对自身有利的会计政策及会计估计,直接干预盈余信息的生成,从而使盈余信息朝着对自身有利的方向发展。特别是我国现有的上市公司,大部分是由原来的国有企业改制而来,虽然根据《公司法》规定普遍设立了包括董事会、股东大会、监事会及经理层组成的多级治理结构,但实际情况是董事会、监事会形同虚设,流于形式,“内部人控制”严重,企业的主要决策还是管理人员说了算。而作为会计数据直接生成者的会计人员,其个人利益完全受管理人员的控制和影响,在这种情况下,管理人员为了自身利益进行盈余管理就没有障碍了。从股东与管理当局间形成的委托代理关系中,派生出三种可能的层次更低的委托代理关系组:(1)股东与管理当局之间的委托代理关系。(2)小股东与大股东间的委托代理关系。(3)董事会与经营者之间的委托代理关系。下面,分别从这三个角度对盈余管理产生的内在原因做更深入的分析。1.从股东与管理当局间的关系分析。由于委托人与代理人之间的利益不一致,以及信息不对称所带来的代理人道德风险问题,在委托人无法了解代理人努力程度的情况下,最适宜的契约就是使代理人分担其行动的后果,以此来激励代理人努力工作,于是产生了基于会计盈余数据的管理人员报酬计划。委托人与代理人之间利益的不一致,信息的不对称,以及委托———代理契约的不完全性和刚性,加之经济主体的自利性,使代理人有动机为自身利益而采取机会主义行为,对委托人隐瞒实情,损害委托人的利益。而由于委托人很难监管和约束代理人,盈余管理作为机会主义行为便得以产生。2.从大小股东间的关系分析。在上市公司中,除了管理当局与股东之间存在委托———代理关系外,大小股东之间也存在一种委托———代理关系。尤其是中国的公用事业类上市公司几乎全部是由以前的国有企业改制形成的,国有股占据绝对的控股地位,中小股东所占比例很小。中小股东相信股东之间的利益是一致的,将监管管理当局的责任委托给大股东,自己不参与对管理当局的监管,而选择“搭便车”的方式,这在一定程度上导致了大股东与管理当局合谋侵害小股东利益的情况的发生。大股东在上市公司中所占股份比较多,利益与上市公司联系更紧密,自然有动力参与对上市公司的监管。但是从中小股东的角度来看,将参与监管的成本和参与监管所获得的效益相比较,更愿意选择“搭便车”的方式,由大股东对上市公司的行为进行监管,中小股东自己不参加监管。公司治理结构中,“搭便车”是指大股东承担对公司经营者行为的监督费用,而相应的收益由所有的股东来分享。显然,也包括对经营者财务决策以及盈余管理行为的监督。作为理性的经济人,如果小股东因监督而获得的收益不能弥补他付出的监督成本,小股东便不会实施监督活动,而宁愿享受大股东监督所带来的好处。下面我们可以运用一个简单的博弈模型来分析上市公司大小股东间博弈行动的结果,大小股东间博弈的结果是小股东放弃对上市公司的监管,导致大股东与管理当局合谋损害中小股利益的行为。这是一个简单的智猪博弈的过程。

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我才六年级就问我?不行,我不懂!!

