我即使今天晚些时候要出差，还是认真帮你赶出来了（中午1：14）。可别忘了那100分哦!如果特别满意，多多益善，算是一种奖励吧。With the rapid development of the power industry in China, the use of various power generating units of 300MW, 600MW and even 1,000MW capacity has been on the increase and large-capacity once-through boilers have in the process become predominant at the expense of drum boilers. Against this background, if is of real significance to conduct a thermal computation of 300MW once-through boilers in variable working conditions and undertake an analysis of the properties thereof. The fact that EXCEL is employed as a tool for calculating boiler heat is based on its powerful data formatting and formulae input functions. EXCEL’s built-in VBA programming tool enables the former to approximate charts by virtue of formulae, thus rendering some data which require chart look-up more easily assessable and more accurate. In addition, EXCEL’s chart-generation function presents in a more direct fashion the changing trend of data to facilitate date analysis. Thermal computation of the heated surfaces of the boiler with the use of the EXCEL software has helped achieve the semi-automation of boiler thermal computation for verification and adjustment purposes by improving the speed and accuracy of the computation. Using as its computation object the 935 ton/hr once-through boiler manufactured by the Shanghai Boiler Factory in 1971, based on the standard approach in thermal computation of boiler generating units, incorporating the latest studies on the boiler industry in recent years and utilizing the modern office software of EXCEL, this paper is a result of the thermal computation of multiple working conditions of the 300MW once-through boiler and optimization of the computational formulae of certain parameters which culminated in a study and analysis of the data obtained through the computation. It provides useful references for the safe and economical operation of boilers. 关键词：直流锅炉;热力计算；EXCEL软件；变工况；特性分析Key Words: once-through boiler; thermal computation, EXCEL software; variable working conditions; analysis of properties
最好自己在整理一下With the current rapid development of power industry, a variety of 300MW, 600MW of 1000MW units, and even more and more large volumes of once-through boiler steam drum also replaced the furnace has dominated for 300MW once-through boiler for variable the status of the thermal characteristics of the calculation and the importance of a reality. To EXCEL tools to carry out the purpose of calculating the boiler thermal calculation is based on its powerful functions and formulas form data input, and the EXCEL's built-in VBA programming tools and makes it able to fit graphics to use formula, so that some of the needs of search graph data more easily and get more accurate results. It features the image generation can change the trend of the data in a more intuitive type of show, facilitate data analysis. EXCEL software through all of the boiler heating surface to heat a boiler calculated calculated semi-automated calibration, improved computing speed and accuracy of results. In this paper, Shanghai Boiler Works in 1971 produced 935 tons / DC at the time of the object for the purpose of calculating furnace to heat boiler unit standard method of calculation based on the boiler industry in recent years combined with the latest research results and use of modern office software EXCEL, for the 300MW once-through boiler for a number of conditions and the thermodynamic calculation of the formula for calculating the parameters are optimized, the final data for calculating the research and analysis carried out for the safety of boiler operation and provide a reference economy. Key words: once-through boiler; thermodynamic calculation; EXCEL software; variable condition; Analysis
Along with the electric power electronic installation's widespread use, in electrical network's overtone pollution condition is day by day serious. At present widely uses the overtone processing method is reduces the overtone or the filtration overtone as far as possible. The traditional filter equipment not only facility cost high invests in a big way, moreover wasted in vain has been possible to perform the use the overtone energy. The present paper proposed that one kind carries on the electrical machinery dragging using the overtone the method and the equipment, this equipment can the electrical network harmful, and present is filtered by the electric power department the overtone energy uses, uses in actuating the direct current machine. 谐波 The overtone谐波的危害 the overtone harm谐波抑制 harmonic suppression 无源滤波器 The passive filter, 基波消磁电路the fundamental wave degaussing electric circuit 谐波拖动the overtone drives
目前随着我国电力行业的飞速发展，各种300MW，600MW甚至1000MW的机组已经越来越多，大容量的直流锅炉也随之取代了汽包炉占据了主导地位，对300MW直流锅炉进行变工况的热力计算并进行特性分析有着现实的重要意义。Currently along with the our country electric power profession fly a development soon, various 300 MW, 600 MW even the machine set with 1000 MW already more and more, the direct current boiler of big capacity also immediately replace a vapor pack stove to occupy predominance position and carry on to the 300 MW direct current boiler change work condition of thermodynamic energy calculation and carry on characteristic analysis to have reality of importance meaning.以EXCEL为计算工具来进行锅炉热力计算是基于它强大的数据表格功能和公式输入功能，而EXCEL内置的VBA编程工具又使得它可以把图形用公式进行拟合，让有些需要查图的数据更容易被得到以及结果更精确。 Taking EXCEL as calculation tool to carry on boiler thermodynamic energy calculation is according to it of strong function and formula of the data form importation function, but place inside EXCEL of VBA plait distance tool again make it be able to use the formula to the sketch to carry on drawing up to match, let some demand check the data of diagram more easy is get and result more precision.它的图像生成功能又可以把数据的变化趋势以更直观的型式展现出来，方便对数据分析。It of the picture born function can make the variety trend of data keep the pattern of view again with more display come out, convenience logarithms according to analysis.通过EXCEL软件对锅炉各个受热面进行热力计算实现了锅炉热力校核计算的半自动化，提高了运算的速度与结果的准确性。Pass EXCEL software to be subjected to to the boiler hot the noodles carried on a thermodynamic energy calculation realization the boiler thermodynamic energy school pit calculation of half automation, exaltation operation of the accuracy of speed and result.本文以上海锅炉厂1971年制作的935吨/时的直流炉为计算对象，以锅炉机组热力计算标准方法为基础，结合近年来锅炉行业的最新研究成果，并利用现代化的办公软件EXCEL，对300MW直流锅炉进行了多个工况的热力计算并在对一些参数的计算公式进行了优化，最后对计算得到的数据进行了研究与分析，为锅炉运行的安全性与经济性提供参考。 This text above 1971 of factory of sea boiler creation of 935 ton/hour of direct current stove is calculation object, with boiler machine set thermodynamic energy calculation standard method for foundation, combine in recent years boiler profession of latest research result, and make use of modernization of transact software EXCEL, carried on several work condition to the 300 MW direct current boiler of thermodynamic energy calculation combine at to some parameter of calculation the formula carried on excellent turn, end to calculation get of the data carried on research and analysis, for boiler circulate of safety and economy provide reference.关键词：Keyword:直流锅炉;Direct current boiler;热力计算；Thermodynamic energy calculation;EXCEL软件；EXCEL software;变工况；Change work condition;特性分析 Characteristic analysis
用于分布式在线UPS中的并联逆变器的一种无线控制器A Wireless Controller for Parallel Inverters in Distributed Online UPS SystemsJosep M. Guerrero', Luis Garcia de Vicufia", Jose Matas'*, Jaume Miret", and Miguel Castilla". Departament #Enginyeria de Sistemes, Automatica i Informhtica Industrial. Universitat Polithica de CatalunyaC. Comte d'Urgell, -Barcelona. Spain. Email: .. Departament #Enginyeria Electrbnica. Universitat Polit6cnica de CatalunyaAV. Victor BaLguer s/n. 08800I - Vilanova i la Geltrh. SpainAbsiract - In this paper, a novel controller for parallelconnectedonline-UPS inverters without control wireinterconnections is presented. The wireless control technique isbased on the well-known droop method, which consists inintroducing P-oand Q-V schemes into the inverters, in order toshare properly the power drawn to the loads. The droop methodhas been widely used in applications of load sharing betweendifferent parallel-connected inverters. However, this methodhas several drawbacks that limited its application, such as atrade-off between output-voltage regulation and power sharingaccuracy, slow transient response, and frequency and phasedeviation. This last disadvantage makes impracticable themethod in online-UPS systems, since in this case every modulemust be in phase with the utility ac mains. To overcome theselimitations, we propose a novel control scheme, endowing to theparalleled-UPS system a proper transient response, strictlyfrequency and phase synchronization with the ac mains, andexcellent power sharing. Simulation and experimental resultsare reported confirming the validity of the proposed . INTRODUCTIONThe parallel operation of distributed