学术论文翻译实训总结

On Functional Translation Theory YANG Ying-ming(English Department, Yiyang Teachers College, Yiyang 413049, China) Abstract: Chinese traditional translation theory consists only of translation principles without concrete methodology and it can not be applied to practical translating. This paper gives a brief account to functional translation theory, probes into its theoretical basis and makes convincing exposition of it by using relevance theory so that it enriches its content. Key words: functional translation theory; basic theory; exposition 功能翻译理论强调，翻译是一种特殊的交际形式，涉及三种文本：原语文本、译者的图式文本和译语文本。对于原语文本，最重要的是抓住作者的修辞功能正确理解原语的修辞功能，是产生理想的图式文本的关键。而正确把握原文的认知图式又是正确理解原文修辞功能的基础。理想的图式文本来自原文的认知图式，来自对原文作者的修辞意图的准确把握。在这个图式文本的基础上，产生怎样的译语文本，除了修辞功能等值之外，还应该考虑翻译的目的和读者对象。 一、 功能翻译理论简述 （一）、 功能翻译理论的要点 根据杂志上发表的论文、学术会议上宣读的论文、学术报告和出版的专著，功能翻译理论的要点简述如下： 1、 分析概念段（conceptual paragraph，具有明确主题意义一个或多个自然段）和句子的修辞功能，使修辞功能的形式重现，从形式的等同中求得功能的等值，意义的等值，这种翻译叫做功能翻译。翻译应该是在修辞功能等值的前提下，遵守“信、达、X”规范；文体不同，翻译的目的不一样，X不一样。（张梅岗，《中国科技翻译》，1994，（3）；刘重德，《三湘译论》，湖南出版社，1995；周笃宝，《中国翻译》，2000，（2）） 2、 功能翻译理论强调修辞形式等同和功能等值的一致性，修辞是手段，是形式；功能是修辞产生的结果或达到的目的，是内容的总和。修辞包括概念段内和句内的修辞，即语言语境的修辞，也包括情景语境、文化语境、语用语境的修辞。（《科技英语修辞》，1998）换句话说，在概念段和句子中，语义、语法和语用三者合为一体表达修辞功能。 3、 功能是靠结构（structures）来体现的，任何一种语言都是由四种符号元素（词、词标识、词序和语调）构成。语言结构（constructions）的认知图式与其他认知领域的认知图式类似，由简单到复杂，由具体到抽象，构成语言因果网络。概念段贯穿了一条主题链，或称因果键。这条因果键是命题或语言事件构成的，也是它们的概念化的参考点。（《中国翻译》，1998，（5）此文已被美国Colby Information Center of Science & Culture收录，网上转载。） 4、 功能翻译理论强调认知图式理论对翻译实践和翻译研究的作用，各种普遍结构和特殊结构的认知图式越具体、越丰富，对翻译研究和实践的能力就越强，是译者形成图式文本的基础。 5、 功能翻译理论强调，翻译过程是个斡旋推理过程，因果链是逻辑推理的基本结构，利用已知信息，对非语言要素（如情景、文化和语用等语境）的修辞功能进行判断，产生正确的推时结论。（《英汉功能翻译》，1999） （二）、 功能翻译理论的方法论 我们用修辞功能等值的原则来看待翻译和翻译研究，自然有正确理解原文、翻译表达的一整套与此相应的方法论。这是功能翻译理论最突出的地方。由于功能翻译已经有了比较完整的体系，因此本文只能概括一些基本的、主要的方法加以研究。 1、概念段的主题认知法 首先，把原文文本划分成概念段，研究概念段的主题思想，找出连接标志，抓住概念段的因果链（《科技英语修辞》），把握语言的功能取向和对概念段整体内容的正确理解。 2、功能分类法 根据功能分类语言学（Functional Typological Linguistics）把英语分为五大类修辞功能：描述功能、陈述功能、定义功能、分类功能和指令功能，每大类功能又划分出若干小功能，然后与汉语进行分类功能对比研究，探索译的规律。例如，英语陈述功能（陈述部分）总是放在句首，而汉语则置于句末。