论有所为有所不为和战略产业战略产业的定义是什么,哪些产业算是战略产业,是有待深入研究的问题。战略产业问题,是在全球化冲击面前,“民族产业”处于全面守势的情况下提出的。对民族产业不分轻重缓急一概保护当然不可取。科技政策要“有所为有所不为”,经济政策要重视产业政策,国有企业改革要有进有退,抓大放小,关系到战略性全局性的产业部门,要由国家保持控制力,有的要禁止、限制外国企业进入。国家对战略产业有保护扶持的责任,不能任其在国际竞争中被“劣汰”。较早系统提出战略产业问题的是王小强先生。“ 如果我们说某一个产业是战略产业,也就是说,该产业不是从个人、企业、地方或部门的局部利益出发,而是从国家整体利益出发,有条件要上,没有条件创造条件也要上的少数产业(空中客车是典型范例)。这类企业的存亡,不仅关系到利润,而且关系到国家的安危,关系到国家在世界经济政治乃至军事事务中的战略行动能力。国家不能放任本国企业在全球竞争中,自生自灭。”“……我们这样一个超大型发展中国家,如何界定,什么产业应该在什么意义上和什么程度上保持民族工业的形态。有必要认真研究,我国中期发展的内外部约束条件(资源、技术和市场),根据发展的需要,找出若干关联产业,分析不同产业可能采取的发展方式……为综合国力的概念充实更具体的战略内容。”[1]“十五”计划把调整优化产业结构作为重点。有文章概括国有经济需要保持控制地位的行业和领域:“涉及国家安全的行业:造币工业、重要军事工业等。需要国有经济经营,不允许民间资本进入;“自然垄断的行业:电信、铁路、电力、煤气、自来水等。在管理体制上,政府与自然垄断企业的关系是规制与被规制的关系,即企业在获得垄断经营权的同时,必须承担价格、服务等方面的义务;“提供重要公共产品和服务的行业:大型水利设施、环保设施、城市公共交通、金融、保险等。这类行业具有显著的外部性,政府及其国有企业有足够的理由发挥作用;“支柱产业和高新技术产业中的重要骨干企业:大油气田、大矿山、大钢铁、大石化、汽车集团、重要的电子企业等。就总体情况而言,私人资本和乡镇企业有了很大发展。……但是在技术要求高,投资需求量达几亿、几十亿甚至上百亿的重点竞争性行业中,它们还难以成为主导力量,还难以取代国有经济在这些领域中的地位和作用。我国社会主义的性质、经济发展阶段和转轨时期的特征,决定了国有经济在这些领域应保持足够的控制力。”[2]这些行业之所以需要国家保持控制力,是由于他们具有以下特点:一、有国防意义的产业或新兴科技行业,在这些领域,西方国家对我实行技术禁运或限制,不能依靠外国,必须用自己的力量开发;二、支柱产业,即产业关联度强、企业规模巨大、市场利益巨大,不宜让外资(或私人)控制的产业;三、具有外部性和自然垄断性,国家必须进行管制的行业(公共设施、金融)。这也可以认为是广义上的“战略产业”。本书讨论的重点在第一和第二类。尚有存疑的是,一些高度竞争性的产业,如装备工业,同样对综合国力的提高意义重大,但国家政策对此不明朗。我们对“关联度强”的汽车工业实行多年高关税保护,同时又将装备工业早早抛进国际市场,值得注意和反思。总结:战略产业是对提高综合国力有至关重要的利益的、国家必须保持控制和支持的、不以短期利益决定取舍的产业群。也有作者提出大国“超级产业”概念。[3]在这个领域,简单把企业推向国际竞争市场“优胜劣汰”,将无力抵御跨国公司的强力竞争,企业的垮台会导致国家的全局性损失。在这里讲的是“有条件要上,没有条件创造条件也要上”。在全球化的环境下,战略产业发展的激励机制不能单纯依靠金钱,要“以爱国主义、集体主义、团队精神、百折不挠、顽强实干的进取精神和拼搏精神,以及相应的一系列制度安排”实现。[4]跨越“技术本国化”的门槛由于涉及国家安全、涉及“支柱”的产业,很多涉及高科技的问题。这里有必要从科技进步角度,就国家促进产业升级、优化结构的一些问题,作一些说明。技术本国化的障碍和国际压力:上面已经讨论过,发展本国现代工业,走依靠合资为主的道路,不可能获得先进的核心技术和自主开发能力。不是发展战略产业的路子。日韩式道路的核心,就是以“技术本国化”和本国产业的迅速升级为基本目标,“本国化”的基本手段和过程,就是高效率地进行技术引进—消化—扩散。但是,一般来说,后进国家要实现“技术本国化”和产业升级,无一例外地面临资金、技术、管理和市场这几大障碍。不同行业情况各有不同。尤其是高科技产业,资金门坎越来越高,半导体芯片加工设备价格,平均4-5年翻一番,8寸晶片生产线价值10亿美元。一个飞机型号的研制费用20-50亿美元。技术飞速发展,对管理水平的要求越来越苛刻。尤其严重的是,后进国家开放市场,必然对本国上游产业形成强大竞争。“顾客是上帝”,而上帝崇拜洋货,不愿意支持民族产业。开放市场对发展中国家的设备工业、国家科研力量的冲击,往往是致命的。这里的困难在于:如完全放开市场,冲击力过大,则本国的上游产业(如加工设备、民机、轿车)可能被彻底冲垮,永无翻身的可能(如我国的数控机床、感光材料工业,见附录),但完全保护则又在保护落后(如“普桑”1990年代初的情况)。所以,市场的开放度,要有利于战略产业在有限保护下逐渐成长。这对政策的制定和行业、部门间的协调能力提出了很高要求。办合资企业依靠外商,这四个障碍当然都可以比较顺利地解决(对局部来说,这叫作合资使“技术得到提高,市场有了销路”),但前面说过,这种“轻松过关”的代价,就是堵死了“技术本国化”的道路。必须遗憾地承认,20年来,在市场开放的冲击下,我国的“技术本国化”机制,大大退步了(有不少人说20年来科技没有进展,其实科技水平总是在进步,问题是科技进步的机制在“拉美化”)。地方部门分权,助长了崇尚短期的、局部的利益,不顾大局的行为,削弱了技术协作攻关的能力。在一些关键产业部门(航空、电子、汽车……),决策效率、内部协调效率降低、企业引进消化效率降低,技术扩散缓慢。面对国际竞争对手强大技术优势和对后进国家技术进步努力的有意打压,这种技术本土化自身的低效是致命伤:“ 当我们还没有开发出某一项技术的时候,他向我们封锁;一旦我们千辛万苦开发出来,他又会开放他的技术,并将其一部分下游产业转移给我们。这种梯次转移,抑制了发展中国家的自主技术研发和产业升级。所以,在全球化条件下,开放的经济对于……高新技术产业的发展是有抑制作用的。结果是:投资无回报,研究无成果,开发无市场”。[5]我们的微电子设备技术能力,在很大程度上就是这样被搞垮的。如果市场保护不力、再加上技术本国化效率太低,对来自外部的技术竞争的压力将无法招架,“四大门槛”就跨不过去。自己的技术队伍、自己的企业和自己的品牌就培育不起来,于是就一轮接一轮引进技术、引进设备,这被称为“引进陷阱”。“ 引进陷阱”的本质,是后进国家的主观追赶努力、国家的整体竞争力落后于国际经济和技术的发展步伐。20多年来,在汽车、电子、飞机、装备……等行业,对这种“引进的陷阱”我们已经是司空见惯,对提出这样的问题反而会大惊小怪。“引进陷阱”被西方冠以漂亮的名称:“雁行模式”。如果我们安于这样的现状,我们就可能永远被“锁定”在“发展中”状态中而不得自拔。跨越“门槛”的最低限度条件;在某种意义上可以说,后进国家摆脱“雁行模式”的努力,取决于整体经济运行效率(企业、行业、国家效率的综合)的竞争。要做到这一切,决非一个简单的市场机制、或单项措施可以奏效。要求有效动员本国的各项经济技术资源(资金、科技力量、组织、政策…),缩短技术引进—消化—再创新周期。需要国家意志和组织作用,需要完整的发展战略和政策,需要合理的企业规模和产业组织,需要各层次组织的高度经济活力和高水平的管理。这是跨越“门槛”的最低限度条件。国家的意志:国家目标、贯彻目标的意志和能力。政府主导作用:各产业部门的市场前景,技术路线,单个企业往往无法看清,需要国家来决定大的战略方向和产业发展规划。合理的规划:后进国家财力有限,科研实力弱,仅靠民间企业和科研机构层次的决策,门坎过高,无力承受风险。政府的支持不仅在财力方面,也有必要在技术路线的层面参与战略规划。“一些具有战略意义的产业,由于技术密集程度高,投资规模大,建设周期长,风险大,如没有政府的支持,就会长期落后,受制于人。” [6]企业规模和产业重组:行政性的分权所造成的条块分割,企业规模过小、产业集中度低的问题,始终得不到解决。在战略性的产业,如再不及时进行产业整合,在跨国公司大举进入的形势下,对各地方争相和国外合资、置全局利益于不顾的局面,中央就没有了调控手段。“ 过去,我国企业之间的产业联系(如行业分工与产品调拨)通过计划体制实现,工业部门既是政府部门,也是大托拉斯。割断这种技术联系,分散的单位往往不能成为独立生存的企业,自负盈亏”。“这种条件下,散兵游勇式的分散合资,被动地纳入跨国公司的国际分工体系,对中国产业的长期发展会产生什么影响,值得研究”。“ 日本特别是韩国的经验也证明,后进国家以民族工业的发展实现赶超,参与国际竞争,必须组建非常巨大的企业或企业集团(以负担昂贵的研究开发费用),并辅之以动态的政府保护和扶持政策。我们显然不应该把已经细小得难以成为独立企业的企业越分越小。当前的紧迫课题是,尽快重新组合,形成与已有生产能力相匹配的企业,组成面对国际强手有能力自负盈亏的企业,已成当务之急”。 [7]“我们原来各大部委,承担的主要是应用研究前期的工作。按现在的办法,这个研究就要基本解体。要求我们的集团公司来承担起基础、前期研究的工作,目前我们的企业集团没有这个能力。