Uninterruptible PowerSupplies (UPS) is presented as a suitable solution to supplycritical and sensitive loads, when high reliability and poweravailability are required. In the last years, many controlschemes for parallel-connected inverters has been raised,which are derived from parallel-schemes of dc-dc converters[I], such as the master-slave control [2], or the democraticcontrol [3]. In contrast, novel control schemes have beenappeared recently, such as the chain-structure control [4], orthe distributed control [ 5 ] . However, all these schemes needcontrol interconnections between modules and, hence, thereliability of the system is reduced since they can be a sourceof noise and failures. Moreover, these communication wireslimited the physical situation ofthe modules [6].In this sense, several control techniques has been proposedwithout control interconnections, such as the droop this method, the control loop achieves good power sharingmaking tight adjustments over the output voltage frequencyand amplitude of the inverter, with the objective tocompensate the active and reactive power unbalances [7].This concept is derived from the power system theory, inwhich the frequency of a generator drops when the powerdrawn to the utility line increases [8].0-7803-7906-3/03/$ 02003 IEEE. 1637However, this control approach has an inherent trade-offbetween voltage regulation and power sharing. In addition,this method exhibits slow dynamic-response, since it requireslow-pass filters to calculate the average value of the activeand reactive power. Hence, the stability and the dynamics ofthe whole system are hardly influenced by the characteristicsof these filters and by the value of the droop coefficients,which are bounded by the maximum allowed deviations ofthe output voltage amplitude and , when active power increases, the droopcharacteristic causes a frequency deviation from the nominalvalue and, consequently, it results in a variable phasedifference between the mains and the inverter output fact can be a problem when the bypass switch mustconnect the utility line directly to the critical bus in stead ofits phase difference. In [9], two possibilities are presented inorder to achieve phase synchronization for parallel lineinteractiveUPS systems. The first one is to locate a particularmodule near the bypass switch, which must to synchronizethe output voltage to the mains while supporting overloadcondition before switch on. The second possibility is to waitfor the instant when phase matching is produced to connectthe , the mentioned two folds cannot be applied to aparallel online-UPS system, since maximum transfer timeought to be less than a % of line period, and all the modulesmust be always synchronized with the mains when it ispresent. Hence, the modules should be prepared to transferdirectly the energy from the mains to the critical bus in caseof overload or failure [lo].In our previous works [11][12], we proposed differentcontrol schemes to overcome several limitations of theconventional droop method. However, these controllers bythemselves are inappropriate to apply to a parallel online-UPS system. In this paper, a novel wireless control scheme isproposed to parallel different online UPS modules with highperformance and restricted requirements. The controllerprovides: 1) proper transient response; 2) power sharingaccuracy; 3) stable frequency operation; and 4) good phasematching between the output-voltage and the utility , this new approach is especially suitable for paralleled-UPS systems with true redundancy, high reliability andpower availability. Simulation and experimental results arereported, confirming the validity of this control . 1. Equivalenl cimuif ofan invener connecled 10 a bust"Fig. 2. P-odraop . REVlEW OF THE CONVENTIONAL DROOP METHODFig. 1 shows the equivalent circuit of an inverter connectedto a common bus through coupled impedance. When thisimpedance is inductive, the active and reactive powers drawnto the load can be expressed asEVcosQ - V2 Q=where Xis the output reactance of an inverter; Q is the phaseangle between the output voltage of the inverter and thevoltage of the common bus; E and V are the amplitude of theoutput voltage of the inverter and the bus voltage, the above equations it can be derived that the activepower P is predominately dependent on the power angle Q,while the reactive power Q mostly depends on the outputvoltageamplitude. Consequently, most of wireless-control ofparalleled-inverters uses the conventional droop method,which introduces the following droops in the amplitude Eand the frequency U of the inverter output voltageu = w -mP (3)E = E ' - n Q , (4)being W* and E' the output voltage frequency and amplitudeat no load, respectively; m and n are the droop coefficientsfor the frequency and amplitude, , a coupled inductance is needed between theinverter output and the critical bus that fixes the outputimpedance, in order to ensure a proper power flow. However,it is bulky and increase:; the size and the cost of the UPSmodules. In addition, tho output voltage is highly distortedwhen supplying nonlinezr loads since the output impedanceis a pure is well known that if droop coefficients are increased,then good power sharing is achieved at the expense ofdegrading the voltage regulation (see Fig. 2).The inherent trade-off of this scheme restricts thementioned coefficients, which can be a serious limitation interms of transient response, power sharing accuracy, andsystem the other hand, lo carry out the droop functions,expressed by (3) and (4), it is necessary to calculate theaverage value over one line-cycle of the output active andreactive instantaneous power. This can be implemented bymeans of low pass filters with a smaller bandwidth than thatof the closed-loop inverter. Consequently, the powercalculation filters and droop coefficients determine, to a largeextent, the dynamics and the stability of the paralleledinvertersystem [ conclusion, the droop method has several intrinsicproblems to be applied a wireless paralleled-system ofonline UPS, which can he summed-up as follows:Static trade-off between the output-voltage regulation(frequency and amplitude) and the power-sharingaccuracy (active an4d reactive).2) Limited transient response. The system dynamicsdepends on the power-calculation filter characteristics,the droop coefficients, and the output of ac mains synchronization. The frequency andphase deviations, due to the frequency droop, makeimpracticable this method to a parallel-connectedonline UPS system, in which every UPS should becontinuously synchronized to the public ac )3)111. PROPOSED CONTROL FOR PARALLEL ONLINE UPSINVERTERSIn this work, we will try to overcome the above limitationsand to synthesize a novel control strategy withoutcommunication wires that could be appropriate to highperformanceparalleled industrial UPS. The objective is toconnect online UPS inverters in parallel without usingcontrol interconnections. This kind of systems, also namedinverter-preferred, should be continuously synchronized tothe utility line. When an overload or an inverter failureoccurs, a static bypass switch may connect the input line tothe load, bypassing the inve:rter [14][15].Fig. 3 shows the general diagram of a distributed onlineUPS system. This system consists of two buses: the utilitybus, which is connected lo the public ac mains; and thesecure bus, connected to the distributed critical loads. Theinterface between these buses is based on a number of onlineUPS modules connected in parallel, which providescontinuously power to the: loads [16]. The UPS modulesinclude a rectifier, a set of batteries, an inverter, and a staticbypass ac mainsutility busI I Ij distributed loads !Fig. 3. Online distributed UPS /I 4(4Fig. 4. Operation modes of an online UPS.(a) Normal operation. (b) Bypass operation. (c) Mains failureThe main operation modes of a distributed online UPS1) Normal operation: The power flows to the load, fromthe utility through the distributed UPS ) Mains failure: When the public ac mains fails, theUPS inverters supply the power to the loads, from thebatteries, without operation: When an overload situation occurs,the bypass switch must connect the critical busdirectly to the ac mains, in order to guarantee thecontinuous supply of the loads, avoiding the damageof the UPS this reason, the output-voltage waveform should besynchronized to the mains, when this last is are listed below (see Fig. 5):3)Nevertheless, as we state before, the conventional droopmethod can not satisfy the need for synchronization with theutility, due to the frequency variation of the inverters, whichprovokes a phase obtain the required performance, we present a transientP-w droop without frequency-deviation in steady-state,proposed previously by OUT in [ 111w=o -mP (5)where is the active power signal without the dccomponent,which is done by. -I t -1sP= p ,( s + t - ' ) ( s + o , )being zthe time constant of the transient droop transient droop function ensures a stable frequencyregulation under steady-state conditions, and 'at the sametime, achieves active power balance by adjusting thefrequency of the modules during a load transient. Besides, toadjust the phase of the modules we propose an additionalsynchronizing loop, yieldingo=w'-m%k,A$, (7)where A$ is the phase difference between the inverter and themains; and k, is the proportional constant of the frequencyadjust. The steady-state frequency reference w* can beobtained by measuring the utility line second term of the previous equality trends to zero insteady state, leading tow = w' - k4($ -@'), (8)being $and $* the phase angles of the output voltage inverterand the utility mains, into account that w = d $ / d t , we can obtain thenext differential equation, which is stable fork, positived$ *dt dt- + km$ = - + k,$' . (9)Thus, when phase difference increases, frequency willdecrease slightly and, hence, all :he UPS modules will besynchronized with the utility, while sharing the power drawnto the . CONTROLLIEMRP LEMENTATIONFig. 