（张梅岗：《中国翻译》，1999，（5）；2000，（5）；《中国科技翻译》，1998，（1、4）） 3、图式研究法 根据图式理论，研究和比较原语和目标语的各种结构的认知图式（cognitive schema），例如，英语的SVO句、SvoO句、SVOC句和被动句等各种句子的结构图式。与目标语的结构图式比较，研究发现它们的翻译规律和方法。（张梅岗：《中国翻译》，1994，（1、5）；《英汉功能翻译》1999）值得指出的是，用认知理论去研究结构图式尤为重要。请看下面两句： （1） The policeman caused Mary to die. （2） The policeman forced Mary to die. 这两句的结构完全是一样，只有动词的语义不同，而第一句是符合逻辑的，是正确的，第二句不符合逻辑，因而不正确。从这种SVOC结构的认知图式看，主语总是表示原因的，OC表示结果，V主要起连接作用，使之构成符合语法的句子。Force是“逼迫”之义；既然policeman已经成为“Mary to die”的原因，何需再加“逼迫”。根据认知图式理论，必须对结构的主语、谓语、宾语和补语等的内部结构和语义，加以具体分析，才能正确把握句子的功能。 4、积木切分法 形象地说，语言是由积木块和子句构成（张梅岗，1994；William Croft，1998），运用语言就是摆弄“积木”，因为子句一般而言离不开积木。积木包括名词、合成名词、名词性词组、名词化结构等。除了专有名词和具体名词，积木一般都有内部结构，而且，它们的内部结构都是句子。一个句子成分的表层，表示一个句子意义的深层内容，这对翻译来说是有重要意义的，因为翻译的基本任务就是译出事物内在要素的总和，即内在意义。 5、事件切分法 语言是由事件构成的因果网络，根据认知的基本规律和语义原则，必须把事件从因果网络中切分出来，使之概念化。切分的基本方法是研究事件的内部结构，即时间结构和因果结构。必须分析事件的参与者以及参与者之间相互的因果作用。（《中国翻译》，1998，（5））事件的切分非常复杂，是翻译过程理解和表达的关键。 6、逻辑推理法 逻辑学的研究有助于译者对所译段落真正意义的确定。一切句子的存在都有其先决条件，在句子模糊不清的地方，译者不得不确定其先决条件是什么。（纽马克） 语言是个因果网络，句子之间的关系是因果关系，任何一个句子都具有背景信息（已知信息）。运用逻辑推理方法，求得未知信息，并符合逻辑地用目标语言表达。（《中国翻译》，1995，（6）；1996，（1）；《上海科技翻译》，1993，（1）；《英汉功能翻译》1999） 7、概念转换法 原语言表达的概念转换成目标语言表达的概念，是翻译的概念化过程，这是翻译过程的第一步，一般而言，翻译不只是概念的正确转换，还必须涉及原语的修辞环境，作者的修辞意图，即修辞功能。但是作者的意图，或语用意义是在句子意义的基础上产生的，受修辞的语言环境的影响。因此，翻译还必须考虑话语的动态意义。翻译单位的择定与所译的文本有着密切的关系。如果原语的语码的概念意义，能表达充分的语境效果，即修辞功能，“积木”则成为概念的主要载体，一般目标语言有对等语，自然成为理想的翻译转换为单位，常采用直译的方法。如果原语的语码意义不能充分表达语境效果，则必须考虑整个概念段的语言环境和修辞意图，以句子或称小句（罗选民）为翻译单位，一般用意译法。 8、直译法 在功能等值的原则下，语码的语义意义能产生等值的语境效果时，应“直说还它直说，比喻还它比喻，在消除语言上的差异的同时，保留了言语上的差异。”（冯世刚，《翻译通讯》，1982，（2）保存原文的比喻、形象和民族特色，“不妄解原文的字句”。即用符合译语规范和习惯和对等语再现原文的全部意义。有时，归宿语言中没有的，而表达功能所必需的，即使生搬硬套出发语的词语和句型也视为正法。例如： （1） He walked at the head of the funeral procession, and every now and then wiped away his crocodile tears with a big handkerchief. 他走在送葬队伍的前头，还不时用一条大手绢抹去他那鳄鱼泪。 这句译文把原文作者的修辞所要达到的目的，即“猫哭老鼠”，体现得淋离尽致。 （2） 你不明白，给你说也是“对牛弹琴”。 You can’t comprehend it, If I explain it, that is “to play the harp to a bull”. 虽然英语中“throw pearls before swine”也有“对牛弹琴”之义，但它具有较强的宗教色彩，达不到原语的修辞功能。 9、意译法 在功能等值的前提下，消除语言上的差异的同时，没有保存言语上的特色，例如不保存原文的修辞形式和民族特色，词有增减、重复、词性和句型有转换、语序有颠倒、句子有拆、有合、正说和反说互变等译法，应该视为意译。