这就会形成一个空白。所以(把产业部门拆散的做法),受害最大的并不是企业,而是科研机构”。“我们是后发展国家,中国的科研体制,稍微没有一点政府的强制性措施或者是鼓励性措施,根本就发展不起来。你完全按平等竞争的话,那么所有清华毕业的,北大毕业的大学生都要去美国。你要把这部分人吸引下来,必须超越经济的利益。”[8]组织行业级攻关,培育技术合作机制:有人强调自主开发困难重重,没有科技实力,没有钱。自主开发投资太大。外国开发一个轿车要20亿美元。我们怎么拿的出来?怎么办?合资。合资拿不来,再想法买。自主开发,提高国际竞争力?你唱什么高调。什么年代了,还讲自力更生?[9]我们现在从计划经济转到市场经济了,似乎企业之间只有竞争的关系。这种看法是不对的。西方在许多领域,企业之间也是既有竞争,又有合作。典型的就是半导体的国际协作组织(见半导体篇)。空中客车,超大型国际合作项目,法德英西四国财政支持20年,形成共享技术和品牌,都是现成的例子。日本曾在半导体领域,在基础性、共性的技术方面,由政府出面组织各企业,集中技术力量,共同攻关,取得了骄人成就,为电子工业一度称雄世界打下了牢固基础。“1970年代末,日本为打破美国在集成电路的一统天下,组织企业,联合攻关上集成电路制造工业(2-3微米级)。通产省出面组织四家公司(富士通,NEC等),每家出30名研究人员,都是20-30岁有才华的年轻人,共120人。然后通产省出一个所长,每公司出一名室主任,4个研究室。分解了30多个课题,包括设备、工艺的各个方面,计划3年拿下来,结果3年不到,这些课题全部解决。成功后,形成共享性基础技术,各企业回去用此开发自己的产品,形成竞争。谁的质量好,成本低,谁可占领市场”。[10]就是说,市场经济不是你死我活,也要讲合作机制。如今经济的科技含量越来越高,对规模经济和超越企业范围的组织效率,要求也越来越迫切。我们很多人,把市场片面理解为“原子式竞争”,把我们原来的全行业、全国协同攻关机制(见航空工业篇)的巨大组织效率,片面斥之为“计划经济的残余”,是走到另一极端,也是属于无知。今天,我们要让合资企业整合起来进行技术自主开发,创民族品牌,已根本没有可能。唯一可能的是,就是以现有的大型国有企业为依托,效法日本经验,组织行业级技术攻关。我国一些国有骨干企业经过20多年技术改造,已经具备了一定的技术开发能力,按照行业机构组织、风险共担、技术共享、利益格局不变的原则,是完全可以把力量集中起来,搞出成果的。对外保护,对内竞争:在把握开放度和产业发展的配合的同时,要提供适宜的体制环境,鼓励创新能力的提高。技术的进步不是低水平的竞争所能获得,而是“硅谷机制”。科研开发和产业竞争的“无缝结合”。人才的国际化竞争,灵活的筹资机制和融资环境。企业经营管理的灵活高效。首先要在精神上挺起腰杆,奋起自强最近,有学者尖锐指出:世界上任何国家都不会容忍外资控制本国经济、摧垮民族产业,都会努力将其纳入本国发展战略并加以控制,这与开放与否无关。当前普遍盛行的不加分析地赞美跨国公司、把引进外资数量当成宏观经济分析的重头指标、把合资作为“国企改制”的“理想途径”的观念,实际上是牺牲中国明天的前途来换取眼前的短期增长,在政策上是近视眼,在思想观念上是把改革开放作为发展目标本身,这已经构成新的教条、成为思想解放的真正障碍。近20年来,我们对西方国家对我们的开放程度,始终估计过高。从崇拜西方、看不起自己力量,发展到对民族产业的虚无主义态度。片面强调市场经济的利益驱动机制,机械“拿来”西方观念中甚至是最消极的部分,不同程度地影响了社会很大一部分人的思想。民族精神的矮化是可怕的。崇洋自卑,苟安短视的风气在滋长,民族自尊自强、自力更生、艰苦奋斗,全局利益高于个人利益的优秀传统正在失落。这种不健康的精神状态,正在渗透到社会各个层面,造成了不可忽视的消极影响。在经济政策上,始终对西方对我开放的程度、对洋人的力量抱有太多不切实际的幻想,这又助长了精英层无所作为的精神状态和行为,降低了政府运作效率、助长了不正之风,削弱了用高尚的精神感召力将国家发展目标贯彻到底的能力。长此下去,我国经济发展就难以避免“拉美化”前途,就会长久处于国际舞台的边缘地位,就无法贯彻捍卫国家主权的意志。几十年的曲折历程告诉我们,发展国家经济,靠洋人是靠不住的。我们当然要尽最大努力争取外援,但国家的建设必须坚持独立自主、自力更生的原则,把立足点放在依靠自己力量的基础上。现在我们要发展自己的战略产业,最缺的是什么?是精神,是志气。就是敢于跟跨国公司竞争的志气和勇气。发展战略产业,首先要做的是大力弘扬正气、振奋民族精神。今天,“两弹一星”的辉煌历史,已经成为激励人民的伟大精神力量。以“两弹一星”为代表的我国独立自主、自力更生的科技、工业发展道路,尤其应该提倡。要知道,原子弹的上马,是在1960年代初空前困难的时期、被赫鲁晓夫讥笑为“中国人三个人穿一条裤子,喝大锅清水汤”的时代。当年对是否上马还是下马有大争论,如果真的下马,那就前功尽弃。统一认识,咬着牙挺住不下马,才有今天的辉煌。今天,我们的航天科技工业界,继承了两弹一星的光荣传统。载人宇宙飞船以常人想象不到的速度,取得了了不起的突破,20世纪末再创辉煌,为21世纪我国航天事业、国防事业带来了美好希望。这个成就的背后,有多少呕心沥血,多少不眠之夜,有多少默默无闻奉献国家的感人故事!王铁人说“国家要有民气,军队要有士气,一个人要有骨气”,这就是民族的骨气,这才是我们民族的脊梁。这充分说明,自力更生、集体主义、自我牺牲、无私协作的两弹一星传统,在普遍崇尚物质利益的今天,照样是克服困难、赢得成功的法宝和宝贵的精神力量。这才是全球化的条件下,有中国特色的科技、工业赶超机制和发展方向。事实上,改革开放以来,我们在科技界取得的许多成就,都是振奋民族自强精神的成果。我国的船舶工业,80年代就打进国际市场,现在占世界上份额,差不多占了20%。我们的程控交换机,原来基本被外国占领。90年代发展很快。巨大中华,接近国际水平,占领新增市场的大部分。我们的汽车工业,这困难那困难,难道造汽车比造载人宇宙飞船还难?最近15年来,我们的民用飞机产业是一部伤心史。了解内情的人都会得出这样的结论:并不是我们没有能力,缺乏高科技的“比较优势”,否则我们的大型民用喷气飞机是怎么上天的?是用洋铁皮敲出来的?15年徘徊的根本原因,是我们行业内的部分人员,放弃了以我为主的发展方针,缺乏自信心和自力更生的勇气,看不起自己的科研成果,一味依靠洋人的结果。国家不止一次作出决定支持上马,就是说自己干不了,非要拉一个外国人当拐棍。没有外国人就没有了主心骨。先拉新加坡合作,新加坡不干。后来又拉南韩,人家总统一换就黄了。最后看准了空客好。人家一转眼又把我们甩了。最后什么也没有干成,白白丧失了20年时间。20年,消磨了自己的锐气,损害了行业的信誉,成了扶不起来的天子。中华人民共和国50周年国庆,我们的加油机编队(轰6)飞过天安门,多少人欢呼雀跃。懂行的人们,却为此而叹息、悲伤!新的世纪,我们会继续开放,能拿到的东西要拿,毫无疑问。但是我们的立足点,无论如何要总结20年的教训,要转向自力更生为主,要以我为主,自己先站起来。然后别人才尊敬你。自己站不起来,别人就永远把你看成矮子。我们的民族没有希望。在民族面临生存危机的转折关头,我们要弘扬正气,弘扬民族自尊自强,敢于斗争,勇攀高峰的气概,要用振兴民族产业、振兴战略产业的大义,加强我们的民族凝聚力。留给我们的准备时间是很有限的,奋起自强才是出路。参考文献[1]王小强:《产业重组,时不我待》,1998年。[2]冯飞:《“十五”产业政策要点:战略性产业的发展》国研网,2000年8月25日。[3] 赵英:《大国世纪》。关于超级产业:超级产业以国防产业为核心;需要巨大投入和巨大的市场空间;市场结构是不完全竞争、寡头垄断,产业组织高度集中,少数大企业居主导地位;上什么产业,非单一的市场经济利润导向,要考虑综合国力和综合利益,进行综合选择,需要政府决策;成为主要国家综合国力和战略能力的主要来源与体现;和进入大国俱乐部的门坎,是国家在世界大博弈中的战略工具。超级产业的国际合作也在迅速发展。“21世纪,全世界只有10个左右的国家有能力发展超级产业。包括美国、日本、俄罗斯、中国、德国、法国、英国、意大利、巴西和印度。”(转引自杨帆《大国间的产业竞争:21世纪中国参与国际竞争的环境与定位》,《产经新闻》[4]王小强,1998。[5] 房宁,2001年。[6]马宾,1996年。[7]王小强,1998年。[8]丁宁宁,1999年。[9]科技部研究中心金履忠认为:关于我国技术开发的资金障碍的问题,普遍的情况是,自主开发所需费用比国外同等项目少得多。蜂窝式移动电话设备,国外开发用8亿美元。我们共花了7000万,不到他的2%。我国巨龙公司开发的04机(最早开发的程控交换机型),开发费用1000万元。国外同类设备开发费用1亿美元,我们是它的2%。长3 甲火箭。国防科工委宣布,开发费用只占国外的几十分之一。具体数字没有讲。羊绒分梳机,我们自己开发的费用,是从意大利进口价格他的1/10(人民日报)。国外汽车界说,开发一个车型要20亿美元。外国人用这个费用来吓唬我们。我们是自己吓唬自己。。我们的开发费用相对较低的原因,第一是我有“后发优势”,即我们可以享受部分的技术扩散;第二是设备有一部分自己可以做。第三是人工费比国外低得多。一般的情况是国外花多少美元,我们就花多少人民币。