5 depicts the block diagram of the proposedcontroller. The average active power P , without the dccomponent, can be obtained by means of multiplying theoutput voltage by the output current, and filtering the product........................................................................................io",.LSj'nchronirorion loop.......................................................................................Fig. 5. Block diagram of the proposed a band-pass filter. In a similar way, the averagereactive power is obtained, hut in this case the output-voltagemust be delayed 90 degrees, and using a low-pass order to adjust the output voltage frequency, equation(7) is implemented, which corresponds to the frequencymains drooped by two transient-terms: the transient activepower signal term; and the phase difference term, whichis added in order to synchronize the output voltage with theac mains, in a phase-locked loop (PLL) fashion. The outputvoltageamplitude is regulated by using the conventionaldroop method (4).Finally, the physical coupled inductance can be avoided byusing a virtual inductor [17]. This concept consists inemulated an inductance behavior, by drooping the outputvoltage proportionally to the time derivative of the outputcurrent. However, when supplying nonlinear loads, the highordercurrent-harmonics can increase too much the outputvoltageTHD. This can be easily solved by using a high-passfilter instead of a pure-derivative term of the output current,which is useful to share linear and nonlinear loads [I 1][12].Furthermore, the proper design of this output inductance canreduce, to a large extent, the unbalance line-impedanceimpact over the power sharing . SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTARELS ULTSThe proposed control scheme, (4) and (7), was simulatedwith the parameters listed in Table 1 and the scheme shownin Fig. 6, for a two paralleled inverters system. Thecoefficients m, n, T, and kv were chosen to ensure stability,proper transient response and good phase matching. Fig. 7shows the waveforms of the frequency, circulating currents,phase difference between the modules and the utility line,and the evolution of the active and reactive powers. Note theexcellent synchronization between the modules and theACmiiinr 4 j. ...L...... ..........................B...u...n...... ................................... iFig. 6. Parallel operation oftwa online UPS modules,mains, and, at the same time, the good power sharingobtained. This characteristik let us to apply the controller tothe online UPS paralleled I-kVA UPS modules were built and tested in order toshow the validity of the proposed approach. Each UPSinverter consisted of a single-phase IGBT full-bridge with aswitching frequency of 20 kHz and an LC output filter, withthe following parameters: 1. = 1 mH, C = 20 WF, Vi" = 400V,v, = 220 V, I50 Hz. The controllers of these inverters werebased on three loops: an inner current-loop, an outer PIcontroller that ensures voltage regulation, and the loadsharingcontroller, based on (4) and (7). The last controllerwas implemented by means of a TMS320LF2407A, fixedpoint40 MHz digital sigrial processor (DSP) from TexasInstruments (see Fig. 8), using the parameters listed in TableI. The DSP-controller also includes a PLL block in order tosynchronize the inverter with the common bus. When thisoccurs, the static bypass switch is tumed on, and the droopbasedcontrol is 7 Wa\cfc)rms for , ;mnectcd in parallel. rpchrontred io Ihc ac mdnl.(a) Frequencics ufhoth UPS (b) Clrculattng currcni among modulcs. (CJ Phmc d!Nercn;: betucen ihc UPS a#>dth e ai mum(d) Ikiril uf the phze diNmncc (e) md (0 Activc and rcactlw pouerr "I ooih UPSNote that the iimc-acs arc deliheratcly JiNercni due in thc disiinct timuion*uni) ofthe \ THE PARALLELESDYS Order I IFilter Cut-off Frequency I 0, I 10 I ragsFig. 8 shows the output-current transient response of theUPS inverters. First, the two UPS are operating in parallelwithout load. Notice that a small reactive current is circlingbetween the modules, due to the measurement , a nonlinear load, with a crest factor of 3, is connectedsuddenly. This result shows the good dynamics and loadsharingof the paralleled system when sharing a . 8. Output current for the two paralleled UPS, during the connection of Bcommon nonlinear load with a crest factor of 3. (Axis-x: 20 mddiv. Axis-y:5 Mdiv.).VI. CONCLUSIONSIn this paper, a novel load-sharing controller for parallelconnectedonline UPS systems, was proposed. The controlleris based on the droop method, which avoids the use ofcontrol interconnections. In a sharp contrast with theconventional droop method, the controller presented is ableto keep the output-voltage frequency and phase strictlysynchronized with the utility ac mains, while maintaininggood load sharing for linear and nonlinear loads. This fact letus to extend the droop method to paralleled online the other hand, the proposed controller emulates aspecial kind of impedance, avoiding the use of a physicalcoupled inductance. results reported here show theeffectiveness of the proposed approach.
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The design of a Tianjin chemical fiber textile factory power supply systemAbstractThis design aims to through to Tianjin, a chemical fiber textile factory for distribution system design allows designers to understand the design process of the power supply system of industrial enterprises and basic skills, in the design process not only to deepen the understanding of power supply and distribution of the technology, training of theoretical knowledge of flexible application ability. Design process including: load calculation, scheme demonstration, short circuit calculation, equipment selection, reactive power compensation and the distribution of the design etc.. The sewage treatment plant for secondary load, two power supply into line, plant a total of two step-down substation (35KV/10KV). 10KV/).Because of the power supply power factor greater than , so the compensation in low voltage side capacitor to meet requirements of. The current through the load calculation andthe calculation of the short-circuit point selection of equipment, so as to meet therequirements. In the design process of the safety and reliability of power supply system are fully considered, and strive to make the economy R & D center building electrical designAbstractThe design for the electrical design of a Suzhou R & D center building. Electrical design follow the civil architectural electrical design code (jgj16-2008), and in accordance with the current national standard and standard. According to the size and functional demand of construction, query specification, the building belongs to the high-rise civil buildings, building category for a class of construction, the fire resistance rating for a level, the lightning protection level for secondary and general lighting with three load power supply, fire power and the important load with a load power supply, the connection of the low voltage distribution system protection system design using lightning protection building electrical design includes two parts: the design of power system and the weak system design. These include high voltage low voltage power distribution design, lighting system design, lightning protection and grounding system design; weak part including fire protection system design and cable TV system design, design of a telephone system, network system design, security system design. Design should be according to the construction scale, the use requirement and design principle, calculated according to the technical specifications, and wire and the equipment selection, so as to meet the economic rationality and energy conservation requirements, ensure the power supply reliability.