我们把改换法（省略、借用等）、变通法（意译、意译加直译、全不译等）都归为意译。因为这些方法的本质是共同的，过细区分，实用性不大，没有必要。例如： （1） Her mother’s pride in the girl’s appearance led her to step back. 她母亲看看她女儿，非常得意，所以特地倒退了几步。（张谷若译） （2） 他又说，利用外资的重点放在农业科学研究、教育和技术推广、人才培训和智力开发。 The money in foreign currency, he added, should be used mainly for education and research in agriculture sciences and technology. 10、 传统继承法 中国的翻译历史，从有文字记载算起，有一千七百多年。第一篇论翻译的文章是三国时支谦写的《法句经序》。悠久的翻译文化传统值得继承。怎样继承，值得研究。功能翻译理论认为中国的传统翻译理论从宏观上作了比较详细的探索，归根结底是围绕“信、达、雅”做文章。对翻译的论述，大多是文艺翻译家们的实践经验的总结，不乏真知灼见。严复的“信、达、雅”翻译标准，成为后人奉为译事的楷模，视为金科玉律。随着现代语言学理论取得的巨大的成就，特别是语义学、认知语言学和功能分类语言学等对翻译理论产生根本性质的影响。功能翻译理论认为，传统翻译理论在翻译的文字表达上的论述非常精辟，而且有理论依据，即建立在对比语言学基础上。由于有明确的理论基础，传统翻译理论的许多翻译表达方法如增译、省译、重译、反译、拆句、合句等都是实用的。翻译包括两方面，“领悟为一事，用中文表达为又一事。”（傅雷）“领悟”更重要。然而传统翻译理论对于理解原语言的方法和理论没有系统地探讨。功能翻译理论强调，在继承的同时，必须对传统翻译理论加以检讨，才能建立符合翻译规律的理论体系。（张梅岗，《中国翻译》，1999，（5）周笃宝；2000，（2）；《上海科技翻译》2000，（2）） 二、 功能翻译理论的理论基础 近年来，笔者对功能翻译理论的基础理论进行了研究，认为：功能翻译理论建立在现代语言学（认知语言学、功能分类语言学、比较语言学）和逻辑思维学的基础上。 理论，是指系统化了的理性认识，某个知识领域里的概念、原理和方法成为体系。它是在实践的反复过程中形成，随实践而发展。功能翻译理论是以修辞功能等值为基础的方法论体系，在翻译实践上有较强的实用性和可操作性。 （一）、 功能翻译理论的认知 什么是功能？“功能就是意义”（胡壮麟《外国语》1998，（3））。意义是什么呢？根据系统语义学观点和概念语义学，意义就是命题的内容。词表达最基础的概念，词构成子句，子句表示命题。命题的集合，构成了话语，成为因果链（，美国俄勒冈大学）。由此可见，功能就是命题的内容，就是意义，就是修辞产生的目的；命题是形式，是手段。换句话说，功能是命题手段所产生的结果或达到的目的。功能是由形式来体现的，“形式指事物内在要素的结构和组织”。 “内容指事物内在要素的总和”，“是事物内在要素的全部意义”。李奇（G. leech）教授在《语义学》（semantics）（1983年第二版）第5章论述了翻译等值的概念，认为理想的译文应该完整地表达原文的交际值（communicative value），在第2章描述了译文和原文交际值等值的七个方面的意义：概念意义（conceptual meaning）、内含意义（connotative meaning）、社会意义（social meaning）、感情意义（affective meaning）、附带意义（reflected meaning）、词的搭配意义（collocative meaning）、主题意义（thematic meaning）、第2-第6又叫联想意义（associative meaning）。 翻译，做到这七个方面的等值，就是理想的译文。意义上等值的翻译，也就是功能等值的翻译。关于这个问题，我们的前辈王宗炎教授早在1981年就有明确的论述，他指出，“在作用上最适当的译法，也就是在意义上最适当的译法，”“在功能上与原文不对路，从整体看来，就不见得忠实”。（王宗炎，1981） “形式等同”、“功能等值”，有个内容和形式的关系问题。“任何事物都有其内容和形式”，“内容总是某种形式的内容，形式总是某种内容的形式”，“同一种形式在不同的条件下可以体现不同的内容”。功能翻译理论强调，“形式是由修辞功能、修辞技巧、句型结构等构成的。其中决定因素是修辞功能，因为修辞功能决定修辞技巧、句型和句子结构，甚至许多语法现象也只能从修辞功能上才能得到解释。”（《论EST的功能翻译》，1994）从这些论述我们可以看出，功能翻译理论把概念段的语义、语法和修辞紧密结合，互相影响，不可分割。突出修辞功能的重要性，功能靠形式体现，靠结构体现。