仿生学文章5000字

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蜻蜓与仿生学      天空中出现了一个蜻蜓状的东西,而且声音很大,隆隆的。原来这是一架直升飞机。      直升飞机怎么能飞这么低,而且不发生机毁人亡的惨祸呢?原来是人们从蜻蜓身上得到的启示。      蜻蜓是个昆虫名,俗叫“蚂螂”。胸部有翅两对,腹部细长,常在水边捕食蚊子等小飞虫,是益虫。      为了弄清楚蜻蜓为什么飞行时安然无恙,科学家们观察蜻蜓的翅膀,仿照蜻蜓翅膀的结构,把飞机的机翼改造成和蜻蜓翅膀一样的形状。但是飞机在高速飞行时,常会引起剧烈振动,甚至有时会折断机翼而引起飞机失事。蜻蜓是怎么平稳飞行的呢?科学家们经过反复研究,终于揭开了这个秘密。      原来,蜻蜓依靠加重的翅痣在高空中飞行时才会安然无恙。      科学家模仿蜻蜓飞行的方法,给飞机的两翼加上了平衡重锤,如果飞行时出现状况,平衡重锤可以让飞机保持平衡,从危险中解脱出来,重新回到安全状态,这样飞机就可以安全平稳地飞行在空中了,而且不发生任何危险,动物真是我们的好老师呀!      还有很多的动物是我们的老师。比如说,人们根据青蛙发明了电子蛙眼;由鲨鱼发明了潜水艇;由变色龙发明了便衣;由海母发明了暴雨检查器……      动物是我们的朋友,动物对人类的科学发展有很大的贡献,我们一定要保护动物,爱护动物。

青蛙与电子蛙眼仿生学是从动物身上得到启示,以发明创造。比如:萤火虫和冷光、蝙蝠和雷达……清朗的夜空,一只青蛙蹲在河边,一只鳄鱼悄悄逼近。鳄鱼的头一离开水面,青蛙马上跳走了。难道青蛙的视觉特别敏锐,能在漆黑的夜里看清所有的东西么?有个科学家曾经做过这样两个实验:一、把一只青蛙关在一个笼子里,放了几只活苍蝇进去,过了几天,发现青蛙还活着,苍蝇却一只不剩。二、还是把一只青蛙关在一个笼子里,挂了几只死苍蝇,过了几天,发现青蛙竟活活被饿死,苍蝇一只没少。从这两个实验中,科学家们可以发现:青蛙对活动的东西非常敏锐,但却对静止的东西“视而不见”。科学家经过反复研究,终于揭开了青蛙眼睛的秘密:青蛙的眼睛是一种极为特殊的球体,只能看见活动的东西,看不见静止的物品。科学家由此得到了启示,发明了“电子蛙眼”。电子蛙眼”的用处可大哩!把它装在商场的探头里,就能更好地捕捉到小偷犯罪时的样子;机场的工作人员在“电子蛙眼”的帮助下,能够更加准确地指挥飞机的降落:把它装在雷达上,雷达的抗干扰能力就大大提升。怎么样,仿生学有趣么?

仿生学的作文 (一)

森林里有一种美丽的动物,它的名字叫做蝴蝶。蝴蝶总是在鲜花盛开的地方扇动着两只美丽的翅膀在花丛中飞舞,它那两对翅膀像花一样漂亮,飞舞时让人感觉像是花在飞舞。蝴蝶身上五颜六色的外表不仅漂亮,而且还有隐身功能呢!

前苏联昆虫学家万维奇根据人们当时对伪装缺乏认识的情况下,利用蝴蝶的色彩在花丛中不易被发现的道理,在军事设施上覆盖蝴蝶花纹般的伪装,将军事基地装扮成一件大大的迷彩服,赢得了最后的胜利。根据同样的道理,后来人们生产出了迷彩服,大大减少了战斗机的伤亡。这就是蝴蝶的功劳。

人造卫星在太空中由于位置的不断变化可引起温度骤然变化,有时温差可高达二三百度,严重影响许多仪器的正常工作。科学家们受蝴蝶身上的鳞片会随阳光的照射方向自动变换角度而调节体温的启发,将人造卫星的控温系统制成了叶片正反两面福射、散热能力相差很大的百叶窗样式,在每扇窗的转动位置安装有对温度敏感的金属丝,随温度变化窗的开合,从而保持了人造卫星内部温度的恒定,解决了航天事业中的一大难题。

人们还利用动物或植物发明了许多东西,比如蜂窝启发了人们建造了水立方,还有苍耳启发人们发明了尼龙搭扣……让我们一起去大自然中探索奥秘吧!