为您解答如下：天津某化纤毛纺厂供电系统设计 摘 要 本设计旨在通过对天津某化纤毛纺厂供配电系统的设计使设计者了解掌握工业企业供电系统的设计过程及其基本技能，在设计过程中不但加深了对供配电这门技术的理解，还培养了对理论知识灵活应用能力。设计过程包括：负荷计算、方案论证、短路计算、设备选择、无功补偿及变配电所的设计等。此污水处理厂为二级负荷，有两路电源进线，厂区内共设两个降压变电所（35KV/10KV）.（10KV/）。因供电电源要求功率因数大于，因此通过在低压侧加电容进行补偿使之达到要求。通过负荷计算和对各短路点的电流计算选择设备，使之满足要求。在设计过程中充分考虑了供电系统的可靠性与安全性，并力求使之经济合理。关键词：变电所；变压器；负荷计算；短路计算；照度计算；功率补偿苏州某研发中心大楼电气设计摘 要 本设计为苏州某研发中心大楼的电气设计。电气设计遵循《民用建筑电气设计规范》（JGJ16-2008），并符合国家现行的其他规范和标准。根据建筑的规模大小和功能需求，查询规范知，该建筑属于高层民用建筑，建筑类别为一类建筑，耐火等级为一级，防雷等级为二级，一般照明采用三级负荷供电，消防用电和重要负荷采用一级负荷供电,低压配电系统的接线方式采用TN-C-S。防雷系统设计采用避雷网。该建筑电气设计包括两部分：强电系统设计和弱电系统设计。其中强电部分包括低压配电设计、照明系统设计、防雷与接地系统设计；弱电部分包括消防系统设计、有线电视系统设计、电话系统设计、网络系统设计、安防系统设计。设计中要根据建筑的规模、使用要求及设计原则，计算得出相应的技术指标，并进行导线及设备的选型，使之满足经济合理性及节能要求，保证供电的可靠性。关键词：低压配电；照明；消防；防雷与接地Tianjin a certain chemical fiber woolen mill power supply system design Pick to This design aims to through the design of a certain chemical fiber woolen mill power supply system in tianjin to designers to grasp the design process of industrial enterprise power supply system and its basic skills, in the design process not only deepened the understanding of power supply this technology, and train the ability of the flexible application of theoretical knowledge. The design process include: load calculation, short circuit calculation, equipment selection, project demonstration, reactive power compensation and distribution design, etc. The sewage treatment plant as the secondary load, there are two way power supply into line, the factory have two step-down substation (35 KV / 10 KV). (10 KV / KV). Because of the power supply for power factor more than , so through in low voltage side capacitance compensation to meet the requirements. Through load calculation and selection for the current calculation of short-circuit point equipment, to meet the requirements. In the design process fully consider the security and reliability of power supply system, and strive to make economic sense. Key words: substation; Transformer; Load calculation; Short circuit calculation. Intensity of illumination computation; Power compensation A research and development center building electrical design in suzhou Pick to This design for a research and development center building electrical design in suzhou. Electrical design follow the civil construction electrical design specification (JGJ16-2008), and other specifications and conform to the current national standards. According to the scale of construction and the function demand, query, the building belongs to the high-rise civil buildings, category for a class of buildings, fire resistance rating for level 1, level of lightning protection for the secondary, general lighting use level 3 load power supply, fire power and important load using level load power supply, the connection mode of low-voltage distribution system adopts TN - C - S. With lightning protection network in lightning protection system design. The building electrical design includes two parts: the high voltage system design and the weak current system design. High-voltage electrical parts including low-voltage distribution design, lighting system design, lightning protection and grounding system design; Elv part includes the fire protection system design, cable television system design, telephone system, network system design, security system design. Design according to the size of the building, use requirement and design principles, calculation of the technical indicators, and wire and equipment type selection, make it meet the requirements of economic rationality and energy conservation, to ensure the reliability of power supply. Key words: low-voltage distribution; Lighting; The fire; Lightning protection and grounding . -----------------------------------如有疑问欢迎追问！满意请点击右上方【选为满意回答】按钮
The high performance of management has already become the content that enterprises are pursuing constantly, but while adopting to improve the tool which manage efficiency in all, encourage already becoming a more and more important link, is being paid close attention to by the enterprise day by day. Encouragement is a manpower resources development important means, it is shown as and given and satisfied or limited people's demand desire appropriately, and the essence is people's intensity of willinging at the time of pursuing a certain set objective. In know, encourage, have mistaken idea with thinking method much administrative staff, even produced very great negative effect on the company. Then discuss here how the administrative staff goes to know the characteristic that the staff encourage and thinking method, thus bring the high performance to enterprises.
With the further development of knowledge economy, companies hungry for talent has become increasingly strong, personnel training has become the core competitiveness of enterprises to create the primary means of training to become an indispensable work of enterprises. The competition among enterprises is increasingly reflected in staff quality and learning ability of competition, creating high-quality staff to become enterprises to participate in the Competition. Plays an important role in the national economy, large number of SMEs, due to the weak competitive position and the competitiveness of their limited resources, is often difficult to attract high-quality development and the urgent need to adapt their talents to support the development of enterprise itself. Therefore, the business-to-staff training and development is particularly main characteristics of SMEs in China large, wide, starting point is not high, are more concentrated in labor-intensive industries. Facing the new century, global economic integration and domestic economic restructuring, two major challenges, one of its core issues of development, human resources personnel, third, or talent. Shortage of talent, especially high-quality management personnel and the lack of high-level technical personnel have been seriously hampered the healthy development of SMEs. Therefore, SMEs should be a general increase in the quality of workers, and build a vast, high-quality personnel, training, recruiting and talent as a good reference for SME development is an important strategic this paper, to solve the problem of human resources development of SMEs, the following suggestions: First, the systematic investigation to determine the target; second, system training, improve the overall quality; third, to strengthen management capacity of SMEs and their managers construction within the system; Fourth, government departments, intensify support; Fifth, actively expand the content of the training system.
Human Resources ManagementThe Human Resources Management (HRM) function includes a variety of activities, and key among them is deciding what staffing needs you have and whether to use independent contractors or hire employees to fill these needs, recruiting and training the best employees, ensuring they are high performers, dealing with performance issues, and ensuring your personnel and management practices conform to various regulations. Activities also include managing your approach to employee benefits and compensation, employee records and personnel policies. Usually small businesses (for-profit or nonprofit) have to carry out these activities themselves because they can't yet afford part- or full-time help. However, they should always ensure that employees have -- and are aware of -- personnel policies which conform to current regulations. These policies are often in the form of employee manuals, which all employees that some people distinguish a difference between between HRM (a major management activity) and HRD (Human Resource Development, a profession). Those people might include HRM in HRD, explaining that HRD includes the broader range of activities to develop personnel inside of organizations, including, eg, career development, training, organization development, is a long-standing argument about where HR-related functions should be organized into large organizations, eg, "should HR be in the Organization Development department or the other way around?"The HRM function and HRD profession have undergone tremendous change over the past 20-30 years. Many years ago, large organizations looked to the "Personnel Department," mostly to manage the paperwork around hiring and paying people. More recently, organizations consider the "HR Department" as playing a major role in staffing, training and helping to manage people so that people and the organization are performing at maximum capability in a highly fulfilling manner人力资源管理人力资源管理(HRM)的功能包括各种各样的活动,其中之一是决定哪些关键人员需求你有和是否使用独立承包人或雇用员工来填补这些需要,招聘并培训,确保他们是最好的员工高表演者,处理性能问题,并确保您的人员和管理措施符合各项规章制度。活动还包括管理你的员工福利和补偿方法、员工记录和人事政策。通常比较小的企业(盈利还是非盈利)不得不执行这些活动本身,因为他们还无法负担得起的作用,全职或帮助。然而,他们应该总是确保员工——并且意识到——人事政策符合现行的法规。这些政策的形式往往是在员工手册,所有的雇员都有。注意,有些人之间区别差异的一个主要经营活动人力资源管理()和人力资源开发(人力资源开发、专业)。这些人也许包括人力资源管理在人力资源开发、解释人力资源发展包括更大范围的活动来培养人才里面的组织,包括,例如,职业发展,培训,组织开发等。有一个长期哪里的争论相关人力资源的作用应被组织成大型组织,例如,“应当人力资源在组织发展部门或周围其它方式?”工厂的人力资源功能和人力资源开发行业发生了巨大的变化,在过去的20 - 30年。许多年以前,大型组织了“人事部门”,主要是处理作业在雇佣和支付的人。最近,人力资源部组织认为的"扮演一个重要的角色”在人员招聘,培训,帮助管理人员,这样人们和组织的最大能力表现在一个高度实现的方式
The high performance management has become a constant pursuit of enterprise content, and in all be used to enhance management effectiveness of the tools, incentives have become an increasingly important part of enterprises are increasingly subject to a high degree of attention. Encourage the development of human resources is an important means for its performance on human desire to be appropriate to meet demand or constrained, and real people in the pursuit of a goal established at the extent to. However, many managers in understanding and stimulate thinking on the errors, and the company have a great negative impact. So here of management staff how to recognize and encourage the characteristics of thinking, brings to the business of high performance.