功能等值的翻译首先必须突出考虑概念段内的语言语境，然后从修辞功能的角度研究情景语境、文化语境和语用语境。因为修辞功能受词义、句子的语法结构和语用意义的支配。句子里每个词的义值由本句的上下文所决定。根据Van Dijk的宏观理论，情景、文化和语用等语境的意义对概念段的功能也会产生重要作用。 （二）、 功能翻译理论的阐释 功能等值的翻译理论，我们用关联理论也可以得到正确的阐明和解释。建立在认知理论和行为理论基础上的关联理论是一种认知语用学理论，是从语用学相关原则（Principle of Relevance）发展的。下面我们再用关联理论来论证功能翻译理论的正确性。 关联理论的定义：关联是命题（proposition）同语境（context）集合Cl-Cn之间的关系，关联是命题的基本特征，是命题对语境的关系。应该怎样理解这个定义呢？我们可以认为这个定义有两层意思：第一，“语境的集合”就是指有明确主题的概念段，关联就是这个概念段的一条意链；第二，命题本身具有关联性，是这条意链上的一小段。这一思想与功能翻译理论关于具有明确主题意义的一个或多个自然段为概念段，且有一条主题链的思想吻合。 关联理论的最佳关联原则强调，任何一个交际行为必须保证自身最佳关联。“交际行为”是什么？就是一个语言事件在时间结构上按内部时间展开，在因果结构上扫因果逻辑展开。我们可以说，事件具有最佳的关联性。而且功能翻译思想阐述了“积木”理论，认为“积木”是组装了的语言单位，即“积木”的内容结构是个子句，关联性最佳。 关联理论还认为，关联性之间与语境蕴含意义（context implication）相关联，认为语境蕴含意义不是命题本身的产物，而是命题与语境集合相结合而产生的含义。我们的“修辞功能等值”认为，交际功能涉及语义和语，两者不能截然分开。双方交际的参考事件是语义的范畴。交际双方根据语境情景调整各自的语言，符合语用意义。就书面语言而言，根据写作目的的要求，使用不同的手段和方法，描述语言事件，达到预期写作意图，实现修辞功能。翻译让原文和译文在“修辞功能”上等值，除了语言语境之外，自然还必须考虑原语言的情景语境、文化语境和语用语境。 关联理论认为，翻译是两种语言进行的特殊交际形式，只要交际一方的意图为另一方所认识和理解，这就是翻译。关联理论下的翻译的“交际效度”的权重最大，其次是“信度”等其他要素。那么，“交际效度”是什么？就是交际功能，即修辞功能等值的权重最大。“因此，句法意义、修辞意义、句子的联想意义和语义学方面的意义都得服从修辞的功能意义。修辞功能的等值是最高的等值。”（《英汉功能翻译》，55页） 关联理论认为，关联与推理（inference）有着密切的关系，指出话语理解过程主要是个推理过程，其中关联判断（judgment of relevance）对于推理结论的形式起着重要作用。功能翻译理论则更加明确地提出并论证：语言是个因果网络，概念段贯穿了一条因果主题链。阐明怎样抓住这条链，进行对原文的理解和表达。（参见《因果链的研究与翻译》，《中国翻译》1998，（5）；《科技英语修辞》，1998） 参考文献 [1] 王宗炎，介绍卧铺元任译文忠实性面面观[J]，翻译通讯1981，（1）。 [2] 张梅岗，论EST的功能翻译[J]，中国科技翻译，1994，（3）。 [3] 张梅岗，试论科学翻译学[J]，中国科技翻译，1995，（1）。 [4] 张梅岗，SVO句的拆句译法[J]，中国翻译，1994，（1）。 [5] 张梅岗，因果链研究与翻译[J]，中国翻译，1998，（5）。 [6] 张梅岗，限制性定语丛句传统译法的探讨[J]，中国翻译，2000，（5）。 [7] 符明，科技英语“积木”的翻译研究[J]，中国翻译，1999，（1）。 [8] 周笃宝，继承传统译论，建立科学翻译学[J]，中国翻译，2000，（2）。 [9] 郭富强，科技英语中因果关系句的表达及其翻译[J]，中国翻译，1996，（1）。 [10]张梅岗，科技英语修辞[M]，长沙：湖南科学技术出版社，1998。 [11]张梅岗，英汉功能翻译[M]，长沙：湖南科学技术出版社，1999。 [12]Michael Tomasello. The New Psychology of Language [M]. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998. [13]William Croft. The Structure of Events and the Structure of Language [M]. Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1998. Steven Pinker. The Language Instinct [M]. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1994.