仿生学的作文 (二)

仿生学,是一门有趣的学科,它又古老又年轻,是人门研究生物体结构与原理,并根据这些原理发明出新型的工具。

蝴蝶,大家基本上都熟悉,()是五彩的,科学家通过研究,为军事防御带来了极大的好处。

第二次世界大战期间,德军把列宁格勒包围的无处可逃了,可是,后来,闪苏联昆虫学家施迈楚维奇根据蝴蝶藏在花丛里靠的是它的颜色的一些道理,在军事科学上覆盖了蝴蝶的颜色,因此,尽管德军费尽心思,列宁格勒还是安然无恙。后来,人们又发明了迷彩服,大大减少了战士在战斗中的伤亡。

苍蝇,是细菌的传播者,谁都讨厌它。可是苍蝇的楫翅(又叫平衡棒)是“天然导航仪”,人们模仿它制成了“振动陀螺仪”。这种仪器目前已经应用在火箭和高速飞机上,实现了自动驾驶。

苍蝇的眼睛是一种“复眼”,由3000多只小眼组成,人们模仿它制成了“蝇眼透镜”。“蝇眼透镜”是用几百或者几千块小透镜整齐排列组合而成的,用它作镜头可以制成“蝇眼照相机”,一次就能照出千百张相同的相片。这种照相机已经用于印刷制版和大量复制电子计算机的微小电路,大大提高了工效和质量。“蝇眼透镜”是一种新型光学元件,它的用途很多。

环保文章素材

在生活、工作和学习中,大家都接触过作文吧,作文是人们以书面形式表情达意的言语活动。为了让您在写作文时更加简单方便,下面是我精心整理的有关环保的作文素材(通用5篇),仅供参考,希望能够帮助到大家。

保护环境,就是保护人类生存的环境,使地球不受到污染。环保意识,从我做起,从点点滴滴做起,从一张小纸屑开始做起。

环保写起来是非常简单的,但做起来却非常困难。在我们的生活中,有多少人是真正做到环保的?现在许许多多的地方都发生了地震,水灾,干旱,沙尘暴,可以说是灾难连连。这些自然灾害其实都是我们人类一手造成的。比如:我们人类每天乱砍伐树木,但却不知道种树,森林一天天减少,所以沙尘暴也不知不觉地来了。

其实我觉得环保不光是大人的事,也是我们小学生应尽的责任和义务。其实,绿化家园,保护生态,不是一件遥不可及的壮举。环保,只需从自己做起!行动,从身边的一点一滴的小事做起!

我不能阻止人们滥砍伐树木,但我能做到节约每一张纸,不用一次性筷子;我不能阻止人们捕稀有动物,采稀有植物,但我能做到不捕稀有动物,不吃稀有植物;我不能阻止人们不用白色垃圾来污染环境,但我能做到不用塑料袋,用环保袋;我不能阻止人们乱扔电磁污染土地,污染水源,但我能做到把家中的电磁放到指定的垃圾桶里;我不能阻止人们浪费水源,但我能做到每次上完厕所都拧紧水龙头……

我不能阻止破坏环境的事情太多,但我能做到保护环境的事也不少。我可以从小事做起,从日常生活做起,从自己力所能及的事做起。我想,如果人人都这样做,那么我们的生活环境就会减少一些污染。

让我们行动起来,保护环境,做好环保。不要让地球的环境再次受到破坏了!

我们的地球是一个美丽无比的星球。但水土流失、沙漠化仍不断困扰着人类。正疯狂地侵吞着人们赖以生存的土地。据有关资料统计,地球上的沙漠、荒地正以每年2700万公倾的速度扩展,我国沙化的土地也正以每年1560平方公里的面积延伸。目前,我国已有128万平方公里的土地沙化,而潜在沙化的土地差不多也有15万平方公里。荒漠化已成为危害全球环境最严重的问题。

我曾看到一个寓意很深的漫画,画面上两辆汽车一前一后行驶着,前面一辆车上的人敲锣打鼓,还用红纸写道:报喜,化工厂增产,产值3万元。后一辆车上的人愁眉苦脸,一张纸上写着:报忧,因化工厂污染,粮食减产30万斤,附近居民身体严重受损,周边几条河流无法使用,法院判其限期整改并处罚金。孰喜孰忧,显而易见。所有这些,都是大自然向我们发出的警告,它在提醒我们不要忘了大自然的严厉惩罚和那些惨痛的教训。这也就提示我们以后一定要保护环境。

环境污染会给我们的身心带来损害。为了保护我们的健康,就需要我们的社会提高和加强对环境保护的认识。地球是我们的母亲啊,我们不该将大量的污水排到它的血管里,将大量的垃圾埋在它的*中。地球不是垃圾场,我们不能在公共场所,随地吐痰,乱丢纸屑、烟头等杂物,不注意环保。让口香糖使它长满了黑斑,乱扔塑料袋,造成“白色污染”,还使它寸草不生、龌龊不堪,到处都是浑浊的世界。这些行为完全与社会主义的精神文明和社会公德相悖。

水能载舟,也能覆舟。解铃还需系铃人。如果人类能及时弥补,能保护树木;节约用水;减少废水废气排放对环境的污染。我们中学生应积极参加公益劳动,让我们共同保护生活的环境,首先使自己的校园变的清洁,然后为城市的清洁出力。朋友们,献一份爱心和努力吧!必须从自我做起,从身边的小事做起,通过自己的行动来保护我们赖以生存的环境。不能再犯破坏生态环境的错误了。

我们是祖国的公民,是21世纪的主人,所以我们对自己的祖国和人类负有责任,社会是我们共同的家园,社会成员的素质直接反映着整个社会的风气,中华民族有着五千年的文明史,作为一个礼仪之邦,讲公德是我们中华民族传统美德,作为每个社会成员,都有责任将这种传统美德发扬光大。要加强社会公德,社会需要公德。我们不能做不拘小节的人,讲公德、守秩序是社会和谐的基础。“美德出良才”良好的文明习惯来自于良好的道德品质的培养,只有从小事事处处“想到别人”,讲文明,守秩序,养成良好的习惯,长大后才可能具有文明礼貌的自觉行动。

“亡羊补牢未为晚矣”。我们要向所有的人们敲响警钟,我们大声疾呼,我们只有一个地球呀!我们一定要保护我们的家园,从现在起,我们应该刻不容缓地行动起来,治理污染,绿化环境,不让污染的悲剧重演。争做“文明小卫士”。

地球是我们的家园,尊重地球就是尊重生命,拯救地球主是拯救未来,保护生态平衡就是保护人类。

科学技术以前所未有的速度和规模迅猛发展,增强了人类改造自然的能力,给人类社会带来空前的繁荣,然而,长期掠夺资源必将受到大自然的惩罚。我们遇到了大气污染、白色污染、水污染空气污染、装修污染、土壤污染、光污染等环境污染和地球生态危机。如大气层臭氧减少,全球气温升高,热带雨林骤减……地球环境质量的急剧下降成为直接威胁人类生存的世界性问题。

地球是我们人类的家园,也是人类的母亲。我们依赖它,探索它。这个蔚蓝色的星球多么美丽,但我们要知道:地球只有一个!社会想要不断向前发展,就需要消耗更多的地球资源。社会的发展虽然给我们带来了许多方便,可是,人们的道德品质也越来越差了。他们为了一己私欲而去无节制的去滥砍滥伐,导致森林资源大面积的迅速减少,造成了严重的环境问题。科技不断的向前发展,人们家里几乎都有了一辆小轿车,轿车的出现给我们的出行带来了很大的方便。随之,问题出现了汽车排放的尾气成了人们关注的焦点。保护环境是每个人的事,要成为每个人的自觉行动,而且要坚持在时时刻刻随时随地。只有每个人都行动起来,环境才会更好,否则,你对环境的破坏越重,他就会以百倍的力量报复你,就像我们经常看到的沙尘暴那样。