论文翻译方向写电影名翻译或者是台词翻译之类的都挺多的，但也有利有弊，你可以借鉴下看别人从哪些方面分析的，然后自己选几个最近新出的电影，再立角度写论文。这样就不会没新意了。那些已经被写烂了的电影就不要写啦，选最新最近的影片应该就好很多的。
电影翻译中文化意象的重构、修润与转换电影翻译中文化意象重构能及时有效地吸引广大观众。而对文化意象作恰如其分的修润,能使译文在有限的时间内传达于观众。东西方文化的差异导致了某些文化意象的不等值,采用直译手法处之,会使观众难以认同。关键词:电影翻译;文化意象;寓意;重构;修润;转换中国的电影翻译事业已走过了五十多年辉煌的历程。在这半个世纪中,电影翻译工作者给广大观众奉献出了许多优秀的译制片,观众从这些优秀的译制片中不仅领略、了解到了异国的风土人情,同时也感受到了语言给人带来的无穷魅力。许多优秀译制片中的精彩对白已成为中国观众争相传诵的佳句。如“面包会有的,一切都会有的”。(前苏联影片《列宁在一九一八》)曾鼓舞了几代身处逆境中的中国观众。由此可见,电影作为大众传媒,其社会效应是无可估量的。然而,在学术领域内,由于受世俗偏见的影响,电影翻译研究却颇受冷落,翻译研究人员似乎“完全把这一领域给忽略了。”[1](P99)为此,我国著名影视翻译界学者钱绍昌教授撰文指出:“翻译界对影视翻译的重视远不如文学翻译。”而这“与影视翻译的社会作用不相称。这一现象亟应引起翻译界的注意。”[2](P61)鉴于此,本文拟从语言的角度来探讨电影翻译中文化意象的重构、修润与转换。一、语言与文化意象语言(Language)不仅是人类思想感情表达与交流的工具,而且是文化的组成部分,是文化的载体。语言能真切地反映一个国家、一个民族的生态地域、政治经济、物质文化、宗教信仰、风俗习惯等。不同的语言决定了不同民族的不同思维方式,行为方式以及语言表达方式。语言在有声电影中是必不可少的组成部分,因为声画同步的视听艺术手段能最大程度地模拟现实,创造出酷似“真实”的艺术时空。如中国观众非常熟悉的《简爱》、《王子复仇记》、《叶塞尼亚》等优秀译制片中那玲珑别致、清晰明亮、颇具异国风情的语言,逼真、自然、随意,充满了生活气息。因而这些精彩的对白、片段令人百听不厌,久久不能忘怀,它们留给观众余韵不尽的美的享受。文化意象(Culture image)是“一种文化符号,它具有了相对固定的独特的文化含义,有的还带有丰富的意义,深远的联想,人们只要一提到它们,彼此间立刻心领神会,很容易达到思想沟通。”[3](P184)物象(Physical image)与寓意(Connotation)是意象(Image)的两个重要的组成部分。物象是信息意义的载体,是形成意象的客观事实;寓意是物象在一定语言文化环境中的引伸意义。意象的功能即能在不同的语境中,“以具体来表现抽象,以已知或易知来启迪未知或难知。”[4](P137)如宋代大诗人苏轼在其著名的“前赤壁赋”中用蜉蝣这种朝生暮死的小昆虫来比喻人生的短暂,人很渺小:“寄蜉蝣于天地,渺沧海之一粟。”[5](P509)英语谚语It is the last straw that breaks the camel’s back.[6](P1578)意为“骆驼负载过重时,再加上一根稻草也会把它压死。”谚语中意象词语the last straw “最后一根稻草”,生动形象地寓意为“某事或某物使人到了忍无可忍的极点。”二、重构文化意象译制片又称翻译片,顾名思义,一些国外优秀的影片必须通过翻译方能为中国观众所接受。电影翻译与其它文学作品翻译具有共同性,即用形象化的语言来表达形象思维中高超的艺术意境。但电影翻译又有区别于其它翻译的特殊性,即其译文要做到能见之于文,形之于声,达之于观众。著名翻译家Nida指出:“语言是文化的一部分,任何文本的意义都直接或是间接地反映一个相应的文化,词语意义最终也只能在其相应的文化中找到。”“文化的不同几乎很自然地体现在语言上的不相同。”[7](P28)汉语、英语分属两大不同的语系。汉语是象形文字而英语是一种字母文字。要在这两种截然不同的语际间进行成功切换,这对电影翻译工作者来说不是件易事。但研究表明老一代电影翻译工作者不仅给观众留下了许多耐人寻味的优秀译制片,同时也给电影翻译研究留下了不少值得研究的课题。笔者80年代初第一次在电视上看到英国电影Red Shoes播放时被译成“红舞鞋”,觉得也无可厚非。此片主要讲述了英国一名芭蕾舞女演员面对爱情与事业而不能作出正确抉择,最终走向断崖的凄惋的故事。尽管“红舞鞋”正确无误地译出了英文的原意,也紧扣剧情,但直译的平铺直叙,没有更深的寓意。观众如果光看片名,确实难以激起任何联想的波澜。80年代后期,在一次外国优秀影片巡回展的大幅广告上Red Shoes这部英国影片片名被译成了“红菱艳”,细细品味“红菱艳”这一译文,译者把那双纤巧的红舞鞋比作了中国观众妇孺皆知的红菱。它寓意红菱虽生长于浊水污泥,却娇艳迷人,特别是那两只弯弯的红菱角,犹如中国古代女子的三寸金莲,三寸金莲虽然小巧,但凝聚了多少女子的血泪,有的甚至为之付出了生命的代价。因此“红菱艳”这一片名隐含穿着如红菱般舞鞋的舞女艳丽却薄命。译者把这一极具中国文化特色的文化意象“红菱”注入其翻译中,从而成功地重构了一幅为广大中国观众所熟悉、能会意、肯接受的崭新的文化意象。文化意象重构(Reconstruction of Culture Image)这一巧夺天工的翻译手法在电影翻译中随处可见。如美国电影Waterloo Bridge这一片名原意为“滑铁卢桥”。众所周知,1817年英国在泰晤士河上出资建造了滑铁卢桥,以此来纪念威灵顿公爵指挥英国军队打败拿破仑而取得的滑铁卢战役的胜利。如果依据英文直译成“滑铁卢桥”,乍一看,观众定会认为这是部与拿破仑打仗有关的战争片或介绍与该桥建筑有关的纪录片。但看过此片的观众都知道这是一部感人至深的爱情片。影片描绘了第一次世界大战期间,年轻漂亮的女演员玛拉在滑铁卢桥上结识了青年军官罗依,并成了恋人。而后,玛拉获悉罗依战死疆场,痛不欲生,为了生存沦落为妓。当罗依奇迹般地出现时,她无法面对现实,为了爱情和名誉,她再次来到与罗依初恋的地方,丧生在车轮滚滚的滑铁卢大桥上。在中国几千年的文化史中,有着许多与之相仿的神话传说。如牛郎织女的“鹊桥相会”,陕西省蓝田县一年一度的“蓝桥相会”等。而“蓝桥相会”的传说与Waterloo Bridge故事情节有着许多异曲同工之处。所以译者把原名“滑铁卢桥”译成了“魂断蓝桥”,这样做不仅避开了中国观众由于地城文化差异、历史背景知识缺乏而引起的迷域;而且“蓝桥”这一隐含中国文化的意象能使观众一看到片名即刻领悟到这是部关于爱情的电影。电影翻译中文化意象重构的意义在于它能及时有效地达到使译文与观众勾通,使观众心领神会的效果,由此来吸引广大的影迷,创造译制片票房纪录的新高。仔细认真研究电影翻译中文化意象重构这样的翻译手法会不时令人拍案称奇。三、文化意象的修润由于中外观众知识面及文化背景等方面存在着巨大的差异,电影翻译工作者应尽可能地帮助观众去理解那些与一个民族的历史、地域文化、宗教习俗等有着密切相关的语言现象。电影翻译中如果对某些特定文化意象不作任何修润(Modification of Cultural Image)处理,就事论事直译,会造成这一文化意象的缺损,文化涵义支离破碎。英国电影《魂断蓝桥》[8]一开始,有这样一段画外音: Announceer’s Voice: At 11:15 this morning, the Prime Ministeer, speaking to the nation from Numbeer Ten Downing Street,announced that Great Britain is at war with Germany.