最近正在写学术论文，无意间拜读到了一篇国外大牛的文章，里面详细的讲解了如何去组织、撰写一篇学术论文。我把这个文章原文放在这里，也加入了一些自己的理解，希望对看到这篇博客的人能有所帮助吧。。。

There are many ways to introduce an academic essay or assignment. Most academic writers, however, appear to do one or more of the following in their introductions:

Examples of phrases which are commonly employed to realise these functions are listed below. Note that there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories under which the phrases are listed.

Introductory sections for research dissertations, are normally much more complex than this and, as well as the elements above, may include the following: a synopsis of key literature/current state of knowledge , synopsis of methods , lists of research questions or hypotheses to be tested , significance of the study , recognition of the limitations of the study, reasons for personal interest in the topic .

One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philososphy is ...... It is becoming increasingly difficult to ignore the ..... X is the leading cause of death in western industrialised countries. X is a common disorder characterised by ...... X is an important component in the climate system, and plays a key role in Y. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for ...... In the history of development economics, X has been thought of as a key factor in ....... Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and ...... Xs are the most potent anti-infammatory agents known.

Recent developments in X have heightened the need for ...... In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in ...... Recent developments in the field of X have led to a renewed interest in ...... Recently, researchers have shown an increased interest in ...... The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many ....... The past thirty years have seen increasingly rapid advances in the field of ...... Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in ...... One of the most important events of the 1970s was ...... Traditionally, Xs have subscribed to the belief that ...... X proved an important literary genre in the early Y community. The changes experienced by Xs over the past decade remain unprecedented . Xs are one of the most widely used groups of antibacterial agents and have been extensively used for decades to .......