环境的好坏是我们能否在地球上继续生存的关键。保持良好的生活环境多我们大有所益。我为周围环境的恶化而感到心痛,例如,清洁工人把这一片地面扫得干干净净,不宜回来了老中小三人。老人“咳,咳,咳”,“嘘”第一口痰吐出去。小的正将手中的冰棒吃完,“嗖”的一扔,废棍落地。那年轻的刚吸完一口烟,随手就把烟头扔在地上。更有甚者,住在高楼之上的少数不到的公民,经常对这楼外乱扔垃圾乱泼污水。再则,人行道上的绿化树木,花草本来可以给人们遮荫,挡雨,给人一种美的享受,可就有些人容不下它们,经常要置它们于死地自己心里才舒服。所以我想:作为未来接班人的青少年,如果不了解环境问题的严重性,无视有关环境保护的法律法规,不去增强环境保护意识,我们的`生命将毁在自己的手中,老天将对我们作出严厉的惩罚。为此我下定决心要从我做起爱护环境,保护我们这个赖以生存的家园,做一个保护环境的卫士。如果我们破坏环境,浪费水资源,生物会灭绝,人类会渴死,地球会变成沙漠。

然而,近几年来,地球的环境却越来越恶劣:全球性气候变暖,飓风、暴雨等灾害性天气频繁出现,“非典”、禽流感等传染性疾病时有发生,给人类的生活和工作带来严重威胁和许多不便。这些都是人们不断地“伤害”地球的结果。大片的森林被砍伐,碧绿的青山被挖掘,美丽的草原成荒漠,清澈的河水成浊流。树林少了,青山秃了,草原荒了,清水黑了,使人们生存的环境变坏,呼吸的空气变差,生活的环境被许多有害的东西所“侵占”,病毒就趁机钻进人们的体内,我们人类就会患上一些可怕的疾病。想要保护环境首先要保护森林。只有让树木存活,他才能更好的为我们提供氧气,而我们才能更好的生存。而一些人为顾个人利益而不顾国家利益,去滥砍滥伐。他们认为,地球上有这么大片的森林看一点不算什么。可是,设想一下,如果全地球上的人只砍一棵树,那么地球上将失去多少树木。如果每人只砍一棵树,两棵,三棵,上百棵,上万棵,那么,地球上的树木将会失去多少。想想都让人害怕。大片森林资源的消失,会给我们带来我们意想不到的伤害。最为明显的是人类呼吸的氧气得不到充分的供给,那么人类的生命将危在旦夕。大片森林的消失,会引起一系列严重的自然灾害。如:泥石流、地震、火山爆发、土地沙漠化等一系列大的灾害。如果树木没有了,那么一些以树木,树叶为食的小动物也随之消失,大片森林消失了,鸟儿也就没有了安身之处,那么鸟类也就从此从世界上消失了。一些以它们为食的动物也因食物不足而灭绝。这些动植物的消失,会让整个地球失去多么美好的一道风景线。我们的地球已经进入了病入膏肓的状态。后知后觉的地球人,直至近几年才大力鼓吹环保运动,但却不见有任何的改善,正所谓“江山易改本性难移”,或许我们需再花上一个世纪,甚至几十个世纪的时间去拯救地球吧。如果就连身为地球人的我们都不爱护地球,那这工作将由谁来做呢?曾几何时,地球是宇宙中最美丽的星球,她拥有茂密的森林、清澈浩瀚的海洋、巍峨的高山、奔腾不息的江河、“飞流直下三千尺”的壮观瀑布,繁衍了一代代的优秀儿女。地球穿着一条蔚蓝色的纱裙,成为众星球的焦点。幽幽蝉鸣,蛙声连连,海欧轻盈地掠过海面,秋风落叶,田野飘香;地球一直是人类的理想家园。为了人类更好的生存,为了把地球建设的更加美丽,富饶我们应该增强环保意识,倡导低碳生活,保护森林资源,建设绿色家园,倡导低碳生活,促进科学节能。

为了我们的健康,为了我们的幸福生活,为了共建我们美好的家园——地球。让我们从身边的点点滴滴的小事做起,倡导低碳生活。保护环境,是我们每个社会公民的义务,我们要自觉的行动,并坚持在随时随地保护我们周围的环境,保护环境,就是在保护人类生存的最宝贵的地方。我希望大家都来保护环境,让大家知道,破坏自然环境,就等于自毁家园。让全世界少年儿童,都能自觉保护环境,保护生态自然环境,使人类生活变得更加美好,更加幸福。

1、全球变暖与城市热岛

全球变暖会引起世界各地区降水与干湿状况的变化,进而导致世界各国经济结构的变化。中纬度地区将会因气候变暖使蒸发强烈而变得干旱,现在农业发达的地区将退化成草原;高纬度地区则会因变暖而增加降水,温带作物将可以在此安家。但就全球来看,气候变暖对世界经济的负面影响是主要的,得到好处的仅是局部某些地区。

城市的气温比近郊要高得多,如同一座暖和的岛屿。我国最大的城市热岛北京,比郊区温度高出度,上海与郊区的最大温差也达度。造成城市热岛效应的原因在于城市人口集中并不断增多,工业发达,居民生活、工业生产和汽车等交通工具天天要消耗大量的煤、石油、天然气等燃料,释放出大量的人为热。还有一个原因是城市中由混凝土、石料、砖瓦堆砌成的建筑群与柏油、水泥、陶瓷、石料等铺设的路面、人行道、广场,代替了原为植被、作物覆盖的自然地面。它们反射率小,热容量高,大量吸收太阳能。

2、物种迅速灭绝

由于人类活动的影响,尤其是人们乱伐森林、滥垦草原,以及环境污染,造成了野生动植物栖息地或生长地的丧失和生活环境的恶化,再加上人们滥捕滥猎野生动物,使世界上许多种野生动植物已经灭绝或濒临灭绝。

国际保护自然联盟1996年发表的濒危物种《红色警报名单》显示,世界现存4500种哺乳动物中,面临绝种的已占24%,而现存约9500种鸟类中,有12%即将灭绝。在已知的大约1万种木本植物中,濒临绝种的约占6%,其中1000种左右危在旦夕。每24小时就有150~200种生物物种永远离别地球,据资料表明,目前地球上物种灭绝的速度比形成的速度快100万倍。中国是野生动植物十分丰富的国家,但是,中国生物的多样性正面临严重的威胁。被子植物中,濒危种有1000种,极危种28种;裸子植物濒危种63种,极危种14种,已有1种灭绝;脊椎动物受威胁的有433种。

3、世界水资源严重不足

随着世界人口的急剧增长,用水量不断增加,加上水污染日益严重,使许多本来可以利用的淡水资源遭到破坏。目前世界上60%的地区面临供水不足,已有20%的人口难以得到清洁水,50%的人口无法得到卫生用水。许多国家用水紧张,近年来美国、日本及东欧许多国家都出现了水资源不足的问题,甚至连淡水资源比较丰富的俄罗斯与加拿大,有些地区也受到缺水的威胁。非洲的一些国家连年干旱,缺水直接威胁着人们的生存。有人预计,水危机将成为21世纪城市里最轻易引起争端的问题。

4、环境问题的全球性

环境问题不仅是某个国家或某个区域的问题,目前已经发展成全球性的问题了。一个地区发生环境问题,影响的范围往往会大大超过该地区。例如,酸雨随着大气的运动,能影响到很远的地区;国际性河流上游被污染,将使河流全流域遭受影响环境污染问题日益严重,废气、废水甚至固体废弃物都可以从一国转移到另一国。有些环境问题甚至影响着全人类的生存与发展。例如,亚马孙河流域热带雨林的破坏,会对全球的气候产生影响;大气中CO2浓度的升高和臭氧层的破坏,更是威胁着全人类。