广播员的声音:今天上午11点15分,首相在唐宁街10号向全国发表了讲话,宣布英国与德国处于交战状态。 应该指出此例忠实地译出了原文的字面层意义。但对“唐宁街10号”这一隐含文化意象地名不作些补充说明的话,相信绝大多数中国普通观众会茫然不知其所云。其一、观众不知道这个“唐宁街10号”在什么地方?其二、他们更不知道广播员在这里特地提及这个地名有何特别的寓意?为了使电影译文能在有限的时间内达之于广大观众。译者宜对上述译文作恰如其分的增补修润,如:今天上午11点15分,首相在唐宁街10号———英国首相府邸向全国发表了讲话,宣布英国与德国处于交战状态。通过增补“英国首相府邸”,观众这才真正认识到了“唐宁街10号”的“庐山真面目”。至此,“唐宁街10号”所隐含的意象立体地展现在观众的面前,观众才真正懂得具有典型地起域文化地名“唐宁街10号”的全部文化内涵。又如:Peter: Oh, this? Well, I like privacy when I retire. Yes, I’m very delicate in that respect. Prying eyeeees annoy me. Behold the walls of Jerichho! Err, maybe not aaas thick aas the ones that Joshua blew down with his trumpet. I just show you my heart’s in the right place, I’ll give you my best pair of pajamas. Do you mind joining the Israelites?彼得:这个吗?我休息的时候不想被别人干扰,在那方面我很敏感,不想被别人偷看。你看这耶利哥城墙,比不上约书亚用号角吹倒的墙厚,却比它安全多了。你看,我没有号角,为了表示我的公正无私,我把我那套最好的睡衣交给你用吧。你不想做以色列人吗?此例选自英国电影《一夜风流》[9]。这段对白译文非常具有代表性,因为在这段译文中出现了“耶利哥城墙,约书亚,以色列人”这三个与《圣经》历史故事有关的词语。众所周知,东方盛行佛教,尤其是在中国,中国观众对佛教还可略知一二,而对西方文化,特别是西方宗教历史文化就知之甚少了。因而在影片切换的瞬间让中国观众把上述三者的关系联系起来是件难事,他们会搞不懂这“耶利哥城墙”、“约书亚”、“以色列人”之间究竟是什么关系。直译用于上述译文中不仅令中国观众丈二和尚摸不着头脑,同时也失去了电影翻译的真正意义。为使中国观众明白这三个词语间的关系,使原文中所涉及的那些特殊文化意象丰满起来,译者应在电影翻译过程中对这段文字作如下润色:彼得:这个吗?我休息的时候不想被别人干扰,在那方面我很敏感,不想被别人偷看。你看这像《圣经》中的耶利哥城墙,虽比不上《圣经》里以色列人的军长约书亚用号角吹倒的墙厚,却比它安全多了。你看,我没有号角,为了表示我的公正无私,我把我那套最好的睡衣交给你用吧。你不想做以色列人吗?由于对“耶利哥城墙”、“约书亚”、“以色列人”这些出自《圣经》故事的词语增补了必要的文化涵义修润词后,观众不仅了解了这些“典故”的出处,同时在上下语境中也弄明白了最后一个词语“以色列人”的特定意指。修润增强了语言文字在语境中的透明度;增强了文化意象在观众认识理解中的清晰度。四、文化意象的转换语言学家认为世界上各族人看到的同一客观现象,不同的民族语言会给它“刷上不同的颜色”。缘于此,文化意象的错位(Nonequivalence of Culture Image)会具体表现为作为喻体的文化意象上的差异。换言之,在一种文化传统中一个具有正面寓意的美好文化意象在另一种文化里却成了反面寓意的丑陋文化意象。如英国电影《呼啸山庄》[10]中有这样一个片断:Isabella: It’s a brother’s duty,dear Edgaar, to introduce his sisteer to some other type than fops and pale young : Oh, you want a dragon?Isabella: Yes, I do. With a fiery mustache.依莎贝拉:这是一个哥哥的义务,亲爱的埃得加,你总不能把自己的妹妹介绍给那些花花公子或弱不禁风的年轻诗人吧。埃得加:哦,你该不是想嫁一个龙骑兵吧?依莎贝拉:是的,还长着火红的大胡子。在上述翻译中“dragon”是一个关键词。在英语语言中,“dragon”作“魔鬼”解释。每当提及此词,西方人的思想意识中立刻会呈现出一只面目狰狞的魔鬼正张牙舞爪地扑向人间,由此不难看出“dragon”在西方语言文化中隐含贬义。而在中国文化中“龙”字象征着“高贵,至高无上”等意,昔日中国人称皇帝为“真龙天子”。因此与“龙”字相关的词语绝大多数具有崇敬之意。如中国人称自己为“龙的传人”;祈盼着自己的子女将来有出息为“望子成龙”等。“dragon”在东西方语言中,其文化意象的寓意是绝然相反的。简言之,它们的物象虽同,但寓意却完全相异。由此可见用“龙骑兵”来硬译“dragon”一词显然不妥当。因为当中国观众在观赏影片时忽尔听到“龙骑兵”这一词语,他们肯定即刻会联想到“他”可能是个“皇家骑兵”。但依莎贝拉的回答却又使观众对影片的阐释如坠云雾。观众不禁要问:这个堂堂正正的“皇家骑兵”怎么会是“长着火红的大胡子”呢?在中国传统历史文化中,只有那些三头六臂的怪物才有一张可怕的绿眉毛、红胡子嘴脸。如此生搬硬套不仅不能处理好东西方语言文化中意象错位这一棘手问题,同时也不能传神地译出这段对白的真实含义,反而给上下文语义的贯通设置了语言障碍。因此,例中埃得加与依莎贝拉的最后一段对话不妨翻译如下: Edgar: Oh, you want a dragon?哦,你该不是想嫁给一个野蛮人吧?Isabella: Yes, I do. With a fiery mustache.是的,还长着火红的大胡子。由于东西方文化的差异,电影翻译中许多英语词语若直接硬译,会令广大中国观众无法接受与认同。此外,电影翻译文本受电影画面切换时间的限制,不能像翻译文学作品那样,可以在一些晦涩难懂之处作些注释,所以对白译文一定要让观众一听、一看即能明了。译者应立足于本国观众,从观众领略欣赏译制片的艺术角度出发,选用本民族语言中与原片艺术最相似、最贴近的、为本国观众所熟悉的、易于接受的词语和文化意象来进行电影翻译。
这个题目挺好的~~挺有研究价值的。应该多举些例子，比如说一些经典电影的字幕什么的。老友记也是比较经典的，祝你成功哦~~
电影字幕翻译漫谈 随着宽带在中国的普及，mpeg4技术的广泛应用，很多由DVD压缩的DVDRIP影片以惊人的速度在互联网间传播。事实上，在中国，大部分人都不具备直接欣赏外语影片的能力，而很多DVDRIP影片却恰恰是原声发音、外语字幕。电影字幕的翻译作为DVDRIP影片的一个关键部分，正逐渐得到人们的关注。这其中包括正版或盗版DVD碟片上rip下来的vobsub字幕，以及由网友自发翻译的srt格式字幕。 中文字幕翻译的特点 中文字幕和中文配音在翻译要求上是不一样的。比如我们所熟知的上译厂，配音要求讲究口型一致，句子符合中国的口语规范，其优势是方便观众看电影，直接就能听懂，而不用费力看字幕。其缺点也显而易见：由于口型上的要求，不得不对句子进行缩减或扩充；由于外国历史文化的差异，很多双关、幽默的意思难以表达，不得不舍弃这些句子的翻译。 以《魔羯星一号》中英双语版为例，可以明显看出中文配音和中文字幕的差异。其中有一段剧情是母亲给孩子说英语绕口令，如果配音直接翻译的话，很难做到押韵，于是改为讲故事。另一段剧情是一个宇航员边爬山边讲笑话，这个笑话是有寓意的，直接翻译成配音的话，很多观众会感觉莫名其妙，于是配音版改为宇航员边爬山边呼救。