However, these rapid changes are having a serious effect ...... However, a major problem with this kind of application is ...... To date there has been little agreement on what ...... More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about ..... There is increasing concern that some Xs are being disadvantaged ...... Despite its long clinical success, X has a number of problems in use . Despite its safety and efficacy, X suffers from several major drawbacks: Concerns have been raised by several relevant bodies about the poor ...... One of the most significant current discussions in legal and moral philososphy is ...... One observer has already drawn attention to the paradox in ...... In many Xs a debate is taking place between Ys and Zs concerning ...... The controversy about scientific evidence for X has raged unabated for over a century . The issue of X has been a controversial and much disputed subject within the field of ....... The issue has grown in importance in light of recent ...... One major theoretical issue that has dominated the field for many years concerns ...... One major issue in early X research concerned.......

So far, however, there has been little discussion about ...... However, far too little attention has been paid to ...... Most studies in X have only been carried out in a small number of areas . The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than Y . In addition, no research has been found that surveyed ....... So far this method has only been applied to ...... Several studies have produced estimates of X (Smith, 2002; Jones, 2003), but there is still insufficient data for ..... However, there have been no controlled studies which compare differences in ...... The experimental data are rather controversial , and there is no general agreement about ......

This paper will focus on / examine / give an account of ...... This paper seeks to address the following questions: ..... This essay critically examines / discusses / traces ...... The purpose of this paper is to review recent research into the ...... This paper will review the research conducted on ...... In this paper I argue that ..... This chapter reviews the literature concerning the usefulness of using ...... The aim of this paper is to determine /examine ...... The aim of this study was to evaluate and validate ......

The main questions/issues addressed in this paper are: a), b and c). This paper has been divided into four parts. The first part deals with ...... The essay has been organised in the following way. This paper first gives a brief overview of the recent history of X. This paper begins by ...... It will then go on to ...... The first section of this paper will examine ...... Finally, ....... Chapter 2 begins by laying out the theoretical dimensions of the research, and looks at how ...... Chapter 3 describes the design, synthesis, characterization and evaluation of ...... The last chapter assesses the ......

While a variety of definitions of the term X have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as ....... Throughout this paper the term X will refer to/will be used to refer to ....... In this article the acronym/abbreviation XYZ will be used.

As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer's arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people's criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved. .....being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking. Edward de Bono

One question that needs to be asked, however, is whether ...... A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...... One of the limitations with this explanation is that it does not explain why ..... One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...... The key problem with this explanation is that ...... The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y. However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. Smith's argument relies too heavily on qualitative analysis of ...... It seems that Jones' understanding of the X framework is questionable . Smith's interpretation overlooks much of the historical research ...... One major criticism of Smith's work is that ..... Many writers have challenged Jones' claim on the grounds that .......

Another problem with this approach is that it fails to take X into account . Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that ..... Difficulties arise , however, when an attempt is made to implement the policy. Nevertheless, the strategy has not escaped criticism from governments, agencies and academics. One major drawback of this approach is that ...... The main limitation of biosynthetic incorporation, however, is ...... However, this method of analysis has a number of limitations. However, approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that ... However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious limitations / weaknesses / disadvantages / drawbacks .

the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how ....... the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that ..... the research does not take into account pre-existing ...... such as ...... the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between various different types of X. Jones fails to fully acknowledge the significance of ...... the paper would appear to be over ambitious in its claims the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between ...... another weakness is that we are given no explanantion of how ......

Smith's paper/Her conclusions/The study/The findings would/might have been more/much more/far more useful/convincing/interesting/persuasive/original if he/she/author had included/considered/adopted/used .....

A better study would examine a large, randomly selected sample of societies with ...... A much more systematic study would identify how X interacts with other variables that are believed to be linked to ......