5、我国的资源状况

从自然资源总量讲,我国许多种自然资源的总量都在世界前列,称得上是地大物博的资源大国。但我国人口众多,各类资源的人均占有量都是很少的。人均资源相对不足,是我国资源方面的基本国情。

我国耕地面积居世界第四位,人均耕地占有量却只相当于世界人均值的1/3;森林面积居世界第六位,人均森林占有量只相当于世界人均值的1/5;我国矿产资源储量总值居世界第三位,人均占有量相当世界人均值的3/5而且随着我国人口持续增多,各种资源的人均占有量还会继续下降。人均资源相对不足,已成为我国经济发展与人民生活水平提高的制约性因素。我国的资源还存在地区分布不均衡的特点。例如我国水资源南方多、北方少,耕地资源却南方少、北方多,很不利于农业的发展。

6、大气污染

科学家发现,至少有100种大气污染物对环境产生危害,其中对人体健康危害较大的有二氧化硫、氮氧化合物、一氧化碳、氟氢烃等。大气污染物严重危害人的气管、肺等呼吸系统。

造成大气污染的途径主要是工业生产与交通工具排放的废气和尘埃,工业生产排放出的尘埃颗粒物还吸附了许多有毒有害的物质。这些污染物在大气中还会发生各种化学反应,生成更多的污染物,形成二次污染。二氧化硫是大气污染物中最普遍的一种,它在大气中通过反应可形成硫酸烟雾,甚至形成酸雨。氮氧化合物、一氧化碳和碳氢化合物也是大气中常见的污染物,它们在阳光下,发生光化学反应,可形成光化学烟雾。

大气污染物在空气中积累,导致空气质量下降,直接危害人类健康,而且使全球气候变暖,臭氧层遭到破坏;污染物随风飘散,甚至影响农业、林业和畜牧业,美国每年因此损失数亿美元,我国的损失也相当严重。

7、熟悉沙尘暴

沙尘暴,又称黑风暴,是发生在沙漠地区的一种自然现象。沙漠地区的大量流沙,是沙尘暴的沙源,春季的大风是沙尘暴的凭借力量。

近百年来,由于人类过度垦荒,过度放牧,乱砍滥伐,使地表植被遭到严重破坏,大片土地成为裸地,随着荒漠化的不断加快,沙尘暴的范围也逐渐扩大了,沙尘暴的程度也逐渐加重了。2000年春季,首都北京连续八次遭到沙尘暴的袭击。据科学家计算,在一块草原上,刮走18厘米厚的表土,大约需要2000多年的时间;如把草原开垦成农田,则只需49年;若是裸地,则只需18年。从沙尘暴的起因与发展来看,人为破坏环境,破坏地表植被是沙尘暴最重要的起因。只有保护好植被,防止土地沙漠化,才能真正减少沙尘暴危害。

我国的沙尘暴灾难可以说是俞演愈烈。据专家统计,从1952年到1993年,我国西北地区发生沙尘暴的次数是:50年代5次,60年代8次,70年代13次,80的代14次;1993年发生了一次剧烈的黑风暴事件。之后,每年四五月份,甘肃河西走廊至少要发生一次,而在2000年,连续就是8次。据权威专家分析,在1020年内,面对人口越来越多,生态环境越来越恶化的现状,假如不采取得力措施,我国沙尘暴的频率、强度和危害程度还有进一步加剧的可能。

8、世界上最严重的一次沙尘暴

1934年5月12日,美国发生了地球上最严重的一次沙尘暴。这次沙尘暴起自美国西部平原。一股强风暴迅速擦过西部广阔的土地,将千顷农田的沃土卷起,并以每小时60100千米的速度,咆哮着由西向东横扫了整个美国国土。连刮3天的这次沙尘暴,将美国西部的表土层平均刮走了513厘米,从而毁掉耕地4500多万亩,造成西部平原的水井、溪流干涸,农作物枯萎,牛羊大批死亡。

在历史上,北美大陆到处森林茂密,水草丰美,野生动植物十分丰富。随着美国的西部大开发,大片森林、草原被毁。美国人几乎砍光了从大西洋畔一直到大平原区的无际的森林,使土地裸露,失去植被保护,种下了祸根。

9、水俣病与痛痛病

1953年,在日本九州熊本县的水俣镇发生了一场希奇的流行病。首先是出现了大批病猫,这些猫疯了一般,步态蹒跚,身体弯曲,纷纷跳海自杀。不久又出现了一批莫名其妙的病人,病人开始时口齿不清,表情呆滞,后来发展为全身麻木,精神失常,最后狂叫而死。多年之后,科学家们才找到这种怪病的起因:汞中毒。原来在水俣镇有一家合醋酸的工厂,在生产过程中用汞做催化剂,然后把大量的含汞废水排进了水俣湾。汞的毒性很大,在水中微生物作用下,转化成毒性更大的甲基汞,在鱼、贝等体内富集,人吃了这些被甲基汞污染的生物才得了可怕的水俣病。甲基汞会聚集在人脑中,损害脑神经系统,因此猫与人都疯了。

痛痛病也发生在日本。在日本富山县,当地居民同饮一条叫作神通川河的水,并用河水浇灌两岸的庄稼。后来日本三井金属矿业公司在该河上游修建了一座炼锌厂。炼锌厂排放的废水中含有大量的镉,整条河都被炼锌厂的含镉污水污染了,河水、稻米、鱼虾中富集大量的镉,然后又通过食物链,使这些镉进入人体富集下来,使当地的人们得了一种希奇的骨痛病(又称痛痛病)。镉进入人体,使人体骨胳中的钙大量流失,使病人骨质疏松、骨胳萎缩、关节疼痛。曾有一个患者,打了一个喷嚏,竟使全身多处发生骨折。另一患者最后全身骨折达73处,身长为此缩短了30厘米,病态十分凄惨。痛痛病在当地流行20多年,造成200多人死亡。

我作为一位小学生一位地球人实践并保持低碳生活当然也是义不容辞的义务。既是低碳就是节约跟环保,我还是可以做到很多的:首先我在昨天收拾书橱的时候,整理出来大量的本子,都是以前用过的但是没有用完,有的用了一半,有的才写了几页,我把用过的撕掉把没用过的重新装订了一下,成为一本厚厚的条记本,我可以用来撰着文底稿,可以记日记,跟新的一样。妈妈的低碳贡献体现在用水方面跟购物袋方面,我们家有一个塑料桶,我经常瞥见妈妈把不消的凉水放在桶里攒着,有时候也放在盆里用来洗拖把跟冲厕所。每次购物妈妈自己携带布袋子,从不在超市买袋子,妈妈真是个低碳生活的先驱者啊!

父亲的低碳贡献体现在用电方面,我们家的灯特别多,有时候我上厕所就忘记关灯,写完功课的时候要灯还是打维基百科中文版开的,父亲就会给我关掉灯。每次妈妈忘记关灯时父亲也会说:“以跋文住关灯啊,你的低碳生活怎么过的!”妈妈就会回敬道:“哼,你整天开着个车耗油那么大,你的低碳生活怎么过的!”嘿,两个人还杠上了。我还给妈妈做了建议:家里不要再买一次性筷子了,因为筷子是需要树木做成的,我们要爱护树木,不要让水土流失,让地球接收更多的二氧化碳!这些小事情只要我们稍一留心就很容易做到,建议同学们行动起来,为我们生存的家园——地球,贡献自己菲薄单薄之力吧!相信我们的家园会恢复本来的仙颜跟健康!