该片配音版中很多幽默的成分都改掉了，这样就损失了很多欣赏电影的乐趣。 电影字幕就较好处理这些问题。首先，没有口型限制，字幕可以按原文直接翻译，而幽默和一语双关的意思可以使用注释来解决。当然，最好的方法还是学好外语，直接观看外语字幕的影片。而在个人条件不允许的情况下，字幕翻译还是最大限度表达英文意思的最佳方法。 没有硝烟的战场 经常看DVDRIP影片的网友都知道，公开的中文字幕库有几大网站。射手网稳坐字幕网站的头把交椅，其特点是：允许自由上传，字幕多而杂。正因为字幕多，同一影片有好几个版本的字幕，造成网友下载时无所适从，网站设有的评分系统基本上形同虚设，因为大部分网友为下载字幕而来，而等到看完影片，早就把给字幕打分的事忘到九霄云外了。射手网设有TLF、汉风、新视界、牛过四大字幕网站的友情搜索链接，射手网上没有的字幕，可以在这些字幕网站上继续搜索。这四大字幕网站均是以论坛为依托的，各自有较强翻译能力字幕小组。除以上提到的四个论坛，更有伊甸园、行星等影视论坛的字幕组，虽没有独立的字幕网站，但也具备很强的字幕翻译能力，实力不容小视。 同行是冤家，这话一点不假，在字幕界尤为显著。字幕界有一条不成文的规定，就是：每个字幕组成员不允许加入其他字幕组，或者以其他字幕组的名义发布自己的翻译作品。曾有个别成员以身试法，均被开除组籍。每个字幕组在各自论坛都有专门的活动版块，这些版块是仅有小组成员才能进入的，这已经是半公开的秘密。每逢热门大片上市，这些秘密基地里顿觉杀气腾腾。各字幕组紧锣密鼓，召开工作会议，分配任务，争取在第一时间发布字幕。领到任务的小组成员常常会为此通宵达旦，连续工作十多个小时。而几天后，各论坛出品字幕质量的比较，又成为各字幕小组讨论的热点。更有好事之人，通过随机挑选句子进行比较的方式，评价各论坛出品字幕的优劣。所以，热门大片的翻译无异于一场激烈的战斗，而连年战争的结果，使得几大字幕小组和所在的论坛人气飙升，翻译人员欢欣鼓舞，最终形成N赢的局面。 几块善意的砖头 不客气地说，现在中文字幕的翻译状况相当混乱，由于没有一个类似rip字幕的统一标准加以规范，加上不少翻译人员带着急功近利的心理，把翻译字幕当作得到积分的手段来应付差使，造成字幕质量参差不齐。单兵作战，除了个别翻译质量很高外，非字幕组的散兵游勇普遍缺乏翻译经验，字幕存在不少问题。而有些字幕组只求数量，根本不论质量，只要翻完就皆大欢喜，而没有一个较完备的质量监管机制来进行约束。不用仔细核对，仅一遍影片看下来，平均每部影片的明显错误（比如错别字、格式错）都在10个以上。近期汉风HTS的字幕出得不多，仅从看到的几个来说（其中有些还是很早以前翻译的字幕），错误还能控制在一定范围内。概括起来，个人认为，字幕界存在以下四大弊病（发现标题起得居然很押韵，嘿嘿）： 1、一人包揽翻译校对 初期的牛过论坛字幕组（即汉风HTS字幕组的前身）曾一度辉煌，并定下专门的翻译、校对制度，在字幕头尾标明翻译、校对人员，并规定翻译、校对不能是同一个人。其他论坛的字幕组也纷纷采用这种形式，但遗憾的是，只学到了形式，却没有实质，大部分字幕组出品的字幕，翻译、校对都是一个人。 我如果说，一人既翻译又校对，一定比翻译、校对分别由两人作的字幕质量差，这话肯定是不负责任的。有些个人独立翻译校对的字幕甚至比两人翻译校对的字幕质量上高很多。但大家想一想，有多少人翻译完字幕后会真的自己进行校对？校对自己的字幕，又能找到多少错误？以我以往翻译的经验来说，仅翻译过程就反反复复看了N遍的电影，已经是心力交瘁，翻译完成后很难会有心情再看一遍寻找错误。而且自己翻译中的错误，自己也很难找得到。这就是为什么要提倡字幕组成员互相校对。 就是我提到的翻译、校对机制，本身也是形式，如果此文一出，很多论坛的字幕组纷纷改为多人校对，而质量上没有提高，那岂不还是形式主义？真要想保住字幕质量，非要有较具体的标准不可，把每个字幕组出品的字幕错误限制在几个以内，超过了会有一个惩罚措施。 2、人力资源严重浪费 由于各论坛自行其事，没有一个统一的安排规划，造成原本不充裕的翻译人员，都集中在热门商业片的翻译上。《指环王》系列、《黑客帝国》系列都有4个以上的字幕组同时在作，很多已经有中文字幕的影片，新出了另一个RIP版本，翻译人员未经查找，又重新翻译。有些字幕组曾结成过翻译联盟，统一组织安排工作，避免重复翻译，但因任务分配、翻译能力等方面的原因，最终只得恢复各自为政的状态。 我有一个梦想，所有的中文字幕组织联合起来，建立专门的字幕翻译分配网站，对热门大片采取各字幕组轮流翻译的方法，其他影片的翻译，由个人自行申请。另外再制定统一的字幕翻译校对规则，对字幕翻译细节进行规定，确保字幕质量。当然，这只是我的梦想，真正实施起来，涉及到网站管理、任务分配、联系沟通，尤其是涉及到各字幕组自身利益，难度相当大。想要逐步实现的话，各字幕组负责人之间的交流和沟通是首要任务。 3、长片老片翻译嫌累 现在的字幕翻译普遍采取个人申请制，大家根据兴趣爱好，自行选择影片翻译。在没有特别感兴趣的情况下，通常浪漫爱情片、动作枪战片等因句子少，情节吸引人，翻译难度小而很受欢迎。而1500句以上的长片和黑白老片、记录片、文艺片因对话多，情节枯燥，翻译难度大而少人问津。当然，这些情况并非绝对，我记得我就曾经投机翻过一个200多句的老片。总的说来，这其实是个人兴趣与字幕需求的矛盾。字幕组的成立就建立在兴趣爱好的基础上，只要愿意，重复翻译又有何不可？强扭的瓜不甜，硬要别人翻译不喜欢的影片有违“兴趣爱好”这一理念。在不考虑兴趣的前提下，可以通过论坛奖励制度的适当倾斜来对翻译冷门片的网友进行额外奖励，以解决长片、老片无人翻译的问题。 4、新丁不来老人隐退 人的兴趣爱好是会发生变化的，字幕组成立到一定时间，很多老成员在经过十几部影片的翻译校对后，会逐渐丧失当初的翻译热情，参与翻译的人逐渐减少，不少处于半隐退状态。现在汉风论坛的积分制＋流量制，解决了部分翻译懈怠问题，但终究不是长久之策。我心目中比较好的字幕组模式，应该是类似于“青年志愿者”到边疆教书，几年后，老成员陆续退出，而新成员不断加入，当然，有愿意长期服务的，更是欢迎。在字幕翻译上，对人才的需求从来都是只多不少。可惜的是宣传力度仍然不够，仅在论坛内部招收新成员，难以维持新鲜血液的不断输入。希望能对外在各高校BBS和专业英语论坛广泛招收此类成员，毕竟，这种耗人精力的工作不是每个人都能长期坚持的。本文专为招收汉风字幕组新成员而作，请在转载的同时，请勿删除末尾的广告文章。 一、制作字幕需要的各项要求 认真－－我把这一点放在首要位置，英语水平差、中文表达能力不行，这都是可以原谅的，唯独粗心大意犯的低级错误不可谅解。有人提议说要提高进字幕组的门槛，谬矣，现在人手是大大的不够，不能再提高了。大部分的字幕质量低下并非是英语差造成的，而是没有一个认真的态度。私以为，一个字幕的优劣，认真态度占40％，翻译经验占20％，英语程度占19％，中文表达占21％。其中翻译经验包含了中英文表达以及工具软件和网络搜索在翻译中的应用，这些经验方面的知识，新手刚开始翻译不会注意，时间一长，慢慢就有体会了。 英语－－通常各大论坛字幕组对外招人，要求英语程度为六级，这的确吓倒了很多准备尝试字幕翻译的新人。我在这里要更正一下说法，希望能为这些被高门槛吓跑的网友鼓鼓劲。一般来说，电影中的句子比大学英语课本要简单好多。我认为只要是上过大学的学生，不管过没过四、六级考试，借助“金山词霸”等翻译软件，在英语方面都可以达到普通字幕翻译的要求。当然，英语程度是越高越好，尤其是在国外留学、居住的网友更佳，因为有些时候，影片出现一些复杂句式、俚语还有涉及外国历史文化方面的知识，这些不是字典和翻译软件能查到的，这时就体现出英语程度的优势了。 中文－－奇怪的是，明明英译中涉及两种语言，很多字幕组却往往不对中文程度作任何要求。大概是因为我们都是中国人，学了10多年的中文，表达方面应该没有问题。其实不然，英译中对中文表达的要求应该更多些。有些在国外多年的留学生，英语方面很厉害，很多查不到的俚语都不在话下，可翻译出来的字幕却一塌糊涂。大概是适应了英语的表达方式，转回头用中文表达，却好像“英式中文”，不知道他回国后说话会不会也是这样。