However, Jones (2003) points out that ..... Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that ..... Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies. The X theory has been vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers. Smith's analysis has been criticised by a number of writers. Jones (1993), for example, points out that …… Smith's meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism. The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that ...... Jones (2003) is probably the best known critic of the X theory. He argues that .…. The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003). Critics have also argued that not only do social surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the...... Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide ...... More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982): Jones (2003) is critical of the conclusions that Smith draws from his findings.

The standrard approach is to this section of dissertations is to merely present the results, without elaborate discussion or comment. This does not mean that you do not need any text to describe data presented in tables and figures. Writers usually comment on the significant data presented in the tables and figures. This often takes the form of the location or summary statement, which identifies the table or figure and indicates its content. This may be followed by a statement or statements which point out and describe the relevant or significant data. All your tables should be numbered and given a title.

More elaborate commentary on the results is normally restricted to the Discussion section . In research articles, however, authors may comment extensively on their results as they are presented, and it is not uncommon for the Results section to be combined with the Discussion section under the heading: Results and Discussion.

To assess X, the Y questionnaire was used. To distinguish between these two possibilities, ...... In order to assess Z, repeated measures of ANOVA were used. Regression analysis was used to predict the ...... Changes in X and Y were compared using ...... The average scores of X and Y were compared in order to ...... Nine items on the questionnaire measured the extent to which ...... The correlation between X and Y was tested. The first set of analyses examined the impact of ...... Simple statistical analysis was used to ...... A scatter diagram and a Pearson's product moment correlation were used to determine the relationship between ...... T-tests were used to analyse the relationship between ......

Table 1/Figure 1 shows/compares/presents/provides the experimental data on X/the results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X/the intercorrelations among the nine measures of X .

The results obtained from the preliminary analysis of X are shown/can becompared/are presented in Table 1/Figure 1 .

As shown in Figure canbe seen from the table (above)/It canbe seen from the data in Table that/From the graph above we can see that the X group reported significantly more Y than the other two groups.

The table below illustrates/The pie chart above shows some of the main characteristics of the...../the breakdown of.....

It is apparent from this table that very few ...... This table is quite revealing in several ways . First, unlike the other tables ...... Data from this table can be compared with the data in Table which shows ...... From the data in Figure 9, it is apparent that the length of time left between ...... From this data we can see that Study 2 resulted in the lowest value of ...... The histogram in Fig 1. indicates that ...... What is interesting in this data is that ...... In there is a clear trend of decreasing ...... As Table III shows, there is a significant difference (t = , p = ) between the two groups.

Strong evidence of X was found when ...... This result is significant at the p = level. There was a significant positive correlation between ...... There was a signifcant difference between the two conditions ...... On average, Xs were shown to have ...... The mean score for X was ...... Interestingly, for those subjects with X, ...... A positive correlation was found between X and Y.

Further analysis showed that ...... Further statistical tests revealed .....

There was no increase of X associated with ..... There were no significant differences between ...... No significant differences were found between ..... No increase in X was detected. No difference greater than X was observed. The Chi-square test did not show any significant differences between ...... None of these differences were statistically significant. Overall, X did not affect males and females differently in these measure

The most striking result to emerge from the data is that ...... Interestingly, this correlation is related to ..... The correlation between X and Y is interesting because ...... The more surprising correlation is with the ...... The single most striking observation to emerge from the data comparison was ......

The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months. Of the study population, 90 subjects completed and returned the questionnaire. Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male. The majority of respondents/those who responded felt that ..... Over half of those surveyed reported that ...... 70% of those who were interviewed indicated that ...... Almost two-thirds of the participants (64%) said that ...... Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on ...... A small number of those interviewed suggested that ...... Only a small number of respondents indicated that ...... Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that ....... A minority of participants (17%) indicated ...... In response to Question 1, most of those surveyed indicated that ...... The overall response to this question was very positive. When the subject were asked ......, the majority commented that ..... Other responses to this question included ...... The overall response to this question was poor.

Turning now to the experimental evidence on ...... Comparing the two results, it can be seen that ...... A comparison of the two results reveals ...... If we now turn to ......