随着祖国建设事业的发展,家开始有脚了,车开始飞了,还有那神奇的返老还童丹,可是人们开始不像话了。你听啪啪啪那些人们时不时的把垃圾扔到小河里。清澈见底的小河一下子变成了垃圾河。有一天,我做了一个梦。我来到了一条清澈见底的小河,那里的鱼虾成群结队的在我身旁游来游去,突然一只小虾游过来对我说:你是新来的吧!我是这里的导游,请跟我来吧。我说好的!说完便跟了上去。导游说:你看,这里的珊瑚,多漂亮呀!还有这儿,你瞧,这鱼多可爱。”我们边说边玩着。突然啪啪啪我们浮到水面上居然看见了那些不像话的人们正在往河里扔垃圾呢。河水被污染了,清澈见底的小河变成了垃圾河。鱼、虾跑的跑,死的死。突然导游对我说:“你怎么还不走,这里不能呆了,否则你也会像它们一样。突然,垃圾聚成了一个大怪物。把我给活吞了!

啊!我惊醒过来,原来是场梦啊!然后我在心里默默的想:我们这里可不能这样,否则我就要准备到月球去了!最后,我大声的说:环保太重要了,我们不可以乱扔垃圾!

【文题】 阅读下面的文字,根据要求作文。 2008年北京奥运会上,我们看到了“绿色奥运”的口号,实际上我们与环境保护的距离又有多远呢?漫漫46亿年,地球才变得鸟语花香、生机勃勃,可是,作为万物生灵之首的人类,对待美丽的地球却愚蠢残酷:过渡垦荒农田、废气废水排放、乱砍乱伐植物……于是我们看到天空不蓝了、农田沙化了、水源变脏了、空气污染了,甚至生态失衡了、大气层破洞了……现在,环境保护问题已经成为全世界关注的重要问题,摆在每一个人面前。 请根据你对以上文字的理解与感悟,自定立意,自选文体,自拟标题,写一篇不少于800字的作文。所写内容应在上边材料涵盖的范围之内。 【写作导引】 材料的内涵非常明显即是环保问题。 1、理性辩证的发表看法。 环境保护与社会发展问题之间存在着矛盾,要处理好这个矛盾需要理智的分析利弊,擅长理智的分析问题的同学可以对目前全球环境问题发表一些属于自己的观点看法。持有哪种观点都是可以的,只要言之有理。但是要明确,环境保护与经济发展应该是并驾齐驱的。没有经济的发展,环境保护就无法实施;而只顾经济发展,不注意环保,对人类来说无疑是一种自杀行为。在写作时要注意辩证的看待。 2、可以采用对比写法 昔日与现在的地球存在极大反差,我们可以采用对比手法,回忆过去,审视当今。昔日我们走进森林,可以看到花草树木、飞禽走兽的欢愉;走进溪流,我可以分享到鱼翔浅底、水流湍急的乐趣;走入大山,可以领略到高山青翠、奇石嶙峋的壮美,而今呢?欢愉在逐渐消逝,乐趣在不断锐减,壮美在不断黯然,用巨大反差来唤醒每个人保护地球、保护环境的意识和责任。 3、从小处落笔 虽然环境保护是个大问题,但是我们写作时候可以小中见大,从小处落笔,一片草地、 一朵鲜花、一只小鸟,甚至是生活中的一双筷子、一个塑料袋等等,都是我们很好的写作对象,都可入题,或伤害破坏或爱护保护,小中见大,从行动中从细微处体现一种意识,一种思想。 4、角色转换 关于“环保”的材料和文章数不胜数。每一位同学对这个问题都会有话可说,要想突破常规,我们可以角色转换把作者的身份设置为地球、天空、树林,甚至是一只小鸟、一只铅笔,以他们的视角、他们的遭遇来展示这个世界的另一面,比我们人类习以为常的角度更鲜明更真实的展现这个世界中环境保护问题中的各个方面。 5、大胆设想 想写好这类文章,我们必须在立足现实的基础上,拓宽思路,在“创新”上狠下功夫、另寻一条新路。我们可以大胆想象,对未来,对过去,地球这个奇妙的环境中发生过什么,可以大胆设想其中的片段,通过描述展示人类在这个环境中的所作所为。可以设想如果我们再不保护地球,那么未来即将有怎样的恶果出现,把未来的片段通过你的文字展现出来,才能更有效的激起人们的环保意识。 环境保护类文章的写法是多种多样的,只要你运用思考的武器,饱蘸创新的笔墨,就一定能写出闪耀动人光彩的文章来。 【环保素材链接】 1、全球变暖与城市“热岛” 全球变暖会引起世界各地区降水与干湿状况的变化,进而导致世界各国经济结构的变化。中纬度地区将会因气候变暖使蒸发强烈而变得干旱,现在农业发达的地区将退化成草原;高纬度地区则会因变暖而增加降水,温带作物将可以在此安家。但就全球来看,气候变暖对世界经济的负面影响是主要的,得到好处的仅是局部某些地区。 城市的气温比近郊要高得多,犹如一座温暖的岛屿。我国最大的城市“热岛”北京,比郊区温度高出度,上海与郊区的最大温差也达度。造成城市“热岛”效应的原因在于城市人口集中并不断增多,工业发达,居民生活、工业生产和汽车等交通工具每天要消耗大量的煤、石油、天然气等燃料,释放出大量的人为热。还有一个原因是城市中由混凝土、石料、砖瓦堆砌成的建筑群与柏油、水泥、陶瓷、石料等铺设的路面、人行道、广场,代替了原为植被、作物覆盖的自然地面。它们反射率小,热容量高,大量吸收太阳能。 2、物种迅速灭绝 由于人类活动的影响,尤其是人们乱伐森林、滥垦草原,以及环境污染,造成了野生 动植物栖息地或生长地的丧失和生活环境的恶化,再加上人们滥捕滥猎野生动物,使世界上许多种野生动植物已经灭绝或濒临灭绝。 国际保护自然联盟1996年发表的濒危物种《红色警报名单》显示,世界现存4500种哺乳动物中,面临绝种的`已占24%,而现存约9500种鸟类中,有12%即将灭绝。在已知的大约1万种木本植物中,濒临绝种的约占6%,其中1000种左右危在旦夕。每24小时就有150~200种生物物种永远告别地球,据资料表明,目前地球上物种灭绝的速度比形成的速度快100万倍。中国是野生动植物十分丰富的国家,但是,中国生物的多样性正面临严重的威胁。被子植物中,濒危种有1000种,极危种28种;裸子植物濒危种63种,极危种14种,已有1种灭绝;脊椎动物受威胁的有433种。 3、世界水资源严重不足 随着世界人口的急剧增长,用水量不断增加,加上水污染日益严重,使许多本来可以 利用的淡水资源遭到破坏。目前世界上60%的地区面临供水不足,已有20%的人口难以得到清洁水,50%的人口无法得到卫生用水。许多国家用水紧张,近年来美国、日本及东欧许多国家都出现了水资源不足的问题,甚至连淡水资源比较丰富的俄罗斯与加拿大,有些地区也受到缺水的威胁。非洲的一些国家连年干旱,缺水直接威胁着人们的生存。有人预计,水危机将成为21世纪城市里“最容易引起争端的问题”。

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