文学研究论文参考文献
论文写作中我们需要大量阅读参考文献来丰富我们的知识面，拓展我们的知识深度。下面是我和大家分享的文学研究论文参考文献，更多内容请关注毕业论文网。
篇一：参考文献
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[16] 贺倩. 女性主义翻译理论与小说Jane Eyre的翻译[D]. 新疆师范大学 2012
[17] 何婧舒. 操纵理论视角下《简·爱》两个中译本的文化再现比较研究[D]. 四川师范大学 2012
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[5] 张南峰着.中西译学批评[M]. 清华大学出版社， 2004
[6] 谢天振着.译介学[M]. 上海外语教育出版社， 1999
[7] (美)爱德华·W.赛义德()着，谢少波，韩刚等译.赛义德自选集[M]. 中国社会科学出版社， 1999
[8] 冯庆华，主编.文体翻译论[M]. 上海外语教育出版社， 2002
[9] 陈福康着.中国译学理论史稿[M]. 上海外语教育出版社， 2000
[10] 刘宓庆着.当代翻译理论[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司， 1999
[11] 冯庆华编着.实用翻译教程[M]. 上海外语教育出版社， 1997
[12] 唐玉娟，谭少青. 译者措辞中的意识形态因素--《简·爱》两个中译本的比较[J]. 成都教育学院学报. 2006(11)
[13] 符白羽. 从旅行理论看文学作品在翻译中的旅行[J]. 长沙大学学报. 2006(04)
[14] 赵俊姝. 文学多元系统理论视角解读胡适翻译思想[J]. 昆明师范高等专科学校学报. 2005(02)
[15] 李坤，贾德江. 《简爱》两个中译本的历时比较[J]. 河北理工学院学报(社会科学版). 2007(01)
[16] 苏留华. 小说对话的翻译--从符号学角度分析《简·爱》[J]. 广州大学学报(社会科学版). 2004(11)
[17] Clifford,: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. . 1997
[18] Andre Source Book. . 2004
[19] Lefevere , Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. . 2004
[20] 于德英. 用另一只眼睛看多元系统论--多元系统论的形式主义分析[J]. 中国翻译. 2004(05)
篇三：参考文献
[1] 刘美玲. 操控理论视角下《世界是平的》两中译本的研究[D]. 华中师范大学 2013
[2] 杨晓琳. 从翻译共性的角度探析英译汉中的“翻译文体”[D]. 浙江大学 2013
[3] 伊塔马·埃文-佐哈尔，张南峰. 多元系统论[J]. 中国翻译. 2002(04)
[4] 张书玲. 英国博物馆资料翻译实践报告[D]. 中南大学 2013
[5] 笪鸿安，陈莉. 从《简·爱》两汉译本谈直译与意译的运用[J]. 河海大学学报(社会科学版). 1999(03)
[6] 叶荷. 翻译与改写[D]. 华侨大学 2009
[7] 王晓元. 意识形态与文学翻译的互动关系[J]. 中国翻译. 1999(02)
[8] 廖秋忠. 篇章与语用和句法研究[J]. 语言教学与研究. 1991(04)
[9] 周忠良. 重思抵抗式翻译[D]. 广东外语外贸大学 2009
[10] 张焰明. 剩余信息在翻译中的应用--兼评祝庆英和黄源深的《简·爱》译本[J]. 韩山师范学院学报(社会科学版). 2004(01)
[11] 葛中俊. 翻译文学：目的'语文学的次范畴[J]. 中国比较文学. 1997(03)
[12] 蒋骁华. 意识形态对翻译的影响：阐发与新思考[J]. 中国翻译. 2003(05)
[13] 杨自俭. 语篇和语境--《衔接与连贯理论的发展及应用》序[J]. 解放军外国语学院学报. 2003(02)
[14] 谢世坚. 从中国近代翻译文学看多元系统理论的局限性[J]. 四川外语学院学报. 2002(04)
[15] 郑雪青. 《简·爱》两个译本翻译比较[J]. 齐齐哈尔大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2001(01)
[16] 潘红. 夹缝里的风景--谈黄源深先生《简爱》译本的审美特点[J]. 福州大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 2002(02)
[17] 颜凡博. 从文化差异角度谈中式菜名的英译[D]. 中北大学 2011
[18] 赵伟. 鲁迅小说两个英译本的对比研究[D]. 上海海运学院 2000
[19] Zhang Haifeng. A Principle with the English Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[D]. 广东外语外贸大学 2001
[20] 陈王青. 虚构专名英译中的行为常式[D]. 广东外语外贸大学 2007
[21] 杜洪洁. 政治与翻译：西方(后)现代主义小说在中国的译介(1979-1988)[D]. 天津理工大学 2008
“论文”一词的英文表达很多，通常因场合、用处不同而有不同的表达，下面罗列了几种，请楼主斟酌一下那一种是适合自己。*dissertation（博士学位）论文，（专题）论文，学术演讲：长而正式的论文，尤指大学里由博士学位攻读者所写的论文；学位论*disquisition专题论文；专题演讲，专题讨论：关于一个论题的正式讨论，常为书面形式*thesis命题论文：尤指出于获得学位的研究需要而改进原来观点以作为研究成果的论文*discourse（学术）讨论，研讨用的论文*paper作业形式的，为达到某一目的或效果（如学位）而写的
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。
实践产生理论，欧美许多国家的翻译理论是五花八门的。从大的方面来看，可以分为两大派：一派是翻译可能论，一派是翻译不可能论。其实，完完全全百分之百的可能是没有的，完完全全百分之百的不可能也是没有的。
世界上一切翻译活动都是在这两个极端之间进行的。欧洲许多著名的人物，比如马丁·路德、M.阿诺德、.纽曼、.波斯特加特、H.白洛克、.诺克斯、V.那巴可夫等等，都对翻译提出了自己的理论。据《开塞尔世界文学百科全书》的意见，这些理论中有些是刚愎自用的。
“毕业论文”用英文是dissertation dissertation[ˌdɪsəˈteɪʃn]n. 专题论文，学位论文；学术演讲 毕业论文； 博士论文； 论文； 学位论文 例句： was involved in writing his doctoral dissertation. 他在聚精会神地写他的博士论文.2. I have not yet footnoted my dissertation. 我还没有给我的论文加上脚注.3. I'm working my notes up into a dissertation. 我正在把我的笔记修改成论文.